Part I: the Spanish-American War Ameican Continent

Home , 1890s

Part I: The Spanish-American War rf he ro,d $ 1j.h would FventuaJly lead to Lhe lapa- Amedcans. extendiry U.S. conftol over the lush Gland I nese attack on fearl H"rbor ln l94l and ninety miles from the tip of Florida seemed only logi- Amedca's involvement in Vieham began in the hot cal. Cuba was often depicled as a choice piece of ituit sugar cane fields of Cuba over a century ago. which would naturally Iall into the yard oI iis pow- Cuba, the lar8esi island in the Caibbearr held ertul neighbor when tully iipe. special significance for policymakers in both Spain and the United States at the end of the 19ih c€ntury. lf is aut dcshnv lo hauc Cuba and it is to folly I For Spain, Cuba n'as the last majof remnant of whai debale lhe question. ll naluftll! bplong< la thp I had once been a huge empire in the New World. Ameican continent. I N€arly all of Spain s possessions in ihe Westem Hend- Douglas, 1860 presidential candidatu'l -StEhen sphere had been lost in the early 1800s. and Spain itself had sunk to the level of a third-raie European power. Nonetheless, the government in Maddd refused to RevoLutror'r rt{ Cual consider granting independence io Cuba - "the Pear] of the Antilles" - or seliing the island to anoiher In 186& a revolt against Spanish rule broke out in Cuba. Many of ihe leading rebels hoped to eventu' At the time, the country with ihe geatest inter- ally join the United Staies after breaking {ree fiom est in a.quirin8 Cuba wac LhF United Sidte-. For |rdny Spain. Presideni Ulysses Grant was open io the

Nore ro Sruoelrs "A splendid litt1e r{al." That is how hisiory has remembered ihe Spanish-American war. The war iiself was bdef and the casualties were comparatively tow, but ihe results of the conflict Iorever changed the lvay Amedcans viewed their country, iheir values, and the role of the.United States in the world. The Spanish- American war and the policy choices that follow€d laid the foundation Ior America's intemational leadership in the 20ih ceniut As we enter the 21st century, Ame cans are ponde ng many of the same questions that gipped our nation a century ago. We are again consideling who we are as a natior! what we are becomin& and which values we most pdze. As at the turn of the last ceniury. divisions along the lines oI race, ethdc backgrourd, and economic class coniinue to Eouble our society. Our stake in the global economy js growin& as it was in the 1890s, and yet many ArIIe cans do not share m our couniry's prosperity. By Lookint into the mirror of the Spanish-American Wal era, we can better understand how far we have come as a nation and gain a more balanced perspective on the policy choices we face today. In this uni!, you will view the events of ihe 1890s from a front-row seat. Using primary sources - stat€ments made alld docrments written during the pedod under study - you wil participate in the debate over the values and policies which brouSht the United States into a new era. You, too, wil join generations of historians in assessint the decisions made at the time. Did they betray the values upon which our county was Iounded? Or were they the inevitable results of America's "cominS of age"? Finaly, the issue of lac€ in the unit deserves speclal note. As you will leam, race was a key element in the events that yo11(.lI study. Racial stereotypes arld severe discrimination aJfected boih t1rc conduct of ihe war and broader U.S. Ioreign policy. Sadly, racist attitudes and beliels were common at the ium of the century. They are presented here to deepen your insight inio the history of the pedod.

Reluctaht Calass6: Anehd Choices lot the 21st Cehtury Edua an Ptai*t Entets Lhe age at hpetiati.n Waten lnstitute tat htehalianal judies, Btuen Uhiveciq Cuba. Th€ eff€cts were immediately felt in Cuba. As Cuba's economy spuitered, the cause of rebellion again gained momentum. This time, much of the funding and organization for the movement cane from Cuban immigrants in New York arld Florida. They helped buy weapons and smuggle them into Cuba aboard ships sailing from southem U.S. pots. Such "filibustering" expeditions were illegal under international law, and U.S. coasial patrols blocked

