Georgia Southern University Digital Commons@Georgia Southern Electronic Theses and Dissertations Graduate Studies, Jack N. Averitt College of Summer 2013 From Scouts to Soldiers: The Evolution of Indian Roles in the U.S. Military, 1860-1945 James C. Walker Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/etd Part of the Indigenous Studies Commons, and the Military History Commons Recommended Citation Walker, James C., "From Scouts to Soldiers: The Evolution of Indian Roles in the U.S. Military, 1860-1945" (2013). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 860. https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/etd/860 This thesis (open access) is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate Studies, Jack N. Averitt College of at Digital Commons@Georgia Southern. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons@Georgia Southern. For more information, please contact [email protected]. FROM SCOUTS TO SOLDIERS: THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN ROLES IN THE U.S. MILITARY, 1860-1945 by JAMES C. WALKER ABSTRACT The eighty-six years from 1860-1945 was a momentous one in American Indian history. During this period, the United States fully settled the western portion of the continent. As time went on, the United States ceased its wars against Indian tribes and began to deal with them as potential parts of American society. Within the military, this can be seen in the gradual change in Indian roles from mostly ad hoc forces of scouts and home guards to regular soldiers whose recruitment was as much a part of the United States’ war plans as that of any other group. The gradual granting of citizenship to Indians, culminating in the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924, played a vital role in resolving the issue of whether Indians were even able to volunteer or enlist for regular service. Being primarily concerned with finding ways to win on the battlefield, the military proved more willing to accept aspects of Indian culture that the U.S. did not generally permit in civilian life, provided it did not interfere with the individual Indian’s abilities or duties as a soldier. However, the military was nevertheless a product of the same society that held various prejudices toward Indians, even if such prejudices were mollified by the desire to win battles. This thesis tells of the gradual acceptance of Indians into military and American life, a process that is still continuing today. INDEX WORDS: American Indians, Native Americans, Indian scouts, Code Talkers, Civil War, Indian Wars, World War I, World War II, U.S. West, John Collier, Joe Medicine Crow, Stand 1 Watie, Ely Parker, Joseph Oklahombi, Frank North, Luther North, General George Crook, Choctaw, Iroquois, Seneca, Navajo, Comanche, Pawnee, Apache, Cherokee, Hopi, Zuni, Meskwaki, Goshute, Shoshone, Lakota, Sioux, Pasamaquoddy, Pottawatomie, Omaha, Oneida, Crow 2 FROM SCOUTS TO SOLDIERS: THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN ROLES IN THE U.S. MILITARY, 1860-1945 by JAMES C. WALKER B.A. Georgia Southern University, 2011 A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Georgia Southern University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF ARTS IN HISTORY STATESBORO, GEORGIA 2013 3 © 2013 JAMES C. WALKER All Rights Reserved 4 FROM SCOUTS TO SOLDIERS: THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN ROLES IN THE U.S. MILITARY, 1860-1945 by JAMES C. WALKER Major Professor: Alan Downs Committee: James Woods John Steinberg Electronic Version Approved: July 2013 5 DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my parents George and Sherry Walker, who have always encouraged me to learn new things and put forth my best effort in all things worthwhile. 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the members of my committee: Dr. Downs, who has helped shape and encourage my interest in American Indian history; Dr. Steinberg, from whom I learned how to be a historian; and Dr. Woods, who has been a mentor to me for much of my college career. I cannot thank them enough for the support they have provided me. 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………7 Chapters: 1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………………9 2. The Civil War……………………………………………………………………………30 3. From the Indian Wars to the Spanish-American War…………………………………...59 4. World War I……………………………………………………………………………..84 5. World War II…………………………………………………………………………...107 6. