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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-11389-2 - The Insects: Structure and Function: Fifth Edition R. F. Chapman Edited by Stephen J. Simpson and Angela E. Douglas Index More information

INDEX

Index entries in bold refer to ﬁgure captions.

abdomen, 3, 269 acetylcholine, 213, 634, 636 Aedes, 27, 54, 84, 88, 120, 186, 260, genital segments, 270–271 Acherontia, 844 294, 308, 309, 321, 327, 330, 353, musculature, 272–273 Acherontia atropos, 845 556, 657 number of segments, 270 Acheta, 290, 302, 328, 361, 549, 567, 764 Aedes aegypti, 41, 70, 83, 125, 295, structure of segments, 270–272 Acheta domestica, 85, 745 303–304, 308, 324, 349, 399, 401, abdominal appendages, 273–280 Acheta domesticus, 87, 562, 827, 830 415, 555, 556, 557, 558, 687, cerci, 276–277 Acilius, 183, 184 687, 698, 754, 772 evolution of, 273 acinous glands, 39, 40 Aedes campestris, 557, 559 gills, 277–278 acoustic signals, 825–826 Aedes communis, 185 larval locomotion and attachment organized patterns, 845–847 Aedes detritus, 558 structures, 141–142 unorganized signals, 847 Aedes punctor, 315 modified prolegs, 280 See also mechanical Aedes taeniorhynchus, 435, 558 primitive hexapods, 274–275 communication. aerodynamic mechanisms, 221–223 scoli, 280 Acrida, 342 clap and fling, 223 secondary sexual structures, 278–279 Acrididae, 16, 48, 54, 201, 202, 270, 283, flapping, 221 secretory structures, 278 289, 290, 295, 296, 298, 337–338, gliding, 221 sensory structures, 276–277 351, 379, 399, 401, 446, 755, 758 leading-edge vortices, 221–222 spines, 279 Acridinae, 837 rotational lift, 222–223 Abricta, 847 Acridoidea, 196, 276, 341, 410, 414, separated flow, 221 absorption, 72–77 833, 837–838 unsteady flow, 221 inorganic ions, 74 Acroceridae, 409 wing–wake interactions, 223 transport of amino acids and Acromyrmex, 41 Aeropedellus, 574 protein, 72–73 Acromyrmex octospinosus, 103 Aeschna, 294, 295, 534 transport of lipids and related Acronycta, 450, 450, 451 Afrocimex, 304 compounds, 73–74 Acronycta rumicis, 449 Agabus, 316, 399, 402 transport of sugars, 73 Acroschismus, 384 Agabus bipustulatus, 399 water, 74–77 acrotergite, 150 Agathiphagidae, xxx Acanthoscelides, 307, 353 actin, 234–236, 242–244, 248–249 aggregation pheromones, 863–865 accessory glands action potentials, 631–633 Aglais, 564 female, 317, 339–343 Aculeata, 335, 408 Aglossata, xxx male, 285–286 aculeate apocritans, xxxi agricultural pest species, 618 acclimation, 609–611 Acyrthosiphon, 260 Agrion, 534 beneficial acclimation hypothesis, Acyrthosiphon pisum, 73, 82, 85 Agriotes, 584 611 adaptation to light levels, 723–727 Agromyza frontella, 865 rapid cold hardening, 610–611 adecticous pupae, 419, 432, 433 air expulsion rapid thermal responses, 610–611 adenotrophic viviparity, 381–383 acoustic signals produced by, 845 Acentropus, 421 Adephaga, xxvii, 159, 283, 733 air movement detectors, 745 Acentropus nivea, 434 adipokinetic hormones, 137, 140, 225, airflow sensors Acerentomon, 274 681, 682, 686 use in flight control, 227–228

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-11389-2 - The Insects: Structure and Function: Fifth Edition R. F. Chapman Edited by Stephen J. Simpson and Angela E. Douglas Index More information

902 Index

alarm pheromones, 869 Ametabola, 372, 403, 406 anthraquinones, 805–806 aphids, 278 Ametrus tibialis, 758 anti-aggregation pheromones, 864 alarm signals (acoustic), 831 amino acids, 634 anti-aphrodisiac pheromones, 863 alary muscles, 111 absorption, 72–73 antibiotics, 895 Aleyrodidae, 217, 356, 405 essential, 82, 83 antifeedants, 88 alimentary canal, 46 non-essential, 82–83 antifreeze proteins, 606 crop, 48 nutritional requirements, 82–83 anti-microbial peptides, 77–78, effects of metamorphosis, 430 storage and synthesis in the fat 123–124 esophagus, 47–48 body, 138–139 Anurogryllus, 826 foregut, 47–48 synthesis, 82–83 Apanteles, 333, 540, 541 formation in the embryo, 376 Amitermes meridionalis, xx Aphelinidae, 334, 385 general organization, 47 ammonia excretion, 562 Aphelocheirus, 182, 531, 535, 536, hindgut, 55–56 Ammophila, 295 746 ileum (intestinum), 55 Amopheles gambiae, 777 aphid morphs, 444–445 immunological function, 77–78 amplexiform wing coupling, 202 Aphididae, 164, 444–445 innervation of the gut, 58 ampullaceal sensilla, 772 Aphidius, 598 midgut (ventriculus), 48–52 Anabrus simplex, 34 Aphidius ervi, 73, 862 muscles of the gut, 56–58 Anacridium, 88, 296, 338 Aphidius nigripes, 862 passage of food through the gut, 59 anautogenous mosquitoes, 90 aphids, 22, 25–26, 26, 27, 33, 34, 42, peritrophic envelope, 52–55 Anax, 448, 596, 717 64, 73, 85, 100, 260, 278, 315, pharynx, 47 Anax imperator, 435 377, 380, 381, 392, 393, 443, 547, proventriculus, 48 Ancistrura nigrovittata, 828, 836 583, 603–605, 788, 789, 805, pylorus, 55 Angiospermae (flowering plants), 839, 860, 869, 892, 896 rectum, 55–56 xxvii aphins, 805–806 stomodeum, 47–48 Anisops, 136, 185, 516, 530, 805 Aphis fabae, 444–445, 688, 788 See also absorption; digestion. Anisoptera, xviii, 31, 33, 56, 182, 204, Apidae, 443–444 allantoic acid, 563–564 279, 294, 296, 532, 536, 551, 556, Apiomerus flaviventris, 890 allantoin, 562, 563–564 709, 718 Apis, 85, 161, 188, 201, 224, 259, 272, allatostatins, 681–682, 683, 695 Anisozygoptera, xviii 284, 292, 335, 336, 337, 358, allatotropins, 682 Annulipalpia, xxx 361, 363, 363, 478, 548, 590, allelochemicals, 885–887 Anopheles, 24, 110, 116, 123, 241, 591, 598, 640, 648, 650, 651, allomone production, storage and 308, 478, 561 694, 713, 715, 729, 748, 751, 786, release, 887–890 Anopheles gambiae, 63, 70, 72, 125, 843, 844, 847, 892 allomones, 885 354, 374, 787 Apis cerana, 597 chemical mimicry, 895–898 Anoplura, xxiv, 187, 399 Apis mellifera, 121, 123, 348, defensive allelochemicals, Antarctoperlaria, xix 443–444, 478, 597, 675, 830, 866, 890–895 antenna pulsatile organs, 111–113 871 definition, 858 antennae, 10–12 Apocrita, xxxi, 136, 150, 270 kairomones, 886 functions, 12 apodemes, 8, 242 synomones, 886–887 sensilla on the antennae, 12 apodous larvae, 408 Alloeorhynchus flavipes, 304 structure, 10–12 Apoidea, xxxi, 22, 57, 186, 188 allomones, 885 antennal lobes of the brain, apolysis, 491 production, storage and release, 657–659 Aporia, 198 887–890 Anthera polyphemus, 886 aposematic coloration, 813, 814, 815, Allonemobius, 354 Antheraea, 262, 321, 329, 329, 330, 891, 893 Alloxysta brevis, 892 775 appendages, 3 alternation of generations, 392 Antheraea pernyi, 433, 435, 451 apposition eyes, 709, 711 Alucita, 198 coccoon formation, 420 Apterygota, xvi, 3, 8, 16, 18, 37, 151, Amblycera, xxiv Anthocharis, 803 154, 206, 237, 269, 273, 276, 283, American foulbrood (honey bee Anthocoris, 304 285, 288, 297, 315, 403, 406, 474, disease), 54 Anthonomus, 85, 327 511, 685, 688, 709

Index 903

aquatic insects bacterial endosymbionts Blattodea, xix, xxvii, 10, 22, 37, 39, eclosion, 434–435 aphid oocytes, 381 48, 53, 55, 65, 69, 108, 109, 111, excretory system, 549–552 bacterial symbionts, xx, xxiv 135, 151, 155, 161, 164, 169, 199, gas exchange, 528–537 bacteriocytes, 100 201, 204, 206, 209, 218, 220, 237, gills, 277–278 Bacteroides (bacteria), 99 241, 253, 271, 276, 289, 296, 297, pupation, 421 Bactrocera, 359, 364, 374 298, 302, 306, 332, 341, 359, sites of ion exchange, 549–552 Bactrocera oleae, 875 384–385, 400, 413, 414, 416, 514, aquatic locomotion, 180–186 Bactrocera tryoni, 348, 399, 784 516, 519, 542, 549, 646, 650, 694, Arachnida, 547 Barathra, 741, 746 752, 773, 787, 802 Arachnocampa, 31, 817, 819, 820 basiconic sensilla, 739, 772 Bledius, 537, 558 Arachnocampa luminosa, 571 Basipta, 341, 342 Blephariceridae, 276, 421, 434, 537 Aradus, 741 Batesian mimicry, 816 blood. See hemolymph Archaeognatha, xvi, 8, 16, 111, 274, 293, Baumannia cicadellinicola blood-sucking insects 298, 335, 505, 516, 688, 709, 751 (bacterium), 102 feeding mechanics, 26–31 Archichauliodes, 711 behavior body temperature Archipsocus, 381 functions of the nervous system, convective heat loss, 594 Archostemata, xxvii 659–669 effects of coloration, 591–593 Arctiidae, 814, 839, 842, 859, 860, behavioral thermoregulation, 595–596 evaporative heat loss, 593–594 888, 890, 894 Belostomatidae, 895 heat gain mechanisms, 589–593 Arctiinae, 894 Bemisia tabaci, 85, 120 heat loss mechanisms, 593–595 Arctoperlaria, xix beneﬁcial acclimation hypothesis, 611 insulation of the insect body, 595 Arenivaga, 578, 580, 584, 745 Bibionidae, 180, 713 warm-up behavior, 589–591 Argyrotaeni velutinina, 882 Bicyclus anynana, 447 See also thermoregulation. Arhoplala, 839 bilins, 805 bolas spiders, 896 Arixenia, 380 biogenic amines, 37, 634, 638, Bolitophilidae, 817 Arixeniina, xxi 675, 894 Bombus, 27, 253, 309, 322, 590, 590, arolium, 160–161 mode of action, 700–703 592, 599, 731 arrestin, 722 biogeographical patterns in insect Bombus lapidarius, 797 arrhenotoky, 390, 391 thermal biology, 616–617 Bombus terrestris, 727, 866 arthropod evolution, xiii biomass of the insects, xv Bombus terrestris dalmatinus, 797 arylphorin, 139 biting insects Bombycoidea, 202, 420, 711 Ascalaphidae, xxvii, 204 feeding mechanics, 24–25 Bombyliidae, 409 Asclepias (milkweed), 894 biting mouthparts, 16–19 Bombyx, 109, 116, 291, 301, 302, 306, Asilidae, 205, 337, 718 hypopharynx, 18 308, 338, 339, 349, 374, 377, Aspidiotus, 334 labium, 18 450, 478, 498, 612, 613, 683, asynchronous skeletal muscles, 237, labrum, 16 698, 810 240–241 mandibles, 16 Bombyx mori, 43, 54, 73, 83, 109, 114, Atacus atlas, 523 maxillae, 16–18 137, 139, 324, 360, 430, 433, 437, Atta, 333, 831 Bittacidae, xxviii 449, 451, 452, 453, 681, attachment devices on legs, 164–166 Bittacus, 187 692–693, 773, 776, 777 attacins, 124 Blaberus, 171, 515 peptide hormones, 684 Attacus atlas, 894 Blaberus discoidalis, 169, 170, 173, Bootettix, 415 Attagenus, 563 702 Boreidae, 177 Attini, 69, 895 Blaps, 316 Brachycera, xxix, 20, 294, 408 Attomyces (fungus), 69 Blatta, 153, 341, 342, 584, 607 brachyptery, 445 Auchenorrhyncha, xxiv, 207, 753, 842 Blatta orientalis, 416 Braconidae, 385, 409, 540 Austroicetes, 379, 453 Blattaria. See Blattodea brain, 647–659 Austrolestes, 809 Blattella, 114, 116, 296, 298, 299, antennal lobes, 657–659 autogenous mosquitoes, 90 302, 324, 327, 384 central complex, 652–654 auxiliae, 161 Blattella germanica, 94 deutocerebrum, 657–659 axons, 626 Blattidae, 202 light sensitivity, 735