How did Spaln rcspond to the Cuban rcvolt? A tull-scale revolt erupted in Cuba in 1895 and soon engxlfed the island. Spain responded evm more harsNy than in th€ tust rcund of rebellio& sending more than 120,000 troops to fight an estimated 60,000 Cuban insultents. The military commander of the Cuban nationalists, Marimo Gomez, aimed at the economic " Spanieh uatfare" foundation of Spanish rule. He attempted to cut off Spanish gairisons in the cities fJom food supplies in the countryside. Sugar groweE were ordered to siop proposaL but he was persuaded by his secretary of producin&.while small farmers w€re forbiddm #om state to keep the United States a sale distance from the sellinS supplies to the Spanish. Gomez wamed that conflict. After a d€cad€ of fighting and the loss oI violators would be severely punished. By 1898, 200,000 lives, the rebels put down their ams. Spanish Gomez had indeed brouSht the Cuban economy to a rule rcmained in place, althouth Spain pledged to standstill. Of course, i rocent civilians paid a healy allow limited self -govemment. The Spanish also saw econorfc control as the What wefe U.S, intercsts in Cuba? key to victory. Unable to pin down the nationalist With the revolt over, $50 million woth oI forces, they sought to isolate them from the Seneral American investment flowed into Cuba. Most of it population in the counEyside. spain's govemor in was channeled into th€ island s sugar indusEy/ which Cuba, General Valeriano weyler, herded hundreds of represented four-fiIths of the Cuban economy. The thousands of Cuban peasants into towns policed by United States was also far and away the largest cus- Spanish troops. The "reconcentration" carnps, how- tomer for Cuban sugar. In 1890, th€ United States ever, lacked adequate Iood, housin& a]ld sanitation. rcmoved tariffs on Cuban sugar entering the Amencan Disease and starvation took a ierrible ioll. market. The legislation boosted the fortunes ol both the overall Cuban economy and American investors How did the "ye ow press" sway U.S. public on the island. Cuban-Amedcan trade soon ap- opinion? Foached $100 million annua y. AB the war in Cuba intensided, coverage in the The depression of 1893, however, quickly spread Ame can press increased. Many of the stones were from the Unit€d States to Cuba. Pressure mounted in supplied by Cuban nationalists living in the United ConSress to cut back on imports and proteci Ameri States. Publishers of the so-caled "yelow press" - can sugar Producers. In 1894, the United States named because the newsprint used was slithdy yel- imposed a 40 percent tariff on sugar imports from low - soon found that news oI th€ Cuban revolt sold

R e lbta ht Colo ssus : A n e d @ choi@s tot lh. 21sl Cqlury Educnon P@j@t Enr36 |te Age ol lnperialkn WaEon lBtitd. lu lntet@timl Snrdi6, Brcwn UntueBtty newspapeB. They were eater to print reports of Span- the Spanish ambassador to Washington, Enrique ish ahocities, real or fictitious. Dupuy de Lome, had sent to a fiend in Spain. The

wii I iam Randotph Hear,r andlre$lflilzsr letter included a biting critiqu€ oI the president. owners of two of the largest newspaper chaiff/ com- "McKir ey is weal and a bidder for the admiration of peted fiercely for news about Cuba. Both men sent the crowd," Dupuy de Lome wrote, "besides L€ing a teams of reporters and atists to cover the revolt and would'be politician who tries to leave a door open generaie suppo$ for U.S. intervention in the conflict. behind himself while keepint on good terms wiih the Religious magazinet particularly ihose published by jintoes of his party." Protesiant denominations, likewise called for the Publication oI the letter provoked outrage in the United Stat€s to join the fighting on humanita an United States. Many Amedcans took de Lome's com- Srounds. ments as an insult against then counily. The Spanish ambassador quickly resitned and Spain apologized. No man's life, fio mafi's ploperty is safe. Anei- BFforp the eptode died down, however, Atrericans cafl citizens afe imprisoned or slain without were again stunned by a much mo(e serious incident couse. American prcpetty is destroyed atl aII in Cuba's Havana harbor. sides....Cuba will sootl be a wildemess of black- ened fuins. mis year there is little to lioe upa11. How alid Ame cans "Remember the Maine?" Next year tJpre uiLI be nothifig. The horrors of a On January 25, 189& the U. S. S. i"4rin e, a second- barbarous struggle for thc exlermination of the class battleship in the U.S. fleet, dropped anchor in natioe population are uitnessed in all parts of the Havana harbor on a courtesy cali. Visits by foreign country. Blood on the rcadsides, blood on the warships in time oI peace were common in the late felds, bload 011 the doorcteps, blood, blood, blood! 19th century, and Madlid welcomed McKir ey's re- Is there no nation wise eno gh, braxte efiough to quest to send the Ma,r,e to Cuba. aid this blood-stflitten land? McKinley's purpose in dispatching the Mar're World was two-fold. FirsL the ship's sailo$ would be in a -New York position to protect and even evacuate Amedcan citi- Despite the drumbeat Ior interuention in the zens living in Havana if a threai to their saJ€ty arose. press, Ame cans werc divided about their country's Second, the warshils presence tave McKinley added role in ihe Cuban revolt. The business community and leverage in pr€ssing Spain to reach a just settlement the financial press of the nofiheast opposed going to with the Cuban nationalists. war with Spain over Cuba. ln Congless, advocaies of After passing tfuee unevmtful week in Havana yrar were in the minority, alihough they voiced their harbor, the Maine was ripped apart by a hemendous opinions loudly. Most Congressmen sided wiih ihe explosion on the night of February 15. Two hundred cautious policy of President McKir e, who favored and sixty American sailors were killed. Alihouth the a peaceful settlement of the rcvolt. Meanwhile, calls Maine's captain, who suwived the explosior! Ufged a for U.S. intewention mng the loudest in many of the careful investigation to determine ihe cause of the same areas that were the sirontholds o{ William disasier, the American press immediately blamed the Jennings Bryan. Suppot for strong action was olten Spanish autho ties. A new slogan - "Remember ihe tied to a rcligious conviction that AmerG shodd help Maine, to hell with Spain'" - swept the nation. The a:

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Wln wrrr SplrH Cuba independenl and demandedihe wiihdrawal of Spanish forces. Congress also granted McKinley the Regardless of his own doubts about the Maine authority to go to war to enJorce theresoluiion. explosio4 McKinley did liiile to calm the war fever ihat s'as building in the country. Wiihoul waiting for what werc u.S. goals in Cuba2 the results of an official investiSation, he took sieps to Both McKir ey and Congess wanied to present prepare the Uniied States Ior war. On March 9, 1898, their stanc; stri.tly in terms of defending the rights of bothhouses of ConFess unanimously approved ih€ the Cuban people. To thai end, Congress passeci an president's request to add $50 million to the delense amendment stating that ihe United States had no budget. \ Ihen U.S. investigators, working under in- interest in assertinS "sovereignty, jurisdiciion, or tense politicrl pressure rFported Io lhe publr. on March 28 that ihe Maire had been sunk by dn uaderudrFr r''ine. \4.Kir ey hdd girounds to take bolder measurcs.

What did Ame cans demand frcm Spain? Meanwhne, U.S. diplomats were finding thai Spain was increasingly anxious io avoid war with the United Siates. They reported that tl-e Spdni.h were orepared to dismanlle thF reconcentrahon cdmps. is \.4.Kiniey hdd e"r- ijer demanded. On April o. Sprir dToun.ed a truce in its campaiSn against the nationalists ard pledSed io expdnd ihe oi Cuban '(ope self-govemmeni. On April 19, however, the United Siates rr'.ed ihe.t.lec further. ?esponding lo a request from the president, Con$ess declared

Reluctant Cotassds: Aneid Chobe. lot lhe 21st Century Education Prcieal Ente6 the Age at td2eiat6n watsan t.stitute tot lntehational studies, Btavn uhtue6ity conirol" over Cuba and promised to "leave the government and control of the island to iis people" once

