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The United States Navy Looks at Its African American Crewmen, 1755-1955

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The United States Navy Looks at Its African American Crewmen, 1755-1955 “MANY OF THEM ARE AMONG MY BEST MEN”: THE UNITED STATES NAVY LOOKS AT ITS AFRICAN AMERICAN CREWMEN, 1755-1955 by MICHAEL SHAWN DAVIS B.A., Brooklyn College, City University of New York, 1991 M.A., Kansas State University, 1995 AN ABSTRACT OF A DISSERTATION submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of History College of Arts and Sciences KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY Manhattan, Kansas 2011 Abstract Historians of the integration of the American military and African American military participation have argued that the post-World War II period was the critical period for the integration of the U.S. Navy. This dissertation argues that World War II was “the” critical period for the integration of the Navy because, in addition to forcing the Navy to change its racial policy, the war altered the Navy’s attitudes towards its African American personnel. African Americans have a long history in the U.S. Navy. In the period between the French and Indian War and the Civil War, African Americans served in the Navy because whites would not. This is especially true of the peacetime service, where conditions, pay, and discipline dissuaded most whites from enlisting. During the Civil War, a substantial number of escaped slaves and other African Americans served. Reliance on racially integrated crews survived beyond the Civil War and the abolition of slavery, only to succumb to the principle of “separate but equal,” validated by the Supreme Court in the Plessy case (1896). As racial segregation took hold and the era of “Jim Crow” began, the Navy separated the races, a task completed by the time America entered World War I. The Navy paid the price in lost efficiency to maintain the policy. After the war, the Navy chose to accept African Americans solely for duty as messmen and stewards. Matters changed in World War II. The Navy eventually lifted its restrictions on African American enlistment and promotions, commissioned its first African American officers, and finally committed itself to a program of integration. The increased interaction between whites and African Americans had also led white officers and policymakers to re-assess the value of African American sailors, a crucial sine qua non for the actualization of integration in the postwar years. “MANY OF THEM ARE AMONG MY BEST MEN”: THE UNITED STATES NAVY LOOKS AT ITS AFRICAN AMERICAN CREWMEN, 1755-1955 by MICHAEL SHAWN DAVIS B.A., Brooklyn College, City University of New York, 1991 M.A., Kansas State University, 1995 A DISSERTATION submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of History College of Arts and Sciences KANSAS STATE UNIVERSITY Manhattan, Kansas 2011 Approved by: Major Professor Mark P. Parillo Copyright MICHAEL SHAWN DAVIS 2011 Abstract Historians of the integration of the American military and African American military participation have argued that the post-World War II period was the critical period for the integration of the U.S. Navy. This dissertation argues that World War II was “the” critical period for the integration of the Navy because, in addition to forcing the Navy to change its racial policy, the war altered the Navy’s attitudes towards its African American personnel. African Americans have a long history in the U.S. Navy. In the period between the French and Indian War and the Civil War, African Americans served in the Navy because whites would not. This is especially true of the peacetime service, where conditions, pay, and discipline dissuaded most whites from enlisting. During the Civil War, a substantial number of escaped slaves and other African Americans served. Reliance on racially integrated crews survived beyond the Civil War and the abolition of slavery, only to succumb to the principle of “separate but equal,” validated by the Supreme Court in the Plessy case (1896). As racial segregation took hold and the era of “Jim Crow” began, the Navy separated the races, a task completed by the time America entered World War I. The Navy paid the price in lost efficiency to maintain the policy. After the war, the Navy chose to accept African Americans solely for duty as messmen and stewards. Matters changed in World War II. The Navy eventually lifted its restrictions on African American enlistment and promotions, commissioned its first African American officers, and finally committed itself to a program of integration. The increased interaction between whites and African Americans had also led white officers and policymakers to re-assess the value of African American sailors, a crucial sine qua non for the actualization of integration in the postwar years. vi Table of Contents Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... vii Chapter 1 - Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 2 - “Inclusion to Increasing Exclusion”: The African American Experience in the U.S. Navy, 1755-1860 ...................................................................................................... 11 Chapter 3 - “Service with and without restrictions”: The African American Experience in the U.S. Navy, 1861-1941 .............................................................................................. 36 Chapter 4 - “The Road to Integration”: The African American Experience in the U.S. Navy, 1941-1955 ................................................................................................................. 59 Chapter 5 - Racism in the U.S. Navy to 1941 ............................................................................. 138 Chapter 6 - World War II Was Critical ....................................................................................... 194 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................... 216 vii Acknowledgements Various people helped me travel the long “sea voyage” I call “My Dissertation” and have given liberally of their time, assistance, and advice. I am sorry to say that space does not permit the naming of all the persons to whom I am indebted for their time and assistance; I am nonetheless grateful to all who have made this dissertation possible. Ironically, this project grew out of the oral portion of my preliminary exams. Originally, I hoped to write a top-notch dissertation on industrial mobilization in the Union Navy during the American Civil War. During my orals, it became very clear that I was not “excited” about this project. Drs. Louise Breen and Lou Falkner Williams, prominent members of my supervisory committee, pointed out the obvious. I teach African American history, why not write about it too? Why not combine my interests in American military history and race? Huh, what a novel idea! I then had a conversation with my advisor, Dr. Mark Parillo, about the racist attitudes expressed by Admiral David Dixon Porter during the American Civil War. I was hooked. We then “raised anchor” and we were under way. I owe special thanks to the Department of History of Kansas State University and the Munson Institute of American Maritime Studies, Mystic Seaport, Mystic, Connecticut for providing me with the funds for this project. I need to thank some people who aided me in the research portion of the dissertation process: at the Naval Historical Center in the Washington Navy Yard in Washington D.C. (Mike Roberts and Ken Johnson of the Operational Archives, Bob Schneller of the Contemporary History Branch, Glenn Helm and the cordial staff of the Navy Department Library); at the Library of Congress (Dr. John Sellers, Daun Van EE, and Adrienne Cannon); at the National viii Archives and Records Administration in Washington, D.C. (Rebecca Livingston). I wish to thank my advisor, Dr. Mark Parillo from the History Department of Kansas State University. Throughout the years, Dr. Parillo listened to my stories of panic, guided me along my way, and provided sound advice when I was often at a crossroads. I am not sure if he remembers this, but we both arrived at Kansas State at about the same time. I remember Dr. Donald J. Mrozek of Kansas State University putting his arm around me and saying, “Mike, I would like you to meet the man who you will be working with for the next couple of years. I would like you to meet Dr. Mark Parillo.” For me, the relationship has been nothing short of fun. Though he will not admit it to it, I am sure I am the one who has given him the few gray hairs that he has. I apologize for that. I cannot put into words how important he has been to my development as a scholar, teacher, and professional. I also owe a huge debt of gratitude to several members of the faculty at Kansas State University. Dr. Michael Ramsay, who has unfortunately left Kansas State for “colder pastures,” was there for me in my darkest hours. Without him, I am not sure that I would have ever completed my doctoral program. Dr. Lou Falkner Williams, my “absentee mother” and “Southern Mama” who taught a “Yankee Boy from Brooklyn” everything he needed to know about African American history, race relations and the history of the American South. Dr. Victoria Clegg, director of the Center for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning at Kansas State, who not only helped me fund my graduate education with a long-term graduate assistantship but made me the teacher that I am today. Dr. Louise
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