904 Index

brain (cont.) cantharidin, 309, 893 Ceratopogonidae, 24, 421, 611 mushroom bodies, 648–652 Carabidae, 60, 62, 92, 188, 206, 399, cerci on the abdomen, 276–277 olfactory system, 657–659 519, 711, 839, 892, 895 Cercopidae, 567, 571 optic lobes, 654–657 Carabini, 62 Cercopoidea, 164, 177 protocerebrum, 648–657 Carabus, 573 cercus pulsatile organs, 113 tritocerebrum, 659 Caraphractus cinctus, 183 Cerura, 280, 433, 805, 810 Brassicaceae, 24, 785 Carausius, 163, 165, 167, 170, 241, Cerura vinula, 419 Bruchidae, 563 327, 350, 375, 549, 555, 563, 566, cervix. See neck Buchnera aphidicola (bacterium), 614, 747, 808, 811, 812 chaetoid sensilla, 772 100, 381 Carausius morosus, 682, 690 Chaetophyes compacta, 571 Buenoa, 838 carbohydrates Chalcidae, 11 Bullacris membracioides, 755, 828 absorption, 73 Chalcididae, 207, 541 buoyancy in water, 185 digestion, 64–69 Chalcidoidea, 196, 335, 391, 419 Buprestidae, 408, 741, 796, 800 nutritional requirements, 83–84 Chaoborus, 109, 109, 185, 541 storage and synthesis in the fat Charagia, 203 Caelifera, xxii body, 139–140 Charidotella egregia, 808 Calandra, 358 cardiac muscle Chelicerata, 359 calcium ion absorption, 74 structure, 241 chemical communication, 857 calcofluor, 54 Cardinium (bacterium), 390 aggregation pheromones, 863–865 Calliphora, 40, 41, 117, 126, 133, 165, carminic acid, 806 alarm pheromones, 869 166, 205, 212, 224, 227, 227, carotenoids, 801, 806 allelochemical definition, 858 228, 241, 294, 315, 350, 353, Caryedes, 563 allelochemicals, 885–887 357, 358, 431, 484, 487, 492, casein, 88 allomone production, storage and 518, 521, 554, 564, 571, 640, 641, Cassidinae, 341, 796 release, 887–890 650, 720, 740, 753 castes of social insects, 443–444 allomones, 885 Calliphora vicina, 399, 432, 433, 693 Cataglyphis, 729, 730 anti-aggregation pheromones, 864 Calliphora vomitoria, 748 Cataglyphis bombycina, 609 anti-aphrodisiac pheromones, 863 Calliphoridae, 55, 895 catalepsy (death feigning), 752 biosynthesis of pheromones, Calliptamus, 277 cathepsin D, 63 876–882 Calloconopha pinguis, 831 Cavariella, 789 chemical mimicry, 895–898 Callosobruchus, 352 Cecidomyiidae, 177, 380, 383, 392, 393 defensive allelochemicals, 890–895 Callosobruchus maculata, 348 cecropins, 124 definition of terms, 858 Callosobruchus maculatus, 352 Celithemis, 235 infochemicals, 858 calmodulin, 324 cellular mechanisms of temperature information content of pheromonal Calopteryx, 199, 536 sensation, 613 signals, 874–876 Caloptilia fraxinella, 787 cellulases, 64–69 information transfer between Calosoma, 270, 272 Cenocorixa, 549, 551 species, 885–887 Calpodes, 133, 134, 135, 138, 139, central complex of the brain, 652–654 kairomones, 858, 886 139, 285, 292, 471, 490, 490, 491, central nervous system marking pheromones, 865–866 493, 505, 567 projections from chemoreceptors, necrophoretic response, 874 Calpodes ethlius, 136, 506 789–791 nest mate recognition in social Camnula, 354 Centris pallida, 308 insects, 870 campaniform sensilla, 201–202, 228, Cephidae, 453 perception of infochemicals, 740–741, 747–748 Cephus cinctus, 453 883–885 Campodea, 274, 274, 298, 299, 577 Cerambycidae, 69, 283, 408, 525, 858, pheromone definition, 858 Campodeidae, 274 859 pheromone perception, 883–885 campodeiform larvae, 407 Cerambycinae, 859 pheromones used in intraspecific Camponotus, 711, 724, 725, 725, 891 Ceratitis, 330 communication, 858–874 Camponotus japonicus, 776 Ceratitis capitata, 102 primer infochemicals, 858 Canace, 538 Ceratopogon, 186 primer pheromones, 870–874

Index 905

regulation of pheromone chordotonal organs, 22, 35, 167, 202, hemolymph, 117–124 production, 882–883 206, 213, 748–764 movement of hemolymph, 113–114 releaser infochemicals, 858 distribution in the living insect, pulsatile organs, 117 semiochemicals, 858 750–751 circulatory system, 107 sex pheromones, 858–863 femoral chordotonal organs, diaphragms, 110–111 sex pheromones in social 751–752 dorsal vessel, 108–110 insects, 874 functioning, 748–750 functions of hemolymph, 108 social insect pheromones, 869–874 functioning in the living insect, hemolymph, 107 synomones, 886–887 750–751 pulsatile organs, 111–113 trail pheromones, 866–869 Johnston’s organ, 12, 753–755 pumps, 107 chemoreception, 771 scolopidia, 748 sinuses, 110–111 contact chemoreception, 771 structure, 748 circumantennal ridge, 5 integrating function and behavior, subgenual organs, 752–753 circumocular sulcus, 5 788–789 tympanal organs, 755–764 Citrobacter (bacteria), 99 olfaction, 771 Choristidae, 202 climate change sensilla, 772 Choristoneura rosaceana, 861, 861 and insect thermal relations, 618 chemoreceptors Chorthippus, 303, 307, 763, 827 effects on insects, 588 mouthparts, 22 Chorthippus albomarginatus, 829, 829 large-scale patterns in insect projections to the central nervous Chorthippus biguttulus, 827, 828, 837, thermal biology, 616–617 system, 789–791 837, 845, 846 clock neurons, 641 chemosensilla Chorthippus brunneus, 827, 828 Cloeon, 108, 204, 536, 713 cellular components, 774–776 Chorthippus mollis, 827, 849–851, 850 Clusiidae, 177 contact chemoreceptors, 773 Chorthippus oshei, 829 clypeus, 4 distribution and numbers, 776 Chortoicetes, 355, 355 Clytra, 363, 363 external structure, 772–773 Chortophaga, 287, 292 Coccidae, 188, 204, 207, 288, 334, olfactory sense organs, 772–773 chromophores, 801 391, 419, 422, 547, 709 chemosensillum function, 776–787 Chrysiridia rhipheus, 797 Coccinella septempunctata, 865 perireceptor events, 776–778 Chrysobothris, 563 Coccinellid larvae, 33 receptor molecules, 778–782 Chrysochroa raja, 800 Coccinellidae, 715, 887, 891, 893–894 response to mixtures of chemicals, Chrysogaster, 528 coccinelline, 893 786–787 Chrysomelidae, 85, 369, 380, 419, 570, Coccoidea, 405, 805 speciﬁcity of response, 782–786 893 Coccygomimus, 334 temporal changes in neuronal Chrysomya, 332 cochineal, 806 responsiveness, 787 Chrysopa, 340, 361, 569, 755, 759 cocoon cutters, 433, 434 transduction process, 778–782 Chrysopa carnea, 451 coelocapitular sensilla, 773 chewing insects Chrysoperla, 753, 832 coeloconic sensilla, 772 feeding mechanics, 24–25 Chrysopidae, 828 Coelopa frigida, 558 Chilo, 84, 336 cibarium, 5, 6 Coenagriidae, 296 Chilo partellus, 401, 402 Cicadellidae, 177, 828 Coleoptera, xiii, xxvii, 4, 12, 19, 21, Chironomidae, 278, 279, 341, 421, Cicadidae, 186, 198, 237, 755, 839 32, 37, 39, 48, 49, 53, 57, 63, 516, 611, 753 Cicindela, 731, 734, 888 65, 69, 70, 83, 85, 110, 111, Chironomus, 119, 133, 341, 434, 515, Cicindelidae, 32, 755, 796 114, 140, 143, 150, 151, 159, 516, 532, 556, 567, 697, 805 Cimex, 27, 59, 304, 332, 378, 613 164, 165, 166, 177, 182–183, 186, Chironomus dorsalis, 341 Cimex lectularius, 399, 401, 685 188, 189, 194, 195, 199, 200, 204, Chironomus thummi, 558 Cimicoidea, 304, 334, 351, 352 206, 209, 213, 217, 219, 225, 237, chitin, 473–474 Cimicomorpha, 335, 399, 838 241, 270, 278, 279, 280, 283, 284, metabolism, 474–477 circadian rhythms, 641, 667–668, 285, 288, 290, 295, 298, 303, 304, chloride ion absorption, 74 787, 803 306, 309, 316, 320, 321, 332, 335, Chlorobalius leucoviridis, 831 circulation 341, 348, 350, 354, 358, 359, 361, cholesterol, 85, 675 heartbeat, 114–117 365, 369, 371, 373, 374, 375, 384,

906 Index

Coleoptera (cont.) Coniopterygidae, 297 Culicidae, 22, 48, 204, 294, 295, 421, 385, 390, 392, 399, 404, 407, 408, Conocephalus, 836 434, 529, 753–754, 843 409, 410, 419, 424, 426, 427, 430, contact chemoreception, 771 Culicoides barbosai, 332 431, 433, 451, 471, 474, 478, 492, contact chemoreceptors, 22, 201 Curculionidae, 206, 839 511, 518, 519, 522, 525, 528, 530, cellular components, 741–742 cuticle, 3, 150 531, 535, 537, 538, 539, 540, 549, external structure, 773 development in the embryo, 374 558, 581, 610, 611, 650, 685, 686, integrating function and behavior, increase during larval development, 710, 711, 715, 728, 731, 733, 752, 788–789 412–414 755, 764, 767, 789, 794, 800, 802, legs, 164 water loss, 574–575 817–820, 833, 839, 865, 876, mouthparts, 22 water uptake through, 577–581 878–879, 892 projections to the central nervous See also molting. Coleorrhyncha, xxv system, 790–791 cuticle chemical composition, Colias, 591–593, 594 convection, 517–521 473–483 Colias eurytheme, 591, 594, 796, 800, Copidosoma floridanum, 386–388, 387 chitin, 473–474 803, 817 copulation, 295–297 chitin metabolism, 474–477 Colias meadii, 595 Coranus, 838 cuticle-modifying enzymes, Collembola, xvi, 10, 12, 16, 39, 69, corazonin, 440, 441, 447 478–481 135, 160, 270, 275, 288, 293, 296, Cordylobia, 541 lipids, 481–482 298, 358, 360, 363, 365, 390, 491, Coreidae, 351, 892 minerals, 482–483 505, 511, 515, 516, 547, 577, 649, Corioxenos, 409 organizing and anchoring 686, 709, 713, 817 Corixa, 755 proteins, 481 Collosobruchus, 293 Corixidae, 838 proteins, 477–481 Coloburiscoides, 550 corpora allata, 685–686 structural cuticle proteins, 478 color corpora cardiaca, 686 cuticle formation, 493–497 intraspecific recognition, 816–817 Corydalidae, xxv epicuticle formation, 493–494 nature of, 794 Corydalis, 111, 536, 537 procuticle formation, 493–494 color change, 808–812 countershading, 813 sclerotization, 494–497 environmental influences, 812 courtship songs, 829 cuticle structure, 469–473 homochromy, 647 coxa, 159 endocuticle, 469–470 morphological color change, Crambidae, 786 epicuticle, 469–471 809–812 crawling, 178–180 exocuticle, 469–470 ontogenetic color change, Creatonotos transiens, 888 mesocuticle, 469 809–810 crepitation, 833 pore canals, 472–473 physiological color change, crista acoustica, 758 procuticle, 469–472 808–809 Crocothemis, 296 wax canal filaments (epicuticular color patterns, 806–808 crop, 48 filaments), 473 color polymorphism, 812 Crustacea, xiii, 121, 639 cuticle types, 483–488 coloration crustacean cardioactive peptide elastic cuticle, 486–487 effects of developmental (CCAP), 441, 443 factors affecting mechanical temperature, 593 cryopreservation, 618 properties, 483 effects on body temperature, 591–593 cryoprotectants, 452, 603 hard cuticle, 485 combinatorial chemistry, 894 crypsis, 813 membranous cuticle, 485–486 communication. See chemical cryptobiosis, 611 non-sclerotized cuticle, 485–486 communication; mechanical Cryptocercidae, 65 plasticization of cuticle, 487–488 communication; visual signals Cryptochaetum iceryae, 541 rigid cuticle, 483–485 complementary sex determination, 391 cryptochrome protein (CRY), 735 sclerotized cuticle, 483–485 compound eyes, 709–715 Cryptolaemus montrousieri, 87 cuticular mechanoreceptors, number of ommatidia, 709 crystal cells, 125 739–748 occurrence, 709 Ctenuchinae, 894 action potential encoding, 743 ommatidial structure, 709–715 Culex, 83, 84, 353, 378, 556, 695 air movement detectors, 745