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...138 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………156 8 Chapter 1: Introduction It is well-known that the United States of America has waged war against American Indians. Less well-known, though, is the fact that it has made use of native peoples in its military in one capacity or another throughout its history. The Navajo “Wind Talkers” are probably the most famous example of this, and Civil War enthusiasts are sure to recognize the exploits of Generals Stand Watie and Ely Parker. However, the history of American Indian service in the military extends far beyond these few examples, and examining their roles in the military can reveal much about the views larger American society had of them and what place they occupied in that society. One of the most dominant themes of white Americans’ views of American Indians throughout the history of the United States is their desire to assimilate its indigenous into the larger society. As Frederick Hoxie notes in the preface to his book A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880-1920: From the time of the nation’s founding, American politicians, missionaries, and reformers protested to their critics that warfare with the country’s native inhabitants was only the regrettable first step in a process of assimilation. While others gloried in the annihilation of tribal peoples, pious leaders from Thomas Jefferson to William Lloyd Garrison asserted that Indians, once “freed” from their “savage” heritage, would participate fully in the nation’s institutions.1 One of the best areas to see this drive to assimilate Indians into the larger culture is in the military. Over time, particularly during the period from the Civil War to World War Two, the dominant role of Indians in the military evolved from auxiliary troops or scouts recruited only out of necessity to that of the regular soldier. Of course, while the thoughts of various scholars and major players in the events over the years are worth analyzing, it would be remiss to fail to 1 Frederick Hoxie, A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880-1920 (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2007), ix. 9 look at the experiences of Indian veterans and how they saw themselves during their military service. Therefore, wherever possible, the thoughts of native participants will be incorporated into the narrative. One major reason many American Indians are so drawn to military service is due to the warrior traditions of some tribes. National Public Radio war correspondent Steven Clevenger, a member of the Osage tribe, has spent time covering Indian warriors who served in Iraq and had this to say about why this tradition is so important in an interview: The warrior culture tradition, it seems to be instilled in the youth. As they grow up, they witness how the warrior, the veteran, is honored by his tribe at dances, powwows, etc. And often times, you'll find that the leaders in the tribes are veterans. They've gone through tough times and the tribe has come to depend upon them for wise decision making.2 Lieutenant Bill Cody Ayon, a member of the Southern Cheyenne tribe and nineteen year military veteran, was also part of this interview. He corroborated Clevenger’s story with his own, saying: In my cultural background, my upbringing, raised in my home, we were raised to appreciate and respect veterans through cultural events and I wanted to emulate these individuals that I was around growing up, and all the stories that they told and all the things that they have done. Mr. Clevenger is exactly right, I saw from a young boy that the leaders in our world, the majority of them, were veterans. And I wanted to walk down that road as I got older, as well, so I followed in the footsteps of my father and uncles and I joined the service.3 As these two testimonies highlight, Indians sought out military service as a way to gain respect, both in their tribes and from the larger American society, and perhaps even gain a position of leadership. This factor becomes a particularly great motivational factor in getting Indians to serve in the United States military from World War One onward. 2 “Native American ‘Warriors’ Mark Military Service,” National Public Radio, November 11, 2010, http://www.npr.org/2010/11/11/131243209/native-americans-have-long-history-of-military-service (accessed January 8, 2013). 3 Ibid. 10 Ten years before this interview, Keith Colston (Tuscarora-Lumbee), then-consultant for the Baltimore American Indian Center, visited Fort Detrick in Frederick, Maryland, to give a lecture to the soldiers stationed there. As part of his visit, he described and then demonstrated a dance his tribe does to honor its veterans. According to his account, veterans are usually asked to stand in the center of the dance. Furthermore, he also noted that these movements were not a series of steps randomly cobbled together. Each move has a certain meaning, and the dance is a highly dignified undertaking. He told the soldiers, “We keep our hands up and ready…never turn 360 degrees—that would be turning your back on your enemy—and never dance backward—that is a sign of retreat.”4 The Lumbee are not alone in honoring their veterans in such a way. Many tribes, particularly those with a strong warrior tradition have some sort of ceremony that mean something similar.