Peace was restored. The amendment named for Senator H€ruy Teller, addressed two sources ol criticism. First, anii-imPedal- ists worded that intewention in Cuba disguised a larger plan to acquire an Ameacan empire at Spain's exPense Second, sugar Srowels in southern states feared Olai the annexation of Cuba would leave them unable io comPete sParked an ouiPouring of with the island s sugar Plantations. Dewey's tliumPh pide in the United States. In the months ihat fol- 'owed, volunteers siSned up lo Werc IJ.S. torces Prcparcal lor war? more Lhan 220.000 of rhe U.S. demands teft Spain with few choices. On Iight the Spanish. Among ihe most Prominent who resigned from the April 24, 1898, Madrid declared war on the United volunteers was Rooseveli, administraiion to form a cavalry regiment. Siates. Amedcan Preparations to liberate Cuba, how- McKiiley Wood, an army ever, were far from ready. At the ouis€t of the war, the Joined by his diend, Colonel l,eonard the Congessional U.S. Army numbercd only 28,000 men. Most weie sta- surg€on who had been awarded Medal of Honor, Roosevelt recruiied primarily ftom tioned at remote Posts in the southwest. In contrasL Mexico, and Spain had 150,000 tired. but seasoned, troops on Cuba the rutged tenitories of Arizona, New South Dakota Thousands of Amedcan volunteers were needed to Oklahoma as well as from North and also in- defeai ihe Spaniards. The unit, nicknamed the "Rou8h Riders," cluded a sprinklint of volunteers from elite Ivy How did victory in the Philippines lead to victory l€ague colleges in the northeast the ln Cuba? Armin& clothin& transPortin& and training The Fortunaiely foi the Am€tican war effo4 rhe U.S. volunteers taxed the caPabil;ties of the army. to Navy provided the country with an early taste of vic- ships that had been assembled in TamPa, Flonda, tory. Nearly two months befor€ ihe war began, sail for Cuba even lacked space for the horses of the Assistant S€crclary of the Navy Roosevelt had in- Rough Riders. Nonetheless, a U S force of 12000 sol- structed the commander oI the Pacilic fte€t, diers landed in southeasiem Cuba on June 22, 1898. their siShts on Santiago, the Commodore George Dewet to draw up Plans io at- The Ameicans set ten tacl the Spanish fleet based in the PhiliPpineq pdncipal Spanish garjson in Cuba. Ovel the next deter- when Spain declared war Dewey had already led days, the Amencans steadjly advanced against Casualties were heavy on Lhe A mprican fleet lrom its home Porl in Hong KonS mined Spanish resistance of the to the mouih of Mdnila harbor' On Mdy l, he at- both sides. Among the U S forces, 10 Percent iacked. Dewey's squadron first knocked out the hoops involved in the off€nsive against Santiago were Americans Spanish cannons on shore, then sank every ship in killed or wounded. Neaily al1 of the 345 e were killed the Spanish fleet. who died in battle dudng the eni war

chaici lot lhe 21.t cdnltry Ed@tjan Prci*I R e t u.lant C o hs u s : An. n e a 'Il tretitute tat lntdnathna! studies Btuwn univeEity Ente6 the Age ot tfrPeiatisn watsah had been fighiing the Spanish since 1896. The main attack against Spain's defenses in Manila took place on Autust 1s, 1898, one day after a preliminary peace treaty was si8ned between Washington and Madrid. A commulxica- tions delay left both sides w€re unaware oI ihe atreement. From iheir positions outside Manila, U.S. and Fili- pino forces quickly in the Santiago campaign. (More than 2,500 U.S. ser- Eapped the Spanish. AJter a brief show of resistance, vicemen died from disease. food poisoning, and Spain's commander surrendered. At the same time, accidents du nt the Spanish-Amedcan War.) Filipino units were strengthening their hold in ihe The decisive battles oI the offensive took place countryside. on tuly 2, when the Amedcans captured two heavily forlified hiils overlooking the rcad io Saniiago. Spear- What did Filipino nationdlists alemand? heading the assault up Kettle Hill were Roosevelt's As in iuba, the st uggle against Spanish colonial- Rough Riders and two regiments of black soldiers. At ism in the Philippines had built up slowly. Initially, the s:nle time, other U.S. rcgiments charged San luan Filipino patdots did not press for fi independence.In- HiL By the end of the da, the Americans conholled stead they caled for political, economig and religious rhaT^'rb rn q'nri.d^ reforrns. Their demands included full equality before ttle The following day, Amedcan warships met the Spanish Caribbean fleet outside of Santiato harbor. As in the Phil- ippines, the Spanish ships were outgunned. They were either sunk or forced to shore. on July 17, the Spanish surrendered Santiago. The war in Cuba was all but over.

RevolurtoH tN THE PHtLtpPrNEs

Haff a world away in tlrc Philippines, Spanish defenses in Manila were likewise crumblint. U.S. troops did noi reach the Philippines until two months after Dewey's naval victory. Once there, they joined forces with Filipino insurgents who U.S. troops in Cuba sutf€ring lrcm tropical diseases, by Charles J. Post.