Index 907

campaniform sensilla, 740–741, Danaus plexipus, 894 cellulose, 64–69 747–748 Datura wrightii (plant), 790 extra-oral digestion, 62 cellular components, 741–742 decticous pupae, 419, 432 general patterns in insects, 59–62 coupling, 743 Decticus, 245, 252, 757, 758 in the gut lumen, 62–63 cuticular components, 739–741 defensins, 124 influence of pH, 61 dendrite sheath, 741 defensive allelochemicals, 890–895 influence of redox potential, 62 exteroception, 744–746 defensive chemicals, 85 influence of temperature, 61 functioning, 742–744 production, storage and release, lipids, 69–70 functioning in the living insect, 887–890 microbial fermentation, 60 744–748 deflection marks, 814–815 proteins, 63–64 hair plates, 740, 747 Deilephila, 725 range of enzymes produced, 62–63 hair-like structures, 739–740 deimatic behavior, 813–814 variation in enzyme activity, 70–72 infrared receptors, 741 Delia, 308 digging neuron, 741 Delia antiqua, 308 leg modifications for, 186 orientation with respect to Delphacidae, 828 Diplatys, 316 gravity, 745 dendrites, 626 Diploptera, 323, 327, 385, 542, 683, overall response to stimulation, Dendrobatidae (venomous frogs), 891 694–695 743–744 Dendroctonus frontalis, 69 Diploptera punctata, 681, 681–682, pressure receivers, 745–746 Dendrolimus pini, 449, 453 683, 694 proprioceptors, 746–748 dermal light sense, 735 Diplura, xvi, 10, 16, 155, 274, 288, sheath cells, 741–742 Dermaptera, xxi, 8, 18, 54, 113, 199, 293, 298, 358, 511, 547, 577, 709 structure, 739–742 200, 204, 206, 270, 279, 284, 293, Diptera, xxix, xxvii, 6, 12, 19, 21, 22, tactile hairs, 745 316, 321, 322, 332, 334, 360, 371, 39, 48, 53, 54, 55, 57, 61, 63, 69, transduction, 743 380, 390, 413, 516, 710, 712 70, 83, 85, 103, 111, 114, 133, trichoid sensilla, 739, 746–747 Dermestes, 577 136–137, 138, 139, 140, 141, Cychrini, 62 Dermestidae, 64 143, 150, 151, 159, 161, 164, 165, Cyclocephala colasi, 593 Deromyia, 7 166, 177, 179–180, 182, 183, Cyclochila, 841, 841 descending contralateral movement 187, 188, 195, 200, 202, 204, Cyclorrhapha, xxix, 19, 21, 61, 63, detector (DCMD), 645–646, 661 205–206, 209, 212, 213, 217, 218, 114, 126, 179, 205, 209, 212, desmosomes, 242 220, 222, 223, 224, 226, 227, 228, 258, 336, 369, 374, 376, 406, detoxification, 567–569 237, 240, 241, 244, 255, 261, 269, 408, 410, 414, 419, 420, 431, diapause, 448–454 270, 276, 278, 280, 283, 285, 288, 433, 493, 511, 567, 571, 643, control of, 453–454 289, 290, 294, 295, 296, 298, 302, 675, 687, 733, 764 diapause development, 452–453 303, 308, 315, 316, 321, 323, 324, Cydnidae, 842 influence of photoperiod, 449–451 327, 332, 333, 335, 336, 348, 349, Cyllecoris, 404 influence of temperature, 451 350, 354, 357, 358, 359, 360, 363, Cynipidae, 392, 433, 892 initiation stimuli, 449–451 365, 369, 371, 374, 375, 376, 378, Cyphochilus, 794 occurrence of, 448–449 380, 381, 383, 384, 385, 390, 392, Cyphoderris, 279 preparation for, 452 399, 404, 406, 408, 409, 410, 414, Cyrtacanthacridinae, 306 diapause hormone, 684 415, 419, 420, 421, 423, 427, 428, Cystosoma, 841, 842, 847, 851 diapause proteins, 138 430, 431, 432, 433, 434, 452, 466, cytochromes, 805 diaphragms, 110–111 474, 478, 492, 506, 510, 511, 516, Diatraea grandiosella, 685 518, 525, 528, 529, 532, 537, 538, Dactylopius cacti, 806 Diceroprocta, 574, 597 540, 541, 548, 549, 556, 558, 559, Dacus, 330 See also Bactrocera. Dichirotrichus, 537 562, 564, 571, 577, 590, 591, Dacus tryoni, 839 Dictyopterus, 642 598, 611, 643, 646, 649, 654, Danaidae, 796 diet-induced polyphenism, 98–99 663, 675, 685, 686, 687, 690, Danainae, 894 diffusion, 516–517 693, 699, 709, 710, 712, 713, Danaus, 310, 406, 569 digestion 715, 718, 721, 725, 729, 731, Danaus gilippus, 816 carbohydrates, 64–69 733, 740, 751, 752, 753, 764, 772,

908 Index

Diptera (cont.) cuticle organizing proteins, 481 osmoregulation, 559–562 775, 776, 777, 778, 785, 787, 789, cuticular proteins, 478 ovarioles, 315 802, 803, 805, 817, 819, 820, 839, development of the imaginal peptide hormones, 681 865, 876, 879–881 discs, 373–374 peripodial cavity, 425 disease development of the tracheal pigment synthesis, 804 insect vectors, xv, xxix, 618 system, 373 production of anti-microbial disease vectors diet and female reproduction, 94–95 peptides, 77–78 effects of climate change, 588 effects of diet, 98 production of reactive oxygen Ditrysia, 432, 433 effects of parasitoids, 127 species, 77 diuresis eggs, 349, 357 regulation of anterior–posterior axis control of, 559–562 embryogenesis, 360 formation, 365–367 Dociostaurus marrocanus, 412 epidermis differentiation, 468–469 regulation of dorsal–ventral axis Dolichopodidae, 720, 728 excretion, 562, 563, 564, 566 formation, 367–369 Donacia, 528 feeding regulation, 36–37 regulation of hormones, 691–692 Donnan equilibrium, 630 flight muscles, 427 regulation of segmentation, dopamine, 37, 636–637, 640 formation of appendages, 371 365–367 Dorcus rectus, 102 functions of hemocytes, 127 response to heavy metals, 567 dorsal ocelli, 731–732 gaseous exchange, 518–519, seminal fluid proteins, 306 dorsal vessel, 108–110 521, 525 seminal receptacle, 317 Dorylinae, 839 genes involved in pigment sex determination, 388–390, 391 Drepana arcuata, 830 synthesis, 802, 803 sex peptide, 309 drinking, 577 genes regulating color patterns, sex pheromones, 862 Drosomycin, 124 806–808 sounds produced by wings, 843 Drosophila, 12, 23, 48, 61, 63, 65, 125, giant fibers, 646 syncytial cleavage, 358 138, 213, 223, 250, 251, 252, 257, head segments, 4 temperature receptors, 613 258, 284, 304, 307, 321, 328, 330, hemocytes, 125, 126, 127 thermoregulation, 598, 608, 609, 613 343, 358, 360, 363, 364, 366, 368, histoblasts, 427 tracheal development, 503–505 376, 378, 385, 389, 390, 417, 422, immunity, 571 trophocytes, 321 426, 469, 478, 498, 503, 508, 515, Johnston’s organ, 753 vitelline envelope, 328 554, 555, 561, 565, 568, 575, 575, juvenile hormone (JH) receptors, wing development, 426 608, 627, 652, 654, 668, 683, 686, 698–699 wing stroke plane angle, 218 692, 697, 709, 711, 712, 721, 722, lamellocytes, 127, 128 wingbeat frequency and power, 218 723, 735, 749, 750, 775, 776, 777, learning, 666 Drosophila biarmipes, 802 786, 787, 790, 813, 827, 829, 849, Malpighian tubules, 548 Drosophila biauraria, 827 863, 895 mating plug, 309 Drosophila bifurca, 286 acclimation, 610, 611 meiosis, 322 Drosophila erecta, 843 adaptation to water loss, 577 membrane development, 468 Drosophila flavohirta, 62 adult fat body, 431 membrane organization, 467 Drosophila melanogaster, 50, 99, 142, adult muscles, 427 midgut immunity, 77–78 357, 521, 564, 600, 676, 681, adult nervous system, 428 molecular receptors, 778–782 696, 777, 778, 786, 802, 843, 844 amino acid transporter, 72 muscles, 233, 234, 236, 239, 241, acclimation, 610 antifungal, anti-microbial 242, 248, 260, 261 ecdysteroid homones, 675 peptides, 124 mushroom bodies, 650 fat body, 133 basement membrane, 466 nephrocytes, 572 fat body origin and development, blastoderm formation, 359 nervous system formation, 371–373 136–137 calcium storage and excretion, 566 neuropeptides, 641 female mate selection, 830 chemosensory neurons, 775 nutrition, 88 growth factors produced by the fat circadian rhythms, 667–668 oenocytes, 466 body, 143 clot formation, 123 oocytes, 322, 323 insulin-like peptides, 141 cuticle formation, 494 oogenesis, 317–318 lipases, 70

Index 909

mating frequency, 308 escape from the cocoon or shell, endoparasite eggs, 385–388 midgut stem cell proliferation and 432–434 hemocoelous viviparity, 383–384 differentiation, 49–51 muscles associated with, 261–262 oviparity, 380 molting hormone, 143 timing of, 435–436 ovoviviparity, 384–385 number of cells, 415 eclosion hormone (EH), 441, 681, 683, polyembryony, 385–388 peptide hormones, 683–684 695 pseudoplacental viviparity, role of larval fat cells, 141–142 economic importance of insects, xv 380–381 sound production, 851 ecosystem services provided by viviparity, 380–385 temperature performance curve, insects, xv embryogenesis, 347, 357–379 599–600 ectadenia, 285 alimentary canal formation, 376 time of emergence, 435 Ectobius, 414 blastoderm formation, 359–360 Drosophila mojavensis, 307 ectognathous condition, 16–22 body cavity formation, 374–375 Drosophila montana, 827 ectoparasitic Hemiptera, 381 cleavage, 358–359, 360 Drosophila pachea, 85 ectoparasitic insects, 187, 206 conservation of axis formation in Drosophila pseudoobscura, 564 ectoparasitoids, 385 insects, 369 Drosophila sex peptide, 37 ectospermalege, 304 cuticle production, 374 Drosophila virilis, 564 ectothermal dorsal closure, 369 Dryinidae, 385 deﬁnition, 588 dorsal vessel (heart), 376 DUM (dorsal, unpaired, median) EGFR (epidermal growth factor ectodermal structures, 369–374 cells, 250 receptor) signaling, 50 endodermal structures, 376 Dyar’s law, 414 egg bursters, 356, 399–400 energid formation, 358–359 Dynastes, 808 eggs, 348–357 epidermis, 369–371 Dysdercus, 413, 566, 816 chorion, 349–351 fat body, 375 Dysdercus fasciatus, 413 eggshell, 349–351 foregut, 373 Dysdercus nigrofasciatus, 809, 810 eggshell features that facilitate formation of appendages, 369–371 Dytiscidae, 21, 183, 711, 839, 892, hatching, 356–357 formation of embryonic 895 fertilization, 351–352 membranes, 363–365 Dytiscus, 21, 57, 57, 62, 166, 166, 183, gaseous exchange, 352–353, 542 gastrulation, 361–363 185, 213, 295, 321, 530 major structural features, 349–351 germ anlage formation, 360–361 morphology, 348 germ line establishment, 360 ecdysial cleavage line, 8 respiration, 352–353 gonads, 376 ecdysis, 492–493 size of insect eggs, 348 hemocytes, 376 control of, 440–442 vitelline membrane, 349 hindgut, 373 control of expansion and water absorption, 354–356 imaginal discs, 373–374 sclerotization, 442–443 water loss regulation, 353–354 Malpighian tubules, 373 production of ecdysteroid wax layer, 349 mesodermal structures, 374–376 hormones, 440 ejaculatory duct, 284–285 metabolic changes, 376 ecdysis triggering hormone (ETH), Elaphothrips tuberculatus, 380 muscles, 375 441, 688, 695 Elateridae, 177, 715, 817 nervous system, 371–373 ecdysone, 675 Eleodes, 574, 575 organogenesis, 369–374 ecdysteroid hormones, 85, 139, 675 Elmis, 535, 536 oxygen uptake by the egg, 376 glands which produce, 684–685 elytra, 206 regulation of anterior–posterior axis induction and regulation of Embiidina. See Embioptera formation, 365–367, 369 molting, 436–437 Embiodea. See Embioptera regulation of dorsal–ventral axis mode of action, 696–698 Embioptera, xxiii, 43, 109, 186, 189, formation, 367–369 production of, 440 204, 207, 277, 357 regulation of segmentation, regulation of, 691–694 Emblemasoma, 764 365–367 Echinosoma, 198 embryo nutrition strategies, segmentation, 361–363 eclosion, 432–436 380–388 stomatogastric system, 373 aquatic insects, 434–435 adenotrophic viviparity, 381–383 syncytial cleavage, 358–359

