Committee Approval Form
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UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI _____________ , 20 _____ I,______________________________________________, hereby submit this as part of the requirements for the degree of: ________________________________________________ in: ________________________________________________ It is entitled: ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ Approved by: ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ THE ORIGINS, EARLY DEVELOPMENTS AND PRESENT-DAY IMPACT OF THE JUNIOR RESERVE OFFICERS’ TRAINING CORPS ON THE AMERICAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS A dissertation submitted to the Division of Research and Advanced Studies of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION (Ed.D.) in the Department of Educational Foundations of the College of Education 2003 by Nathan Andrew Long B.M., University of Kentucky, 1996 M.Ed., University of Cincinnati, 2000 Committee Chair: Marvin J. Berlowitz, Ph.D. ABSTRACT The Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (Junior ROTC) has been a part of the American educational system for nearly ninety years. Formed under the 1916 National Defense Act, its primary function was and is to train high school youth military techniques and history, citizenship and discipline. The organization has recently seen its stature elevated and its reach widened once Congress lifted caps on its expansion in 2001. The Junior ROTC’s proliferation has led to criticism from peace activists who denounce military training and tactics in schools and political leaders who claim the benefits are suspect. Conversely, the program has earned the praises of varied school and government officials. What becomes clear is that little consensus on the program has been reached. It is my contention that Junior ROTC’s current popularity within the American educational system is multifaceted and cannot be simplistically embraced or summarily discounted by disparate analyses. One must understand the organization’s historical roots to comprehend its current manifestation. Thus, three related questions have guided my research. First, what, if any, prerequisites existed relevant to Junior ROTC? Second, how does recruitment correspond to the purpose of Junior ROTC’s inception and consequent growth? Third, has the program focused on the recruitment of working class and racial minorities over its ninety-year history? First, two dialectically related historical constructs – preparedness ideology and economic imperialism-expansionism – serve as prerequisites to Junior ROTC’s inception and consequent growth. The antecedent relationships of military philosophy, education, training and drilling are explored in relation to these constructs. Second, the historical record points to a program designed primarily to recruit high school aged youth. Primary data in various forms aptly illustrate the point. Third, the combination of historical and recent demographic data confirm Junior ROTC’s recruitment focus on working class and disadvantaged youth, primarily in urban centers, which provides the military a ready reserve of labor. Junior ROTC while an attractive program to ‘reach’ at-risk high school students is a quick-fix approach to the numerous structural and social barriers placed in front of our youth. Thus, attention is devoted in the last chapter to potential alternatives. © Nathan Andrew Long, 2003 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This first piece of scholarship would not have been possible had it not been for the numerous supportive people I have had in my life. Family members, friends, colleagues, and committee members all played a pivotal role in its completion. My heartfelt thanks and love extend to all of these people. My family has been and continues to be an inspiration to me. My mother, a feminist who marched fervently for the Equal Rights Amendment inspired me to pursue a career in this field. My father, Buzz, deserves a great deal of credit, as well. He was the first to obtain a college education in our family and paved the way for me. Like my mother, he has committed himself to a lifetime of public service helping people in this world – and doing so with class and dignity. My in-laws have also been a constant source of love and support. I cannot thank Ted and Judy enough for sticking by us. My daughter, Simone, blessed us with her presence at the start of my doctoral career and continues to bless us. Her vivid imagination and zest for life have provided me ample reason to complete the degree so that I might make a better life for her and enjoy her growing up years. Finally, without the love and constant support of my wife this dissertation would never have materialized. Her undying ardor, her editorial prowess, her embraces, and her amazing gift to keep things in perspective made this dissertation process – and all of the academic hoops – much more palatable. We have faced numerous struggles throughout my tenure in graduate school and it is to her that this dissertation and