RetucEnt C olassrs: Ameha Chaiw ,or the 21sI Century Eduatbn Prcjqt En.6E the Aqe .l lnpeiali.n WaEon lnstilLie lot lntenanonal Studies. Btuwn U.ive6ir, law, local seff-rule, ieedom of the prcss, equa.l pay for War. He recalled ftat freed black slaves were a key equal h'ork, and the return of land which had been asset in defeating the ConJederacy. talen zro-n native Fiiiphos by Spanish relr8iou. au- thodties. I said tllese people [the Filipinos] wete our frimds The first round of rcbellion ended in a stalemate and. ue haoe corfte here afid the! uill help us j1lst in December 1897. The Spanish promised to make exactly as the negroes helped us in the Cioil W 4/. modest reforms and. in tum, the rebels ageed to a dote Geor ge D atey cease-fire. The leader oI the naiionalists, Emilio -Commo Aguinaldo, went into exile. ln March 189& however, Aguinaldo assumed that Deyr'ey's gesrure re- the nationalists rcsumed their revolt, complaining thar flected official U.S. policy. On May 24, 1898, he the Spanish had failed to live up to iheil promises. proclaimed himself the head oI a temporary revotu- Their goal was now lull independence. The national- tionary govemment aJtd pledged to hold etections. ist cause received a boost when Dewey sank the Aguinaldo expressed his special grariiude to ihe Spanish fleet at Manila. Ttuee weeks lai€r, Aguinaldo United States. retumed to the Philippines to again take command of the struggle. The gTeat North American nation, the cradle af genuine liberty, a1ld therefore tfu ftiend of out Why did Ame can leaderc disagree over Filipino people, Wressed and. enslazled b! the tlrafiny ond des?otism ol ils rulers. has come lo ut mani- T]le Filipino war Ior independencg however, o protcrtion as de.isiue as is arous€d little interest in the United States. ln laie 1892 IestinE it ufldoubtedly the McKinley administration responded wirh indiffer- diginterested lowords our inhabit- ence to an appeal by ASuinaldo for U.S. support. ants, consid.eting us as suffcimtly cioilized and President McKinley was scarceiy exaggeratint when capable of gooerning outseloes and out uflfortu- h€ Iater told a g.oup of clergymen that, betore Dew€y's victory he was not ev€n sure where rhe Phil- Ag inaldo -Emilio

Dewey was the lirst American to take the Fili- In fact U.S. officials at the time were wary of pino naiionalists se ously. Althou8h he destroyed Filipino independence. Most were inclined ro ma(e Spain s naval capability, he rcalized that U.S. gound the islands a U.S. "protectorate" (a country thai is lloops would not rcach the Philippines for at leasi two administered and largely controlled by a stronger months. Dewey saw Aguinaldo's forces as allies in ihe power) for an indefinite period of time. ln the next few war against Spain, and supplied ihem with rifles, am- months, leaders in both the United Srares and the muniLion. and small .aJDon.. Dewey's srraLeSy, for Philippines would begin io appreciate rhe exrent of which he has laLer criticjzed, was bdsed on his e\pe- the gap in communications between them. rience as a Union soldier in the South during rhe Civil

B el\da nt a e C o I s s u s: Ah tu a Chai@ Lt L\e 21st CentuM Ed@non patect EhtcE the Age al ldp.nalisn waL;on lnstitd. lot lntehati,chat studies, &aM untueiity Epilogue - lmperialism's Bitter Fruit n February 6, 189, the U.S. Senate apFoved the caused by the war. Treaty of Pads of 1898 by a margil]. of 57 to 27 The war in the Philippines was far dilferent required two-thirds ma- than any conflict in which Americans had previously -just one vote mole than the jority. An amendment to grant the Philippines Iought. Raiher than con&onting an ortanized army, independence once a stable tovemment was estab- as they had in Cuba. U.S. soldiers faced a quick- lished was defeated when Vice Presid€nt Carett striking guerrilla movement. The rules of war that Hobaf cast his tie-breakint vote. generally prevailed in battles involvinS Westem na- The heays mtification was due as much to tac- tions were largely iSnored. Both sides tortured and tical political maneuve ng as to long-term strateFc executed prisoners and commitj:ed other atrocities- As thinkint. William lennin8s Eryar! McKinley's oppo- would be lhe case in the Viebam War, the Filipino in. nent in the 1896 presidential race and a vocal loe of suigents, known as ins!.rscfos, easily melted into the imperialsm, urged Democrats to back the ageement. civilian population in the counftyside. He hoped that his oppositlon to the ann€xation of the The Filipinos were commanded by Emilio Philippines would win him votes against the RePub- Atuinaldo, the same nationalist fi$re who had led licans in his plaru!€d campaign for the prcsidenry in the shrggle against Spain and had paised the Unit€d 1900. States as "ihe 6jend of our people." Aguinaldo's cap- ture in March 1901 marked a turning point in the ltsunnscnou tN Ttte PttLtpptHes conflict. He agreed to declare his allegiance to the United States and, in tum, was awarded a pension by Even as the Senate was debating the treary, many of lhe worstfears of the anti-imperialists were becominS realiry. Two ddls before the Senate vote, an An eri.an soldier tued on a lilipino pahol that retused to halt Tensions between U.S. and Filipino forces had been buildint for months. The Filipinos had assumed t}|at they would be $anted independence aJter ihe departure of the Spanish Meanwhile, U.S. troops had been ordered to esrablish control over the islands. Wilhir' hour" of the shootint incident, fithtint hJd sprcad to much of the area around Manila.