910 Index

embryogenesis (cont.) enteroendocrine cells, 49, 50 epitracheal glands, 688 temporal patterns in insects, entognathous condition, 16 Eriogaster lanestris, 869 378–379 environment Eristalis, 199, 528, 528, 686 total cleavage, 360 influence on polyphenism, 443 Eristalis tenax, 720 tracheal system, 373 enzyme production Erynmis propertius, 524 transcriptional and translational role of enterocytes, 51–52 Escovopsis (fungus), 895 activity, 376–378 enzymes esophagus, 47–48 vitellophages, 359–360 carbohydrases, 64–69 Estigmene acraea, 24 embryonic transcriptome, 376–378 cellulases, 64–69 Estigmene acrea, 859 Empidae, 712 cuticle-modifying enzymes, Eucharidae, 409 Empididae, 187, 278 478–481 Eucleidae, 275 Empis, 201 b-1, 3-glucanases, 69 eucone eyes, 713 Enallagma, 239 lipases, 69–70 Eulophus, 198 encapsulation response, 128 proteases, 63–64 Eupholus magnificus, 800 Encarsia, 223 range of digestive enzymes, 62–63 Eupholus schoeneri, 800 Encyrtidae, 385, 386 variation in enzyme activity, 70–72 Euploea, 796, 798 endocrine glands, 684–688 Eosentomon, 288 Eupsilia, 600 corpora allata, 685–686 Ephemera, 405, 535, 537, 537 Eurema, 800 corpora cardiaca, 686 Ephemeroptera, xvii, 8, 9, 18, 19, 49, 53, Eurosta, 606 endocrine cells of the midgut, 108, 113, 183, 194, 204, 206, 226, Eurosta solidaginis, 601, 603 687–688 270, 276, 277, 279, 284, 285, 293, Eurycotis, 296 epitracheal glands, 688 315, 323, 334, 384, 404, 410, 435, Eutanyderus, 540 glands producing ecdysteroids, 465, 535, 550, 685, 713 Eutermes, 315 684–685 Ephestia, 85, 241, 336, 577, 581, 582 evaporative cooling, 596–597 ring gland of cyclorrhaphous Ephestia kuehniella, 417, 428 evaporative heat loss, 593–594 Diptera, 687 Ephippiger, 835, 836, 836 evolution of the arthropods, xiii endocrine system Ephydra, 558, 566 excretory system chemical structure of hormones, Ephydra cinerea, 558 detoxification, 567–569 675–684 Ephydrella, 558 excretory cycle, 547 endocrine glands, 684–688 Ephydridae, 187, 421, 529 hindgut of terrestrial insects, 549 function of the fat body, 142–143 Epiblema, 601, 605, 606 Malpighian tubules, 547–549 hormone transport, 691 Epicauta, 7 modification of the primary urine, hormones, 674 epicranial suture, 8 555–559 mode of action of hormones, epicuticle formation, 493–494 nephrocytes, 571–572 696–703 epidermis, 464–469 nitrogenous excretion, 562–567 neurosecretory cells, 688–691 basement membrane, 466 role in homeostasis, 546–547 regulation of hormone titer, 691–696 cell junctions, 466–468 role in osmoregulation, 546–547 endoparasite eggs, 385–388 cells of the epidermis, 464–465 sites of ion exchange in aquatic endoparasitic Diptera, 409 changes during molting, 488–491 insects, 549–552 endoparasitic Hymenoptera, 348, 349, differentiation, 468–469 storage excretion, 565–567 360, 380, 409 gland cells, 464 urine production, 552–555 endoparasitic insects, 188 membrane organization, 466–468 water loss, 576 gaseous exchange, 540–541 oenocytes, 465–466 Exeristes roborator, 89 endoparasitoids, 385 Epilachna, 165 exocone eyes, 711, 715 Endopterygota, 293, 348, 410 Epilachna borealis, 894 Exopterygota, 348 endothermal Epiophleha, 839 exoskeleton, 3 definition, 588 Epiphyas postvittana, 70 Extatosoma tiaratum, 356 energid formation, 358–359 Epipyropidae, 409 exteroception Ensifera, xxii, 752, 755, 758 epistomal sulcus, 5 cuticular mechanoreceptors, enterocytes, 49, 50, 51–52 Epistrophe, 577 744–746

Index 911

exteroceptors, 738 prey capture by predaceous insects, FLRFamides, 693 extracellular fluid (ECF), 107 31–33 fluid-feeding insects extra-oral digestion, 62 femoral chordotonal organs, 751–752 feeding mechanics, 25–31 Eyprepocnemis, 418 femur, 162 FMRFamide-containing ferritin, 120 peptides, 251 fat body, 132 fertilization of eggs, 351–352 FMRFamide-like peptides, 36 amino acid storage and synthesis, flavonoids, 801, 806 FMRFamides, 693 138–139 flight folic acid, 88, 803 carbohydrate storage and synthesis, aerodynamic mechanisms, 221–223 Forcipomyia (Lasiohelea) 139–140 aerodynamics of flapping, 221 townsvillensis, 775 development and maturation, aerodynamics of gliding, 221 foregut, 47–48 136–137 aerodynamics of hovering, 221 development in the embryo, 373 effects of metamorphosis, 431 at low temperatures, 600–601 forensic entomology, 618 endocrine function, 142–143 clap and fling mechanism, 223 Forficula, 53, 53, 277, 279, 284 energy storage and utilization, fuels used to power, 223–225 Forficulina, xxi 137–142 initiation and maintenance, formic acid, 890, 891, 894 formation in the embryo, 375 212–213 Formica, 375, 597 glycogen storage, 139–140 leading-edge vortices, 221–222 Formica fusca, 42 hemoglobin cells, 136 mobilization of fuels for, 225 Formica lugubris, 874 larval energy stores in adults, power for, 223–225 Formicinae, 891 141–142 rotational lift, 222–223 freshwater insects lipid storage and synthesis, 137–138 wing–wake interactions, 223 modification of primary urine, mobilization of energy stores, flight control 556–558 140–141 airflow sensors, 227–228 frontoclypeal area, 5 monitoring nutritional status, antagonistic flight muscles, 255 frontoclypeal sulcus, 5 142–143 asynchronous flight muscles, Fulgora, 817, 819 mycetocytes, 136 256–257 Fulgora lanternaria, 817 nutrient storage and utilization, collision avoidance, 226 Fulgoridae, 293 137–142 halteres, 228–229 FXPLRamide-related peptides, 36 oenocytes, 136 inertial sensors, 228–229 production of growth factors, landing, 226 Galepsus, 814 142–143 pitch, 226 Galleria, 83, 84, 303, 334, 432, 601, protein storage and synthesis, rolling, 226 842 138–139 sensory systems, 225–229 Galleria mellonella, 428 role in molting hormone synchronous flight muscles, gallic acid, 88 synthesis, 143 255–256 gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), structure, 133–136 visual systems, 226–227 82, 637 trophocytes, 133–135 wing load sensors, 228 Gangara thyrsis, 839 urate cells (urocytes), 136 yaw, 226 ganglia, 642–643 fatty acids, 84–85 flight muscles gaseous exchange, 501 feeding effects of metamorphosis, 431 cutaneous gas exchange, 515 consequences of, 37 efficiency of, 223 endoparasitic insects, 540–541 mouthparts, 15 heat gain from, 589–591 insect eggs, 542 regulation, 34–37 regression of, 258, 259–260 insects subject to occasional feeding mechanics and control, 22–33 regulation of muscle power submersion, 537–540 biting insects, 24–25 output, 225 respiratory pigments, blood-sucking insects, 26–31 use for mechanical 515–516 chewing insects, 24–25 communication, 843 spiracles, 511–515 fluid-feeding insects, 25–31 use in singing, 591 spiracular gills, 538–540 phagostimulants, 23–24 warm-up behavior, 589–591 tracheal system, 502–511

912 Index

gaseous exchange (aquatic insects), gills, 277–278 Gryllulus commodus, 453 528–537 spiracular gills, 538–540 Gryllus, 126, 245, 251, 285, 364, 730, air bubble as a gill, 530–531 tracheal gills, 532–534 833 obtaining oxygen from the air, gland cells, 464 Gryllus bimaculatus, 22, 72, 681, 682, 528–531 glial cells, 628–630 745, 763, 830, 834, 851 obtaining oxygen from the water, global warming Gryllus campestris, 827, 830 531–535 large-scale patterns in insect gula, 6 plastron respiration, 534–535 thermal biology, 616–617 Gynaephora groenlandica, 601 tracheal gills, 532–534 Glossata, xxx Gyrinidae, 183, 754, 892, 895 ventilation in aquatic insects, Glossina, 22, 61, 82, 103, 224, 225, gyrinidal, 895 535–537 258, 261, 262, 298, 308, 315, 380, Gyrinus, 184, 184, 713 gaseous exchange (terrestrial insects), 381–383, 383, 563, 564, 574, 516–528 576, 764 Habrobracon, 321, 349 control of ventilation, 526–528 Glossina brevipalpis, 103 Habrobracon juglandis, 426 convection, 517–521 Glossina morsitans, 140, 789 Haematopinus, 187, 511 diffusion, 516–517 Glossina pallidipes, 611 hair plates, 740, 747 discontinuous gas exchange, 521–524 Glossinidae, 381 hair-like mechanoreceptors, 739–740 in flight, 525–526 gloverins, 124 hairs variation in gas exchange, 524–526 b-1, 3-glucanases, 69 tactile hairs, 745 Gasterophilus, 136, 805 gluconeogenesis, 83 halteres, 205–206, 228–229 Gastrimargus, 810, 811, 812 glutamate, 82, 225, 637 Halys dentate, 127 Gastrophilus, 515, 516 glycogen haplodiploidy, 390 Gastrophysa viridula, 164 storage in the fat body, 139–140 Harpegnathos, 177 Gelastocoris, 290 goblet cells, 49 Harpegnathos saltator, 177 gena, 6 Golgi bodies, 51, 464, 626 hatching, 356–357, 399–403 genes Gomphocerinae, 410, 828, 837 egg bursters, 399–400 involved in cold hardiness, 601 Gomphocerus, 301, 302, 309 intermediate molt, 401 specifying hemocytes, 127 Gomphocerus rufus, 828 mechanisms, 399–401 genetic regulation Goneptery, 803 muscles associated, 260 anterior–posterior axis formation, Gonepteryx rhamni, 797 stimuli for, 401–403 365–367, 369 Grammia geneura, 348 head, 4–8 arrhenotoky, 391 Grammia incorrupta, 24 antennae, 10–12 development of the tracheal granulocytes, 124, 128 hypognathous condition, 4, 6 system, 373 grasping molting, 8 dorsal–ventral axis formation, leg modifications for, 186–187 mouthparts, 5 367–369 Gromphadorhina, 542, 844 opisthorhynchous condition, 4 embryonic transcriptome, 376–378 grooming orientation, 4–5 segmentation, 365–367 leg modifications for, 187–188 prognathous condition, 4, 6 sex determination, 388–390 growth factors rigidity, 5–8 genitalia produced by the fat body, 142–143 segments, 4 female, 334–336 Gryllidae, 48, 202, 295, 298, 335, 453, sulci, 5–8 male, 293–295 682, 745, 760 head glands, 37–43 genomics Grylloblatta, 608 hypopharyngeal glands, 37–39 metabolic pathways, 564–565 Grylloblattodea, xx, 608 labial glands, 39–43 Geometridae, 179, 275 Grylloidea, 755, 833–835 mandibular glands, 37–39 Geometroidea, 755 Gryllotalpa, 108, 116, 126, 186, 755, maxillary glands, 39 Geotrupidae, 839 828, 834 heartbeat, 114–117 geraniol, 786, 874 Gryllotalpa vineae, 835 reversals, 116–117 germinal vesicle, 319 Gryllotalpidae, 202 suspension of, 116 Gerris, 181, 181, 279, 712 Gryllulus, 355 Hecatesia, 830, 832