degree are dedicated. She is the light of my life, my beacon of hope, and my ray of sunshine. Colleagues and friends were no doubt a critical component to my expeditious completion. I must thank Dawn and Cathy who encouraged me to study with Marvin and who offered endless encouragement throughout the process. My thanks also go to Roy who ranks among the most intelligent and kindest men I have been acquainted with. Ruth Pedersen, the Educational Foundations Administrative Assistant, is perhaps the most patient and accommodating human being. Her willingness to always help in a pinch and her service to this department – while often unrecognized – deserve acknowledgement. Dr. Berlowitz’s wife Rinda also earns my gratitude for her patience and scholarly contributions. She has an amazing mind and is bar none, the best chef this side of the Alleghenies. The research presented here would not have been possible had it not been for Patricia Luna’s assistance who graciously offered me a place to stay, food to eat, and transportation while in D.C. Finally, I want to say to all my friends and colleagues not mentioned by name – thank you! This dissertation would not have been possible at all had it not been for the brilliance, expertise, love and encouragement exhibited by my committee members. Dr. Eric Jackson has been and always will be the consummate scholar and friend. His periodic phone calls and reminders to ‘get the damn thing done’ kept me on track. Dr. Miriam Pemberton is to be thanked for her willingness to come on board and really apply her own paradigm and expertise. I also must express gratitude to her colleagues at the Institute for Policy Studies for the resources provided to me to complete my research via the Melman Fellowship. Dr. Leo Krzywkowski was detail-oriented and read what seemed every drop of ink. During what felt like an unending period of revisions, I reminded myself as to why I chose him. He has no doubt been a vital contributor in making this document solid. Dr. K also pushed me to apply for the doctoral program and was supportive in the choices I made. I would be remiss if I failed to thank Dr. K and his wife who displayed acts of love and kindness to my family as I journeyed through graduate study. Finally, words cannot express my indebtedness and gratitude to Dr. Marvin Berlowitz. I met this man six years ago and in a short period of time he altered the way I thought about life and society. My blinders were ripped open and the reality struck me that there was a rhyme and a reason to society’s failings and why many of the children in our schools, in our communities, and in this nation struggle to get a loaf of bread let alone an education. His amazing gift for words, his constant support of his students (both in terms of publication collaboration and conference presentations), his passion for social justice, and his burning desire to teach ‘just one more student,’ is why I am in this field and why I so deeply desire to enter academia. I must also express my deep gratitude to the staff at the United States National Archives and Records Administration, the Hamilton County Public Library (Beth), the Langsam Library staff, the College of Education, and the Office of Research and Advanced Studies. The direction I received from these staff members was truly priceless. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION . 4 Chapter 1. ANTECEDENTS: EARLY MILITIA PHILOSOPHY, STRUCTURE, AND TRAINING, 1609 TO 1815 . 19 Early Military Philosophy: 1609 to 1765 . 21 Military Education and Training . 28 Revolutionary Military Philosophy: 1765 to 1792 . 36 Pre- and Post-Revolutionary Military Training and Education . 44 Jefferson’s Election and the Birth of Formalized Military Education . 47 The War of 1812 and Its Aftermath . 55 2. THE ANTEBELLUM AND POST-CIVIL WAR PERIOD . 63 The Antebellum Period: Growing Military Professionalism and Purpose . 65 Military Education and the Evolution of Professionalization . 72 “Educational Democratization”: The First Morrill Land Grant . 75 Proliferation of the State Academies . 78 Southern Military Academies and African Americans . 81 Reconstruction 1865-1876 . 83 The Integrated Academy System and the Morrill Acts of 1883 and 1890 . 86 1 3. PREPAREDNESS AND PACIFISM: 1898 TO 1916 . 93 American Imperialism, Military Reorganization, and Arguments for Preparedness . 96 The National Guard: First Federalization Attempts . 101 Roosevelt and Wood’s Preparedness and Expansionist Philosophies Defined . 105 Preparedness and Neutrality Politics . 111 Public Debate toward a National Defense Act . 116 Educational Institutions . 122 4. THE BIRTH AND EVOLUTION OF JUNIOR ROTC . 125 National Defense Act: Its Passage and Junior ROTC’s Creation . 128 Junior ROTC: The First Two Years: 1916 to 1918, World War I and Formative Challenges . 135 1918 to 1925 . 140 ROTC, Pacifism, and the War Department’s Response . 155 A Brief Portrait of Junior ROTC through 1964 . 161 5. ANALYSIS AND CONCLUSIONS . 169 Prerequisites relevant to Junior ROTC . 172 Junior ROTC for Recruitment: Preparedness for National Service .