Howdid Ame can torces adapt to a new kind ol wartarc? Over rhe ne\t three years, U.5. forces in the Philippines Ioutht one of our (ountry s most brulal and least remembered wars. Be- fore it ended in mid-1902, 4,200 Americans had been killed in battle and by disease - nearly fwice the death toll of lhe Spanish- American War. Amont the Filipinos. 20,000 .?24 soldiers were killed and as many as 200,000 "Wonder ifhe can see the point? civilians died lrom starvatron dnd disea6e A U.S. soldier conJronls a Filipino insurgenl wilh a"peacd trsaty.

Belucad Cal@@: Anefix 31 Aoi6s lot the 21st Centutv Edu@n@ Ptui*t Entets the Age at trPena 6n Watson tnslitutB lot lnt matiotul Sltdis, Brcm Unive6il "whire the U.S. govemment. barbet shops, and other facilities marked the !a- By then, however, relations between the Amen- only." Filipino nationalists oPenly Played on U.S army. They distributed cans and the Filipinos had been deePly scatred. To Put cial divisions within the Soldier" down the insurrection, the United States adoPted poste$ addressed to the "Colored Amedcan they su-f- many of the same iactics used by the Spanish in Cuba tha! reminded black of the discrimination the rate of desettion amont black U S. conmanderr routjnely Punished civilians in re- {ered. In Iact, was unusualy high. Many sponse to attacks by FiliPino Suerrillas In one of the soldiers in the PhiliPPines wals bloodiest episodes, U.S. forces imprisoned vir- of the deserters joined the FiliPino insugence. In 1903, tually the entire population oI the small island of a year aJter the fithting had ended, there were iiving in the PhniP- Samar after $eni,lds had wiPed out an ArnPriran roughly 500 Alrican-Ameticans gallison. U.S. troops werc given orders to kill all pines. males on the island above the age oI ten who had not the election of 1900? surrendered. In other areas, FiliPino Prisone$ were Dld impe alsm intluence was gmer- executed at random whenever an Ame can soldier Although the war in the PhiliPPines was killed. ally unpopular amont Americans, anti-imPenafism faded as a potent political issue. ln the Presidential What was the role of black Ame can soldiers? race of 1900, Democratic nominee Wiliam Jelmints economi' i

Moreover, black soldi€F in the PhiliPPines were subjected to the same disdimination they {aced in the his new possessons, United States. They were barred from restaurants/ Uncle Sam is shown babysitling