Index 913

Hecatesia exultans, 843 encapsulation response, 128 hindgut, 55–56 Hecatesia thyridion, 843 functions, 127–129 development in the embryo, 373 Heliconius, 816 genes for, 127 excretion in terrestrial insects, 549 Heliconius erato, 816 granulocytes, 124 Hippobosca, 315 Heliconius melpomene, 863 hemocyte counts, 127 Hippoboscidae, 187, 381, 383 Helicoverpa, 133, 138, 139, 309, 309, immune functions, 127–129 Hippodamia, 408 785 lamellocytes, 125 Hippotion, 203 Helicoverpa armigera, 64, 785, 790, 884 nodule formation, 127–128 histamine, 636 Helicoverpa zea, 89, 863 oenocytoid cells, 125 histoblasts, 427 Heliocopris dilloni, 593 origins, 125–127 Hofbauer-Buchner eyelet, 735 Heliothis, 292, 789 phagocytically active Holometabola, xxv, 11, 19, 47, 90, 111, Heliothis armigera, 432, 702 plasmatocyte, 125 117, 127, 133, 136, 137, 141, 142, Heliothis subflexa, 863 plasmatocytes, 125 150, 160, 164, 194, 256, 257–258, Heliothis virescens, 790, 863 prohemocytes, 124 270, 271, 276, 319, 321, 369–374, Helorimorpha, 409, 409 role in wound repair, 127–129 404–406, 414, 415, 416, 436, 448, hemelytra, 206 spherule cells, 125 643, 732, 805 hemidesmosomes, 242 types of, 124–125 development of the imaginal Hemimerina, xxi hemoglobin cells, 136 discs, 373–374 Hemimerus, 322, 380–381, 382, 413 hemoglobins, 515–516, 805 metamorphosis, 419–432 Hemimerus vicinus, 413 hemolymph, 107, 117–124 post-eclosion growth of flight Hemimetabola, xviii, 11, 19, 47, 111, circulatory movement, 113–114 muscles, 258–259 127, 133, 164, 194, 217, 258, functions, 108 holoptic condition, 709 270, 276, 369–374, 403–405, osmotic pressure, 119–121 Homalodisca, 27 404–406, 414–415, 436, osmotically active solutes, 119–121 Homalodisca coagulata, 102 709, 731 pH, 119 homeostasis metamorphosis, 417–418 protein content and composition, role of the excretory system, 546–547 muscle development, 258 121–124 homochromy, 421, 647, 813 Hemiptera, xxiv, xxvii, 4, 6, 19, 22, 33, volume, 117–119 Homoeosoma, 336 34, 39, 41, 54, 57, 63, 70, 76, Henria, 393 Homoptera, 25–26, 34, 85, 204, 237, 100, 102, 111, 113, 133, 136, 164, Hepialidae, 202, 340 241, 285, 289, 335, 466, 571, 688, 204, 206, 207, 216, 237, 241, 260, Heptagenia, 278 752, 775, 788, 789, 805, 817, 828, 276, 279, 304, 319, 328, 335, hermaphrodism, 391 839, 842, 847 348, 350, 351, 352, 354, 355, 356, Hesperiidae, 839 Hoplomerus, 295 357, 360, 361, 365, 371, 375, 378, Hesperioidea, 711 Horaiella, 276 381, 384, 390, 393, 399, 400, 401, Hesperoctenes, 371, 393 hormones, 674 403, 404, 410, 413, 414, 419, Heterobathmiidae, xxx chemical structure, 675–684 444–445, 452, 465, 466, 471, 510, Heterobathmiina, xxx ecdysteroid hormones, 675 529, 531, 535, 536, 548, 549, 550, Heterojapyx, 155 mode of action, 696–703 567, 597, 675, 685, 688, 700, heteromorphosis, 408–410 molting hormones, 675 709, 710, 715, 731, 746, 750, Heteroptera, xxv, 33, 39, 48, 62, 85, peptide hormones, 675–684 751, 753, 754, 755, 758, 805, 809, 108, 111, 164, 180, 181, 182, 185, regulation of hormone titer, 691–696 812, 817, 819, 838–839, 858, 186, 200, 206, 218, 224, 237, 241, transport of, 691 See also specific 860, 892 285, 289, 290, 292, 294, 297, 303, hormones. hemocoelic insemination, 304–305 322, 332, 335, 340, 342, 352, 375, humidity and temperature receptors, hemocoelous viviparity, 383–384 399, 401, 465, 518, 530, 531, 536, 611–614 hemocyanins, 121, 501, 515, 516 550, 649, 675, 685, 686, 710, 712, humidity receptors, 773 hemocytes, 124–129, 431–432 715, 725, 746, 752, 833, 838 Hyalophora, 110, 122, 327, 328, 349, 521 crystal cells, 125 Heterorrhina, 800 Hyalophora cecropia, 435, 442, 675, development in the embryo, 376 hexamerins, 121 685, 685 Drosophila, 125 Hexapoda, xiii, xvi, 709 hybridization, 390

914 Index

Hydrophilidae, 341, 421, 839 Malpighian tubules, 571 insulin-like growth factor (IGF) Hydrophilus, 12, 183, 341, 341, 535, immune system signaling pathway, 141 536 alimentary canal immunological insulin-like peptides, 137, 141, Hydroporus, 316 function, 77–78 692–693 Hydropsyche, 278 nutritional effects, 100 Integripalpia, xxx Hydropsychidae, 839 role of hemocytes, 127–129 integument, 463 Hydroscapha, 539 Inachis io, 812, 814, 831, 843 cuticle chemical composition, Hydrous, 531 indole, 891 473–483 hygroreceptive sensilla, 773 inertial sensors cuticle formation, 493–497 Hylemya strigosa, 384 use in flight control, 228–229 cuticle structure, 469–473 Hylesia lineata, 869 infochemicals, 858 cuticle types, 483–488 Hymenoptera, xiii, xxvii, xxx, 6, 11, perception of, 883–885 epidermis, 464–469 12, 19, 21, 22, 33, 37–39, 43, 53, primer infochemicals, 858 functions, 497–498 73, 108, 109, 111, 133, 136, 143, infrared receptors, 741 molting, 488–493 150, 159, 161, 164, 177, 183, 188, Inka cells, 688 intermediate molt, 401 189, 196, 199, 201, 203, 204, 209, Inocellidae, xxvi interneurons, 644–646, 660–661 217, 218, 223, 227, 237, 241, 270, inorganic ions interoceptors, 738 295, 297, 303, 304, 308, 317, 321, absorption, 74 intestinum (ileum), 55 332, 333, 334, 335, 340, 348, 349, inquilines, 897 intraspecific recognition with color, 353, 357, 358, 360, 369, 371, 374, insect pests 816–817 375, 385–388, 390–392, 404, 408, effects of climate change, 588 ion exchange in aquatic insects, 409, 410, 419, 420, 426, 427, 431, Insecta, xvi 549–552 432, 433, 443–444, 451, 453, 466, insecticides ion excretion in urine, 554–555 478, 511, 518, 525, 540, 541, 549, detoxification, 567–569 Ips paraconfusus, 864 564, 577, 584, 590, 591, 598, 650, tebufenozide, 693 Ips pini, 69 675, 690, 728, 729, 731, 733, 734, insectoverdin, 806 Ischnocera, xxiv, 64, 161, 187, 296, 375 752, 776, 786, 803, 862, 865, 876, insects Ischnura, 198 891 biomass, xv isobutyric acid, 891 hypertrehalosemic hormones, disease vectors, xv, xxix isoleucine, 88 140–141 economic importance, xv isometric contraction, 252 Hyphantria cunea, 61 ecosystem services, xv Isoperla, 832, 847 Hypoderma, 41, 541 food source for animals, xv Isoptera, xx, 37, 54, 65, 151, 155, 204, Hypogastrura, 360 model systems for research, xvi 271, 319, 361, 375, 403, 516, 709 hypognathous condition, 4, 6 pests, xv Isotoma, 360, 363, 365 Hypolimnas misippus, 817 pollination role, xv isotonic contraction, 252 hypopharyngeal glands, 37–39 species number and diversity, xiii Issidae, 177 hypopharynx, 5, 18 insemination, 297–305 Issus coleoptratus, 177 hypostoma, 6 direct, 303–304 Ithomiini, 894 hypostomal sulcus, 5 effects of mating on females, 306–310 Jadera, 895 ice-nucleating agents, 603 enhancement of female oviposition, Japygidae, 274, 277, 288 Icerya, 391 307–308 Japyx, 11, 511 Icerya purchasi, 391 hemocoelic, 304–305 Javasella, 849 Ichneumonidae, 110, 540, 753 reduction of female readiness to Johnston’s organ, 12, 228, 749, 751, Idioembia, 277 remate, 308–309 753–755 ileum (intestinum), 55 spermatophores, 297–303 jumping Ilybius, 316, 337 instars, 403 using the legs, 173–177 imaginal discs, 373–374, 423–427 insulin signaling pathway, 141 without using the legs, 177–178 imago, 403 insulin/IGF signaling (IIS) pathway, juvenile hormone (JH), 139, 324–327, immune function 141, 143 332, 675, 686, 691, 693, 882

Index 915

and metamorphosis, 403 contact chemoreceptors, 164 369, 371, 374, 375, 378, 384, 388, mode of action, 698–700 coxa, 159 390, 400, 401, 403, 404, 408, 409, regulation, 694–695 femur, 162 410, 416, 417, 419, 421, 422, 423, role in molting, 436–437 innervation of leg muscles, 161–162 426, 427, 428, 430, 431, 432, 433, mechanoreceptors, 164 434, 435, 446, 447, 448, 449, 466, kairomones, 858, 863, 865, 866, 886 muscles, 161–162 471, 474, 478, 490, 493, 518, 519, Kalotermes, 361 pretarsus, 160–161 522, 525, 549, 555, 559, 567, 577, Kalotermitidae, 42, 288 proprioceptors, 162–163 581, 589, 598, 611, 650, 654, 663, Kenyon cells, 649–651, 659, 666 segmentation, 159–161 675, 682, 684, 685, 686, 691, 693, keratin digestion, 64 sensory system, 162–164 695, 702, 711, 712, 715, 727, 728, Kleidocerys, 838 tarsomeres, 160 729, 733, 741, 745, 751, 752, 753, Kleidocerys resedae, 838 tarsus, 160 755, 758, 764, 767, 773, 775, 785, Kosciuscola, 808–809, 809 tibia, 160 786, 787, 788, 789, 790, 794, 796, Kramer effect, 223 trochanter, 159 800, 802, 805, 806–808, 812, 814, legs, 157 816, 831, 839, 842–843, 860, 861, labial glands, 39–43 aquatic movement on the bottom, 863, 865, 867, 876–878, 894–895 labium, 4, 6, 18 182 Lepiotaceae (fungi), 895 labrum, 4, 16 coordination of leg movements, Lepisma, 298, 335, 336, 713, 715 Lacanobia oleracea, 449 169–172 Lepismatidae, 8, 274, 709 Laemophloeidae, 864, 878 digging modifications, 186 Leptinotarsa, 225, 369, 370, 893 lamellocytes, 125, 127, 128 grasping modifications, 186–187 Leptinotarsa decemlineata, 82, 138, 260 Lampyridae, 21, 62, 279, 715, 817, grooming modifications, 187–188 Leptocoris, 292, 895 820, 893 jumping using the legs, 173–177 Leptoglossus, 864 Lampyris, 819, 820 locomotion, 166–173 Leptophyes punctatissima, 836 Laothoe populi, 811 maintenance of stance, 167 Lestes, 402 larvae modifications, 185–189 Lethocerus, 233, 241, 242, 248, 249, 252 locomotion and attachment movement on the surface of water, Leucophaea maderae, 787 structures, 141–142 180–182 Leucorrhinia, 279 stemmata, 732–734 patterns of leg movement, 167–169 Libellula, 294 variations in mouthparts, 19 pollen collection, 188 lifespan larval development, 403–417 pulsatile organs, 113 effects of nutrition, 98–99 control of growth, 416–417 reduction of the legs, 188–189 light production, 817–821 growth, 410–417 silk production, 189 control of, 819–820 heteromorphosis, 408–410 stability, 172–173 light-producing organs in increase in cuticle size, 412–414 swimming using legs, 182–183 Coleoptera, 817–819 number of instars, 410 Lepidochora discoidalis, 577 Malpighian tubules, 571 regeneration, 414 Lepidoptera, xxx, 12, 19, 21, 22, 25, mechanism, 819 tissue growth, 414–416 38, 39, 43, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 57, significance of, 630–634 types of larvae, 406–408 61, 63, 64, 70, 72, 85, 108, 109, Ligurotettix coquiletti, 830 weight increase, 410–412 110, 111, 114, 117, 120, 121, 124, Ligurotettix planum, 829 larval energy stores in adults, 141–142 126, 128, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138, Limenitis archippus, 816 Lasiocampa, 564 140, 141, 143, 159, 163, 164, Limnephilidae, 275 Lasioderma serricorne, 104 178–179, 188, 194, 195, 197, 202, Limnephilus, 182 Lasioglossum, 589 204, 209, 217, 218, 221, 222, 223, Limnephilus affinis, 558 Lasius flavus, 896, 897 226, 227, 228, 237, 241, 247, 256, linalool, 786, 789 learning 261, 269, 270, 275, 280, 283, 285, Linepithima humile, 874 neural basis of, 664–667 288, 289, 292, 297, 299, 301, 302, lipases, 69–70 leg structure, 158–166 306, 309, 310, 315, 316, 323, 324, lipids arolium, 160–161 327, 328, 333, 335, 336, 340, 348, absorption, 73–74 attachment devices, 164–166 349, 350, 352, 354, 358, 359, 360, in the cuticle, 481–482