Cll4;c6 td ths 21st Cennrry Edeatioh Prci*t netuctant Col6sw: AneM 32 lretjlo,€ lot tnleftathnal sludies, Btun u.ieeltty Enta6 the Age ol lryEklkh w.|lan oJ U.S. achievements overseas. Roosevelt argred thai suppo{ in the United States lor repeating America,s the United States was jusrified in pressing ahead v,/fth experience in ihe Philippines. Even Theodore ihe war against ihe lilipinos "because they were kill- Roosevelt came to regiei amexing the islands, calling ing Americans." them "Am€rica's Achilles heel" in 1907. ln the end, the return of economic prosperity Thomy legal quesrions abour rhe status of th€ was most importani with voiers. McKinley again de- Philippines and its inlabitants {urher complicared feated Bryan, slightly increasint his margin oI victory America's fust steps toward empke. Should ihe Fili over ihe 1895 elections. pinos be given the same ghrs of citizenship granted The rejection of their cause Ieft many arlti-impe- to the inhabitants of the wesiem tenitones? Shouid rialists bitter. Leading figures in rhe movement they be protected by the Bill of Rithts? Shoutd goods continued to express their views in th€ press. Among from the ?hilippines be alowed ro enter ihe Unired the most effective critics of imperialism was Mark States fiee of tariffs? Twair! Ame ca's most famous living writer at the Irom 1901 to 1904, the Supreme Court ad- time. Twain used his biting irony and wit to ddicule dress€d these and other questions in {ourteen separate the stance of the imperialists. decisions known as the "Insular cases." The court held that the Filipinos, as w€il as the inhabitants of We haoe bem treacherous, but thal @as otlly in America's other ove$eas possessions, were entiiled to order tha| real good fiight come out of apparent the "fundamental righrs" of life, liberty, and properry, etil. True, ue haoe crusheil and deceioed a con- but could not be guaranteed the procedural righrs of fding people [the Filipinos]; we haoe tumed the constitution without specific action by Congress. against the ueak and the friendless uho trusted. In other words. rhe local population Iiving in us; we hape stomped out o just afld intelligent America's newly \^ron empire and in Hawaii did not and uell-ordereil republi c;. -.W e haoe debaucfud enjoy the protection ot U.S. law. Ameica's holror and blackmed her fsce befote the raorld; but each detail rnas for the best. We knozo How did the Ph ippines gdin independence? lhis. The H?ad of eery State and Souerei|nty in Politically, the lilipinos remained intent on Christendoln...including out Congress and our achievint indep€ndence even after their insunecoon ...sfate kgislafures, are merftbers not oltly of the was defeated. At the same time, the United States rap- church bat olso af the Blessings-of-Cipilization idly lost its appetite for adminisrering a cotony. Trust. This uorhl-girding accwnulation of Ame can officials quickly turned ove! much of the bained morals, high ptinciples, 41rd justice can- responsibility for goveming the istands ro lilipinos. qn not do untight thing, an unfab thing, an By the 1910s, Filipinos formed a solid majority of their unSenerous thing, afl unclean fhing. country's bureaucrats. In 1934, the united states -Marl Iaa in granted the Philippines commonwealth status. Under the new arrangement, the Filipinos had nearly com- plete authority over locat issues. Iull independence What legal complications came with Dew was promised within ten years. Although Wortd War territoties? II inte upted the transfer of power rhe philippines What neither the imperialists nor the anti- Iinally did gain independence in 1946 - fifty yeais 'mperial;sls couid foresee was thdt rhe age of empire aJter the outbreal of rh€ revolt against Spain. was drawing to a close in the early 20th century. \ 4d1e the United States established a protectorate over Dotvttt.llrron oF THE CABTBBEAN Panama in 1903 to pave the way for buitding th€ Panama pacific Canal and acquired several smatl is- In rhe Caribbean, the aJtermath of the Spanish- land groups aJter World War L there was liBte public Ame can War produced disappointment among

Rdluctant Colosg anena 33 Choies lat the 21st Century Ed@tim ptujecl Ente6 the Age ot tnpena sn wa6oh lBftute lot tntenationel studies, Bnvn uhiveci, Cubans and Pueto Ricans, but no violence against the United States. The U.S. military occupation of Cuba and Pueto Rico began soon afier Spain's surrender. U.S. policy re- volved around safeguarding American business and security interests in ihe Car- ibbean. At the same time, American iechnology and administative experiise contributed to mpid develoPment on the is-

. lands. Roads and telegaph lines were built, finances reorganiz€d, schools oPened, sanitation improved, and yellow fever stamped

In ?uefio Rico, local l€aders and U.S. officials rr'ere often at odds over the extent of self-govemment on the island. In 1912 Presideni Theodore Rooseveit is depicled as'1he world's conslable " Congtess made Puerto Rico a terdtory and ganied iis people U.S. €iiizenshiP. Puedo Ricans, individual liberLy." The Unired State" w"s a'co al- howe\ er, would not win lhe right to elect Lheir go\ - Iowed to build a naval base on the southeastem tiP of emor and other top officials until 1947. (Ihe Paci{ic the island at Guantanamo Bay. island of Guam, another former Spanish colony trar6- News of the proposed amendment sParked fered to the United Statet was administered by a U.S demonstrations and protests in Cuba. Nonetheless, naval officer until 1950.) the McKinley administratron insisted ihat the Platt Amendm&t was *re price Cubans would have to pay How did the United Stabs limit Cuban for ending the U.S. military ocdpation of theit island. inalependence? ln 1901, the amendment pass€d ihe Cuban assembiy In Cuba, the long naiionalist sh-uggle against Spain tueled greater resenhent toward U S ru1e- The Platt Amendmeni oPened the door to an uP- wlen Cuba's national assembly issued a cal for im- surge of American mvestment in Cuba's economy By mediate independence in 1900, the McKinley 1928, U.S. compani€s produced 75 perceni of CubJs administmtion sought to slow the momentum oI sugar. Cubans who had fought in the indePendence Cuban nationalism. Under a formula crafted largely struggle found few opportunities in an economy domi- by tle U.S. State Department, Cuba was to receive in_ nated by Amedca.rrs and receni irrunigants from SPairL dependence only after accepting a number of They came to re6ent the allialxce beiwe€n forei$ busi. limitations. nesses and wealthy Cuban Plantation or''ners Their The plan which lormed the basis of rhe Platt i1lsiration would later energe as a powedul for- in Cu- Amendmen! gave the United States the ritht to over- ban politics. Anti-American feelinSs helPed tud a rcvG see the cuban economy/ exercise veto power over lution that brought Fidel Casho to powei in 1959 Wiihin Cuban foreign policy, and intewene whenever neces- two yedrs. Casfro had seized American businesses in sary "for the prctection of liIe, Properry, and Cuba and established a cornmunist regime.