916 Index

lipids (cont.) Lycaenidae, xxx, 205, 348, 806, 814, production of ecdysteroid nutritional requirements, 84–86 831, 839, 896, 897 hormones, 440 storage and synthesis in the fat Lygaeidae, 206 production of PTTH, 440–441 body, 137–138 Lygus hesperus, 863 sclerotization of the cuticle, lipophorins, 129, 323, 328, 691, 860 Lymantria, 92, 328, 693 495–496 locomotion, 157, 166–173 Lymantria dispar, 609 Manduca sexta, 52, 72, 143, 163, 262, aquatic, 180–186 Lymantria disparlur, 882 427, 435, 437, 503, 509, 568, 675, bottom-dwelling aquatic insects, Lymantriidae, 426, 839 676, 681, 681, 682, 689, 690, 182 lysozyme, 124, 430 691, 692, 693, 694, 790 buoyancy in water, 185 Lytta, 309, 349 eggs, 542 coordination of leg movements, Mansonia, 528, 529 169–172 Machilidae, 8, 270, 274, 288, 688 Mantispidae, xxvii, 409 crawling, 178–180 Machilis, 274, 298, 332, 364, 365, 751 Mantodea, xix, xxvii, 31, 37, 109, 164, dynamic stability, 172–173 macrolides, 864 169, 186, 204, 206, 220, 276, 341, jumping using the legs, 173–177 macrophysiology, 617 413, 516, 720, 751, 755 jumping without using the legs, Macrotermes, xx Mantophasmatodea, xxi 177–178 Macrotermitinae, 69, 99 Marangoni effect, 182 maintenance of stance, 167 Maculinea rebeli, 832 marking pheromones, 865–866 muscular control, 255–257 magnetic sensitivity and Maruina, 276 on the surface of water, 180–182 photoreception, 735 Mastotermes darwiniensis, 65 patterns of leg movement, 167–169 magnetite, 735 mate guarding, 308 reduction of the legs, 188–189 Malacosoma, 85 maxillae, 4, 16–18 reflex systems, 167 Malacosoma americanum, 867–869 maxillary glands, 39 stability, 172–173 Malacosoma disstria, 869 mechanical communication static stability, 172 Malpighi, Marcello, 547 acoustic signals, 825–826 swimming using legs, 182–183 Malpighian tubules, 55, 58, 61, 73, aggressive mimicry, 831 swimming without using legs, 136, 417, 547–549, 563 alarm signals, 831 183–186 development in the embryo, 373 and reproductive isolation, 827 Locusta, 11, 23, 34, 34, 40, 54, 59, 61, development of, 415–416 attraction from a distance, 827–829 84, 97, 110, 114, 116, 116, 118, effects of metamorphosis, 430–431 courtship, 829 126, 126, 140, 163, 167, 204, 214, immune function, 571 nature and tranmission of signals, 219, 244, 251, 258, 260, 283, 284, light production, 571 825–826 285, 296, 299–301, 300, 302, 303, non-excretory functions, 569–571 neural regulation of sound 306, 316, 322, 325, 327, 332, 338, specialized secretions, 569–571 production, 847–853 339, 340, 352, 354, 360, 363, 374, Mamestra, 787 organized patterns of signals, 375, 378, 412, 412, 447, 482, 542, mandibles, 4, 16 845–847 555, 574, 577, 601, 608, 612, 647, mandibular glands, 37–39 phonotaxis, 827–829 648, 694, 750, 759, 760, 767, 783 Mandtodea, 109 signaling genetic quality, 829–830 Locusta migratoria, 70, 88, 91, 93, 94, Manduca, 25, 34, 62, 117, 122, 140, signaling physiological state, 96, 411, 417, 510, 595, 681, 691, 140, 179, 209, 213, 220, 225, 251, 829–830 787 253, 292, 323, 328, 336, 428, 429, signals having interspecific Locustana, 354, 379 429, 430, 436, 438, 438, 452, 452, significance, 831–832 Locustana pardalina, 451 487, 491, 495, 497, 508, 527, 561, signals having intraspecific Lonomia oblique, 894 562, 566, 566, 575, 590, 595, 596, significance, 826–831 Lucanidae, 839 600, 600, 640, 640, 651, 657, 686, social insects, 830–831 lucibafagins, 893 688, 695, 697, 727, 810 sound mimicry, 832 Lucilia, 34, 205, 277, 354, 378, 562, control of ecdysis, 440–442 sounds and vibrations, 824 563, 577, 731 control of expansion and startle sounds, 831 Lucilia cuprina, 776 sclerotization, 442–443 territorial behavior and Lycaena rubidus, 728 metamorphosis initiation, 440 competition, 830

Index 917

unorganized signals, 847 Melolontha, 126 mimicry, 815–816 vibrational signals, 825 Melolonthinae, 878 acoustic signals, 831 vibrotaxis, 827–829 Melophagus, 315, 318, 321, 332, 380 aggressive mimicry, 831 warning sounds, 831 Mengenillidae, xxviii chemical mimicry, 895–898 mechanical communication Mengenillidia, xxviii sound mimicry, 832 mechanisms, 832–845 meniscus climbing in aquatic insects, minerals air expulsion, 845 181–182 in the cuticle, 482–483 percussion, 832–833 Merimna atrata, 764 nutritional requirements, 87 signals produced by ﬂight meroistic ovarioles, 318–319 Miridae, 76, 304 muscles, 843 mesadenia, 285 mitochondria, 626 stridulation, 833–839 mesospermalege, 304, 305 Monochamus marmorator, 65 timbal mechanisms, 839–843 Mesovelia, 182 Monomorium pharaonis, 866 mechanoreceptors, 22, 201, 738–739 metabolic function Monotrysia, 432 chordotonal organs, 748–764 role of the fat body, 132 Morpho, 796, 797, 798, 798 cuticular mechanoreceptors, metabolic pathways Morpho didius, 800 739–748 nitrogenous excretion, 564–565 Morpho rhetenor, 796, 800 exteroceptors, 738 metabolic water, 581 Morpho sulkowski, 794 interoceptors, 738 metallothioneins, 567 motion parallax, 720 legs, 164 metamorphosis, 417–436 molting, 488–493 proprioceptors, 738 and juvenile hormone (JH), 403 apolysis, 491 stretch and tension receptors, eclosion, 432–436 changes in the epidermis, 488–491 764–768 hemimetabolous insects, 417–418 cuticular mechanoreceptors, 741 Meconema, 832 holometabolous insects, 419–432 digestion of the old endocuticle, meconium, 51 initiation, 440 491–492 Mecoptera, xxviii, 42, 111, 159, 187, metamorphosis (holometabolous) ecdysis, 492–493 194, 196, 202, 204, 275, 276, 279, adult alimentary canal, 430 functions of ecdysteroid hormones, 280, 288, 303, 408, 733 adult epidermal structures, 422–427 436–437 Megacephala virginica, 895 adult muscles, 427–428 functions of juvenile hormone, Megaloptera, xxv, 11, 164, 196, 278, adult nervous system, 428–430 436–437 375, 419, 557 biochemical changes, 432 head, 8 Megalopygidae, 275, 433 circulatory system, 431–432 initiation, 437–438 Megarhyssa, 337 fat body, 431 muscles associated with, 260–262 Megoura, 241 ﬂight muscles, 431 sequence of events, 438 meiosis during oogenesis, 322 hemocytes, 431–432 stages (stadia), 403 melanin, 128, 802, 813 Malpighian tubules, 430–431 tracheal system, 508–511 Melanophila, 613, 741 pupa, 419–422 molting hormones, 675 Melanoplinae, 306 tracheal system, 431 fat body role in synthesis, 143 Melanoplus, 12, 84, 93, 290, 292, 306, Metchnikowin, 124 mode of action, 696–698 374, 379, 449 methoxypyrazines, 891 regulation of, 691–694 Melanoplus differentialis, 354 mevalonate pathway, 675 mouthparts, 5, 15 Melanoplus femur-rubrum, 379 Miastor, 384, 392 biting mouthparts, 16–19 Melanoplus sanguinipes, 91, 412, 575 microbial fermentation in the gut, 60 ectognathous condition, 16–22 Melasoma, 610, 610 Micromalthus, 392, 392–393 entognathous condition, 16 Melese, 842, 842 microorganisms hypopharynx, 18 Meligethes aeneus, 399 role in insect sterol nutrition, labium, 18 Melinda, 541 103–104 labrum, 16 Melipona, 643, 873 Micropterigidae, xxx, 202 larval variations, 19 Melipona beecheii, 874 Micropteryx, 330, 351 mandibles, 16 Meloe, 315 midgut, 48–52 maxillae, 16–18 Meloidae, 189, 409, 887, 893, 896 endocrine cells, 687–688 sensilla on, 22

918 Index

mouthparts (cont.) muscles associated with molting, mutualistic relationships with ants, sucking mouthparts, 19–22 260–262 896–897 variation in form, 19 myoblasts, 257 Mxyophaga, xxvii Muller’s organ, 755, 761 post-eclosion growth of flight mycetocytes, 100, 103, 136 Mu¨llerian mimicry, 815–816 muscles (Holometabola), 258–259 Mycetophilidae, 31, 294, 511 Musca, 20, 94, 109, 180, 271, 306, regression of flight muscles, Mymaridae, 204 309, 335, 336, 350, 350, 353, 378, 259–260 myogenesis. See muscle development 384, 408, 720 regression of muscles, 258 myosin, 234–236, 242–244, 248–249 Musca autumnalis, 567 regression of unused muscles, 262 myosuppressin, 693 Musca domestica, 63, 64, 87, 380 teneral period, 258 Myrascia, 48 Musca larvipara, 384 muscle structure Myriapoda, xiii, 547 Muscidae, 270, 342, 483 actin, 234–236 Myrmecocystus, 42 muscle contraction asynchronous skeletal muscles, 237, Myrmeleontidae, 31, 570 actin, 248–249 240–241 Myrmica, 840, 867 action potential, 246–248 basic muscle structure, 234–236 Myrmica schencki, 831, 832 activation of the contractile system, cardiac muscle, 241 Myrmicinae, 839 248–249 muscle fibers, 234–236 Myrmicine, 891 activation of the muscle fiber, muscle insertion, 242 Myrtaceae, 48 246–248 myofibrils, 234–236 Myzus persicae, 278, 603–605 control of visceral muscles, 251 myosin, 234–236 excitation of muscles, 246–251 sarcomeres, 234–236 naiads, xviii inhibition of muscle contraction, 249 skeletal muscles, 237–241 Nasonia, 349, 478 innervation of muscles, 244–246 synchronous skeletal muscles, Nasonia vitripennis, 377, 391, 451, 453 mechanics, 242–244 237–240 Nasutitermes takasagoensis myosin, 248–249 variations in structure, 237–241 (bacterium), 69 neuromodulation, 249–251 visceral muscles, 241 Naucoris, 6, 532, 536, 537 neuromuscular junctions, 246–248 muscles, 233 Nauphoeta, 39, 309, 437 regulation, 244–252 abdominal musculature, 272–273 neck, 9 role of calcium ions, 248–249 alary muscles, 111 necrophoretic response, 874 strain activation, 249 efficiency of flight muscles, 223 Nematocera, xxix, 285, 298, 302, 359, supercontraction, 244 formation in the embryo, 375 369, 376, 399, 408, 419, 433, 686 superextension, 244 innervation of flight muscles, 209 Nemestrinidae, 409 T-system, 248 legs, 161–162 Nemopteridae, 205 muscle contraction energetics movements produced by the flight Nemoria arizonaria, 98, 447, 447 definitions, 252 muscles, 209–211 Neoconocephalus, 237, 253, 591 isometric contraction, 252 neck, 9 Neoconocephalus ensiger, 846 isotonic contraction, 252 of the gut, 56–58 Neoconocephalus robustus, 836, 846 oxygen supply, 253–254 thorax, 155 Neodiprion, 48, 408, 892 power output, 253 types of flight muscles, 207–209 neophobia, 814 tension and force, 252 Muscoidea, 285, 357 Neoptera, xvii, xviii, 199 twitch duration, 252–253 muscular control, 254–257 Neopyrochroa flabellate, 893 muscle development, 257–262 antagonistic muscles, 255 Nepa, 351, 356, 746 effects of activity on muscles, 262 asynchronous flight muscles, nepetalactone, 789 hemimetabolous insects, 258 256–257 Nephotettix, 849 Holometabola, 258–259 locomotion, 255–257 nephrocytes, 571–572 holometabolous insects, 257–258 muscle tonus, 254–255 Nepidae, 187, 348, 350, 353, 529 muscles associated with eclosion, synchronous flight muscles, nervous system 261–262 255–256 action potentials, 631–633 muscles associated with mushroom bodies, 648–652, 659, 666 basic components, 626–630 hatching, 260 Mutillidae, 207 basic functioning, 630–641