Educatjah Pbiect n e I u ctaht c a lo s so s : Anetu a Cnoicas lat lhe 21st Century EnL6 h\e Age of tnpeiansn watsan lnstitu|B lot lnt nationat studies, Brcwn univets v Optional Reading: Poetry and Politics -,,The White Man's Burden,, efore the era of ielevision and talk radio, newspapers and maSazines were the rnain forums of potitical debate in the United States. Editorials, political cartoons, letters to the editors, and even poerrs were the primary vehicles of opinion. Ironically, the piece of wdting ihat most inJluenced rhe debate on American imperiatism was w tien by an Englishman, Rudyard Kipling. Kiplin& whose novels enjoyed enormous populariiy in the English_ speaking world, was a stront supporter of B tish imperialism and the superiodty of westem culture. tn early 1899, Kipling composed a poem titled "The \4hite Man s Burden', that reflecied his views on imperiatism and lace. As Kiplint had intended, "]he lvhite Man's Burden, made an impact on the d€bare over ihe Treaty of paris of 1898. The poem appearcd n\ Mcclurc's Magarir? only days before the Senate voted on ihe ireaiy and gained immediate attention from u.s. policymake$. In the senate, the po€m was fiequenrly quored in defens€ oI the treaiy. AIter the treaty was approved, "The White Man,s Burden,, continued to spark controversy. Antlimperialists published numerous responses to ihe poem, typically in poetic verse. political cartoonisis &ew dozens oI cartoons based on the images suggested by Kipling. Newspape$ p nred hundreds oI letterc ro the ediror prompted by Kipling's views. seldom has a work of ar become such a political iithtning rod. Betow is ihe poem in its enti,ety.

The White Man's Burden by Rudyard Kipling

Take up the White Maris burden The ports ye shall not enter, Send fo*h the best ye breed The roads ye shall not Eead, Go, bind your sons to exile Go, make them with your living To serve your captives' need: And mark them with your dead. To wait, in hea\,T hamess, On fluttered folk and witd Take up the Wtrite Man's burde& Your new-caught sullen peoples, And reap his oid reward Haff devil and half child. The blame of thos€ ye better The haie of tnose ye Suard Take up the l^rhite \4an's burd€n The cry oI hosts ye humour In patience to abide, {Ah, slowly!) toward the Lightl To veil the thrcat of teror "Why brought ye us flom bondage, And check the show of pridej Our loved Etyptian night?" By open speech and simple, An hundred times made planr Take up the White Man's burden To seek another's profit Ye dare not stoop to less Arld work another's gain. Nor call too loud on Freedom To cloak youl weariness. Ta.ke up the White Man's burd€n By all ye will or whisper, The savage wars of peace By a[ ye leave or do, Fi[ tull the mouth of Fanline, The silent sullen peoples And bid the sickness cease; Shall weiSh your cod and you. And when your goal is nearest (The end for othe6 sought) Tale up the lvhite Man's burden! Watch sloih and heathen folly Have done wiih childish days Bring all your hope to naught. The lightly-protrered laurel The easy ungrudted praise: Take up the White Maris burden Comes now, to seaich your manhood No iron rule of kinF. Through aI the thankless years, But toil of serl and sweeper Cold, edged with dear-bought wisdom, The tale of common things. The judgment of your peers.

RehEIa Cola'sus: Ameia 35 choi.4 tat th. 21.t century Ed@non Ptujecr E4l3E the Age ot lnpena 6fr wat an treUtuE lq lntenatonat StMes. &own Univdtstu