Index 919

chemical messengers of neurons, Nesomachilis, 274 metabolic pathways, 564–565 634–641 nest mate recognition in social storage excretion, 565–567 chemical synapses, 633–634 insects, 870 water loss, 576 effects of metamorphosis, 428–430 neural mapping, 661–663 Noctuidae, 202, 419, 702, 760, 763, electrical properties of the neural regulation of sound production, 790, 830, 832, 839 neuron, 630 847–853 Noctuoidea, 755, 758 electrical synapses, 634 neurites, 626 Nomadacris, 119, 153, 271, 277, 410 formation in the embryo, 371–373 Neurobasis chinensis, 800 Notiphila, 528 functions of the central nervous neurohormones, 634, 641 Notodontidae, 280, 894 system, 625 neuromodulators, 213, 249–251, Notonecta, 6, 33, 185, 186, 361, 412, glial cells, 628–630 636–641 529, 530, 531, 532, 754 innervation of flight muscles, 209 neuromuscular junctions, 246–248 Notonectidae, 136 innervation of leg muscles, 161–162 neurons, 626–628 Notoptera. See Grylloblattodea innervation of muscles, 244–246 axons, 626 Notostira, 355 innervation of the gut, 58 chemical messengers, 634–641 notum, 151 neurohormones, 634, 641 dendrites, 626 nutrition, 81 neuromodulators, 636–641 electrical properties, 630 amino acids, 82–83 neurons (nerve cells), 626–628 homologies, 647 carbohydrates, 83–84 neuropeptides, 634, 641 in cuticular mechanoreceptors, changes in nutrient requirements, neurotransmitters, 636–641 741 88–90 responses to temperature changes, interneurons, 644–646 contribution of symbiotic 614–616 motor neurons, 643–644 microorganisms, 99–104 signal transmission, 630–634 neurites, 626 identification of nutritional synapses, 626–628, 633–634 soma (cell body), 626 requirements, 82 nervous system anatomy synapses, 626–628 intake target, 87–88 brain, 647–659 neuropeptide F, 36 lipids, 84–86 ganglia, 642–643 neuropeptides, 634, 638, 641 maintaining nutrient balance, 90–94 giant fibers, 646 regulation, 695–696 minerals, 87 homologous neurons, 647 Neuroptera, xxvi, 11, 21, 21, 31, 39, nitrogen production by microbial interganglionic interneurons, 43, 62, 111, 159, 186, 188, 204, symbionts, 99–102 644–646 256, 288, 297, 321, 340, 360, 374, required nutrients, 82–87 interneurons, 644–646 390, 399, 404, 407, 409, 419, 427, role of microorganisms in sterol intersegmental interneurons, 451, 536, 549, 569, 570, 733, 752, nutrition, 103–104 644–646 753, 755, 767, 805, 828, 847 vitamin production by microbial motor neurons, 643–644 neurosecretory cells, 688–691 symbionts, 103 neurons of the central nervous Neuroterus lenticularis, 392 vitamins, 86–87 system, 643–647 neurotransmitters, 82, 636–641 nutritional effects non-spiking local interneurons, 644 Nezara, 296 excess lipid storage and obesity, 98 peripheral nerves, 647 Nezara viridula, 812, 860 immune response, 100 spiking local interneurons, 644 nicotinic acid, 88 lifespan, 98–99 nervous system and behavior, nidi, 49 phenotype variations, 98–99 659–669 Nilaparvata, 849 reproductive performance, 98–99 circadian rhythms, 667–668 Nilaparvata lugens, 100, 104, 827 variations in quantity and quality of integration at the synapse, 659–660 Nitidulidae, 878 diet, 95–99 integration by interneurons, nitric oxide, 634, 641 nutritional regulation 660–661 nitric oxide synthase, 571 balance of nutrients, 87–97 neural basis of learning, 664–667 nitrogen compromises with dietary neural mapping, 661–663 production by microbial symbionts, imbalance, 93–96 pattern generation, 663–664 99–102 post-ingestive regulation, 95 rhythms of behavior, 667–668 nitrogenous excretion, 562–567 pre-ingestive mechanisms, 93–95

920 Index

nutritional status interspeciﬁc variation, 713–715 Orius, 304, 305 monitoring by the fat body, variation within species, 712–713 Ormia, 764 142–143 ommochromes, 565, 803–805, 813 Orneodidae, 204 nutritive effects of mating, 306–307 Omocestus viridulus, 829 Ornithacris, 378 Nycteribiidae, 381, 383 Oncopeltus, 40, 42, 285, 296, 297, Orthoptera, xxii, xxvii, 9, 12, 18, 22, Nymphalidae, xxx, 188, 421, 447, 803, 304, 328, 352, 352, 378, 378, 48, 53, 58, 60, 61, 65, 69, 84, 85, 814, 894 416, 417, 437, 569, 890 108, 109, 110, 111, 114, 120, 140, Oncopeltus fasciatus, 401 151, 163, 164, 167, 169, 173, 186, obliterative shading, 813 ontogenetic color change, 809–810 194, 196, 199, 201, 202, 204, 206, occipital sulcus, 5, 6 Onychiurus, 817 209, 211, 216, 217, 218, 220, 221, occiput, 6 Onychiurus armatus, 817 222, 223, 226, 227, 237, 244, 250, ocelli, 226 Onychophora, 359 252, 258, 276, 277, 279, 284, 285, octopamine, 37, 161, 213, 225, Onymachus, 117, 118 289, 292, 294, 296, 297, 316, 319, 249–250, 637, 639–640, 694 Onymacris, 119, 559, 574, 578 328, 332, 333, 335, 336, 348, 349, Ocypus, 350 Onymacris unguicularis, 577 354, 355, 358, 359, 360, 361, 364, Odonata, xvii, xviii, 8, 10, 53, 56, 57, oocytes 371, 372, 373, 375, 378, 390, 399, 108, 110, 111, 155, 159, 164, 182, resorption of, 331–332 401, 403, 410, 411, 412, 414, 445, 196, 202, 204, 206, 207, 209, 212, Oodes, 278 446, 451, 453, 466, 482, 492, 514, 216, 217, 218, 220, 221, 222, 223, oogenesis, 317–332 516, 518, 519, 542, 549, 555, 567, 226, 227, 228, 237, 253, 254, 256, chorionogenesis, 328–330 595, 646, 650, 663, 686, 691, 731, 270, 279, 284, 285, 289, 294, 296, control of vitellogenin synthesis, 745, 747, 751, 752, 755, 763, 767, 319, 335, 354, 390, 399, 402, 404, 324–327 787, 806, 812, 829, 831, 832, 833, 412, 417, 435, 465, 514, 518, 525, germinal vesicle, 319 843, 845 532, 534, 536, 549, 556, 571, 650, meiosis, 322 Orthopteroidea, 284 709, 715, 717, 718, 720, 728, 729, meroistic ovarioles, 318–319 Orthorrhapha, xxix, 408, 419, 686 731, 752, 800, 803, 808, 816, 839 oocyte development in ovarioles, Oryctes, 219, 245 Odontomachus, 32 317–318 Oryzaephilus, 813 odorant-binding proteins (OBPs), 884 panoistic ovarioles, 318–319 osmoregulation Oecanthus, 370, 826, 847 patterns of accumulation in the hemolymph, 119–121 Oecanthus burmeisteri, 834, 835 oocyte, 323–324 role of the excretory system, Oecanthus nigricornis, 830 polytrophic ovarioles, 321 546–547 Oecophylla, 43 resorption of oocytes, 331–332 Osphya, 295 Oedipoda, 756 telotrophic ovarioles, 319–321 Ostrinia, 12, 348, 378 Oedipoda miniata, 812 transport from trophocytes to Ostrinia nubilalis, 862, 875 oenocytes, 136, 465–466 oocyte, 322 Othoptera, 682 oenocytoid cells, 125 trophocytes, 318–319 Otiorrhynchinae, 433 Oestridae, 136 types of ovarioles, 318–321 ovarioles, 314–315 olfaction, 771 vitelline envelope, 328 germinal vesicle, 319 olfactory receptors yolk, 323–328 oocyte development in, 317–318 cellular components, 741–742 yolk lipids, 328 types of, 318–321 olfactory sense organs yolk proteins, 324–328 ovary, 314–315 external structure, 772–773 ootheca, 400 ovary ecdysteroidogenic hormone, 693 olfactory sensilla, 22 oothecae, 341–342 overwintering aggregations, 865 olfactory system, 657–659 Operophtera, 600, 600 oviducts, 315–316 projections to the central nervous opisthorhynchous condition, 4 oviposition, 334–343 system, 789–790 optic ﬂow, 226–227 control of, 338–339 oligopod larvae, 408 optic lobes of the brain, 654–657 mechanisms, 336–338 ommatidia Orgyia antiqua, 426 oothecae, 341–342 number in compound eyes, 709 orientation with respect to gravity, role of the accessory glands, ommatidial structure, 709–715 745 339–343

Index 921

ovipositor, 334–336 mode of action, 700–703 phenylalanine, 88 ovoviviparity, 384–385 percussion, 832–833 pheromone-binding proteins Oxycheila, 839 performance curves (PBPs), 884 thermal relations, 598–600 pheromone biosynthesis, 876–882 Pachnoda ephippiata, 62 Perga, 734, 892 Coleoptera, 878–879 Pachycondyla, 867 perikaryon, 626 Diptera, 879–881 Paederus, 887 Perilampidae, 409 Lepidoptera, 876–878 Paenibacillus larvae (bacterium), 54 Periplaneta, 10, 11, 12, 25, 48, 59, 109, pheromone biosynthesis activating pairing and copulation, 295–297 110, 113, 114, 117, 118, 118, 126, neuropeptide (PBAN), 446, 453, Paleoptera, xvii 160, 161, 162, 167, 168, 169, 170, 684, 882–883 Pannota, xvii 170, 236, 239, 241, 246, 250, 251, pheromones, 85, 775, 789 panoistic ovarioles, 318–319, 348 277, 277, 285, 315, 332, 342, 384, aggregation pheromones, 863–865 Panorpa, 202, 279, 295 514, 519, 526, 547, 549, 562, 565, alarm pheromones, 869 Panteophylus, 837 574, 584, 607, 612, 613, 614, 643, anti-aggregation pheromones, 864 pantothenic acid, 88 644, 647, 648, 657, 718, 719, 752 anti-aphrodisiac pheromones, 863 Papilio, 199, 735 giant fibers, 646 aphid alarm pheromone, 278 Papilio dardanus, 816 muscles, 237–239 biosynthesis, 876–882 Papilio demodocus, 810 nervous system response to definition, 858 Papilio lorquinianus, 797 temperature, 614–616 head glands in social insects, 37–39 Papilio polyxenes, 789 Periplaneta americana, 73, 85, 127, information content of pheromonal Papilio xuthus, 728 315, 413, 687, 701, 702, 741, 773, signals, 874–876 papiliochromes, 805 790 marking pheromones, 865–866 Papilionidae, xxx, 805, 806, 839 peripodial cavity, 423 necrophoretic response, 874 Papilionoidea, xxx, 195, 202, 808 peripodial membrane, 423 nest mate recognition in social Paractora dreuxi, 611 peritrophic envelope, 52–55 insects, 870 parasitic insects, 335, 336, 340, 349, Perla, 152 perception of, 883–885 380, 892, 897 Perla marginata, 516 primer pheromones, 858, 870–874 parasitoids, 11, 24, 127, 128, 385–388, pest management, 618 regulation of pheromone 865 Petrobius, 335 production, 882–883 Parastrachia japonensis, 565 Petrobius maritimus, 690 sex pheromones, 858–863 Parides sesostris, 800, 801 Petrognatha, 525 sex pheromones in social Parlatoria, 289 pH insects, 874 Paropsis, 895 influence on digestion, 61 social insect pheromones, 869–874 parthenogenesis, 390–392 of hemolymph, 119 trail pheromones, 866–869 alternation of generations, 392 phagocytically active use in intraspecific communication, arrhenotoky, 390, 391 plasmatocyte, 125 858–874 thelytoky, 390–391 phagostimulants, 23–24 Philaenus spumarius, 177 Passalidae, 839 Phaneroptera nana, 830 Philanthus, 33 Passalus, 840 pharynx, 47 Philodendron solimoesense (tropical pattern generation in the nervous Phasmatodea, xxii, 110, 163, 164, 177, plant), 593 system, 663–664 241, 357, 375, 390, 414, 516, 549, Philonthus, 166 Pectinophora, 803 555, 682, 686 Philosamia, 236 Pectinophora gossypiella, 403 Phasmida, 53, 220, 288, 298 Phlebotomus, 316 pederin, 887 Pheidole, 445 Phlogophora, 862 Pediculus, 27, 375, 571, 609 Phengodidae, 817 Pholidoptera griseoaptera, 173 Pediculus humanus, 401 phenolic compounds in the diet, 88 Phonoctonus, 816 pedogenesis, 392–393 phenoloxidase, 349 phonotaxis, 827–829, 831 Pentatomidae, 399, 597, 842, 860, 892 phenols, 813 Phormia, 59, 83, 90, 92, 94, 120, 315, Pentatomomorpha, 335, 838 phenotype 324, 326, 577, 785, 789 peptide hormones, 675–684 nutritional effects on, 98–99 Phormia regina, 89, 432, 775

922 Index

phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-K) Platygaster, 409 short- and long-winged forms, 445 pathway, 693 Platygastridae, 385, 409 winged and wingless forms, phospholipids, 84 Platymeris, 62 444–445 Photinus, 818, 819, 820, 893 Platypleura, 842 polypod larvae, 408 Photinus pyralis, 820 Platypodinae, 69 polytrophic ovarioles, 321, 348 photonic crystals, 800 Platyuridae, 817 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), photoperiod Plea, 755 85 influence on diapause, 449–451 Plecoptera, xviii, 8, 49, 109, 113, 121, Ponera punctatissima, 709 Photuris, 711, 817, 818, 818, 819–820 154, 204, 271, 276, 278, 319, 323, Ponerinae, 839 Photuris lucicrescens, 821 375, 404, 435, 532, 550, 828, 832, Popillia, 290, 292, 408 Photuris versicolor, 893 847 Popillia japonica, 875 Phrixothrix, 819 pleura, 3 porphyrins, 805 Phrynocolus, 574 pleuron, 151, 154–155 positive feedback cycle, 695 Phthiraptera, xxiv, 109, 206, 284, 288, pleurostoma, 6 postembryonic development, 398 321, 357, 365, 375, 609, 709 pleurostomal sulcus, 5 Ametabola, 403 Phylliidae, xxii Plodia, 327, 860 control of, 436–443 Phyllodecta, 603 Plodia interpunctella, 89 diapause, 448–454 Phyllopertha, 353, 355 Plusia, 812 hatching, 399–403 Phymatidae, 186 Plusia interpunctella, 410 Hemimetabola, 403–406 Phytobius relatus, 537 Plusiinae, 386 Holometabola, 404–406 Pieridae, xxx, 12, 421, 794, 800 Plusiotis resplendens, 796, 798 instars, 403 Pieris, 23, 95, 118, 348, 422, 450, 525, Plutella xylostella, 97, 97, 789 larval development, 403–417 555, 559, 566, 598, 764, 765, 813, pneumatization of the tracheal system, metamorphosis, 417–436 863 510–511 number of instars, 410 Pieris brassicae, 400, 422, 424, 449, 863 Podura, 491 polyphenism, 443–448 Pieris napi, 863 Poecilimon ornatus, 836 regeneration, 414 Pieris rapae, 728, 797, 863 Poecilobothrus, 720 stages (stadia), 403 Pieris rapae crucivora, 803 polarized light sensitivity, 729–730 postgenae, 6 pigment-dispersing factor, 641 Polistes, 235, 241 postoccipital suture, 5 pigments Polistes dominulus, 718 postural position reflex, 167 carotenoids, 806 pollen collection, 188 Potamodytes, 537, 538 flavonoids, 806 pollination by insects, xv potassium ion absorption, 74 melanin, 802 polyazamacrolides, 894 power for flight, 223–225 obtained from food, 806 Polybia occidentalis, 869 predaceous insects ommochromes, 803–805 Polyctenidae, 381 prey capture, 31–33 papiliochromes, 805 Polydrosus, 434 predator avoidance pterins, 802–803 polyembryony, 385–388 crypsis, 813 quinones, 805–806 Polyergus breviceps, 874 deflection marks, 814–815 synthesized pigments, 802–806 Polyergus rufescens, 874 deimatic behavior, 813–814 tetrapyrroles, 805 polymorphism, 443 mimicry, 815–816 Pimpla, 340 Polyommatus icarus, 896, 897 visual signals, 813–816 Piophila, 177 Polypedilum, 611 See also aposematic coloration. pitch control in flight, 226 Polyphaga, xxvii, 111, 320, 399 predator protective compounds placoid sensilla, 772 polyphenism, 443–448 transfer during copulation, plasmatocytes, 125, 127, 128, 129 aphid morphs, 444–445 309–310 plastron respiration, 534–535 behavioral responses, 445–448 pre-ecdysis triggering hormone Plataspis, 342 brachyptery, 445 (PETH), 441, 688 Plathemis lydia, 816 castes of social insects, 443–444 pre-oral cavity, 5 Platycleis, 835 color and form, 445–448 pressure receivers, 745–746 Platycleis intermedia, 846 influence of the environment, 443 pretarsus, 160–161

Index 923

prey capture by predaceous insects, pseudoplacental viviparity, releaser infochemicals, 858 31–33 380–381 reproduction primer infochemicals, 858 Pseudoplusia includens, 128 alternation of generations, 392 primer pheromones, 870–874 Psiligramma, 839 parthenogenesis, 390–392 Primicimex, 304 Psocomorpha, xxiv pedogenesis, 392–393 Prionoplus, 283, 290, 292 Psocoptera, xxiii, 43, 195, 196, 200, reproductive isolation, 817 proctodeal feeding, 42 202, 237, 288, 321, 360, 381, 384, and mechanical communication, 827 proctolin, 251, 641, 681 390, 578, 579, 832 sex pheromones, 863 procuticle formation, 493–494 Psorophora, 308 reproductive performance prognathous condition, 4, 6 Psychidae, 188 effects of nutrition, 98–99 programmed cell death, 141, 426 Psychodidae, 276, 288, 294 reproductive system prohemocytes, 124 Psyllidae, 207, 839 development in the embryo, 376 prolegs, 280 pterin pigments, 802–803 genital segments of the abdomen, proline, 82, 140, 225 pterins, 803, 813 270–271 pronotum, 151 Pterophoridae, 204 secondary sexual structures, prophenoloxidase cascade, 128 Pteroptyx, 817, 820 278–279 proprioceptors, 738, 746–748 Pterostichus nigrita, 451 reproductive system (female) legs, 162–163 Pterygota, xvii, 8, 16, 193, 288, 293, accessory glands, 317 Prosopistoma, 277 298, 335, 709 control of oviposition, 338–339 protein Ptinidae, 206 effects of mating on females, absorption, 72–73 Ptinus, 610 306–310 protein digestion Publilia concava, 831 enhancement of female oviposition, proteases, 63–64 Pulex, 642 307–308 proteins pulsatile organs, 111–113, 117 fertilization of the egg, 333–334 in hemolymph, 121–124 pupal stage, 419–422 genitalia, 334–336 in the cuticle, 477–481 purine degradation pathway, 563 interactions with male-derived storage and synthesis in the fat pylorus, 55 proteins, 342–343 body, 138–139 Pyralidae, 842, 859, 890 internal reproductive organs, prothoracic glands, 691–694 Pyralidoidea, 755 314–317 prothoracicostatic peptide (PTSP), 693 Pyrgomorphidae, 306, 410 nutritive effects of mating, 306–307 prothoracicotropic hormone (PTTH), Pyrochroidae, 893 oogenesis, 317–332 440–441, 681, 682–683, 691–692 Pyrrharctia isabella, 860 oothecae, 341–342 protists, xx Pyrrhocoris, 888 ovarioles, 314–315 cellulose degradation, 65–69 Pyrrhocoris apterus, 452 ovary, 314–315 protocerebrum, 648–657 oviducts, 315–316 Protophormia terraenovae, 778 quinone pigments, 805–806 oviposition, 334–343 Protura, xvi, 10, 16, 39, 160, 270, 274, quinone tanning, 806 oviposition mechanisms, 336–338 286, 288, 515, 547, 709 ovipositor, 334–336 proventriculus, 48 Ranatra, 838 ovulation, 332–333 Prunus serotina (black cherry), 61 Raphidiidae, xxvi reduction of readiness to remate, Przibam’s rule, 414 Raphidioptera, xxvi, 164 308–309 Psaltoda, 841, 847 reactive oxygen species, 50, 77 role of the accessory glands, Psammodes, 521, 522 rectum, 55–56 339–343 Psephenidae, 539 redox potential spermatheca, 316–317 Psephenoides, 540 inﬂuence on digestion, 62 reproductive system (male), 282–283 Psephenoides volatilis, 539 Reduviidae, 164, 816, 842, 890 accessory glands, 285–286 Pseudaletia, 262 Reduvioidea, 838 direct insemination, 303–304 Pseudaletia unipuncta, 860, 860 reﬂex systems ectadenia, 285 Pseudococcus, 289 maintenance of stance, 167 effects of mating on females, pseudocone ommatidia, 715 regeneration, 414 306–310

924 Index

reproductive system (male) (cont.) 559, 562, 563, 566, 572, 576, 643, Scarabaeoidea, 186, 407 ejaculatory duct, 284–285 699, 700, 731, 750, 805 Scatophaga, 342 enhancement of female oviposition, basement membrane, 466 Scelionidae, 385 307–308 cuticle structure, 473 Schistocerca, 9, 37, 39, 53, 54, 59, 84, external reproductive organs, epidermal cells, 490 87, 118, 118, 119, 167, 170, 172, 293–295 plasticization of the cuticle, 187, 188, 199, 202, 209, 212, 213, genitalia, 293–295 487–488 215, 236, 250, 252, 253, 254, 255, hemocoelic insemination, 304–305 Rhodnius prolixus, 403, 524 285, 306, 314, 332, 333, 338, 371, insemination, 297–305 rhodopsin, 709, 721–723 378, 416, 416, 482, 484–485, 492, internal reproductive organs, Rhopalidae, 895 507, 508, 512, 514, 526, 549, 555, 283–286 Rhyacophila, 419 556, 559, 562, 564, 566, 576, 584, mesadenia, 285 Rhynchophorus palmarum, 64 593, 646, 647, 653, 661, 688, 731, nutritive effects of mating, 306–307 Rhyncophthirina, xxiv 756, 767, 802, 803, 810, 843 pairing and copulation, 295–297 Rhyssa, 337 control of ventilation, 526–528 reduction of female readiness to Rickettsia (bacterium), 390 gaseous exchange, 519–521, remate, 308–309 Rileyana fovea, 839 525–526 seminal vesicles, 283–284, 292 ring gland of cyclorrhaphous jumping, 174–177 sperm capacitation, 305–306 Diptera, 687 nervous system response to spermatophore insemination, Riodinidae, 814, 831, 839 temperature, 614–616 297–303 RNA, 88 proprioceptors, 747 spermatozoa, 286–292 rolling control in flight, 226 somatotopic map, 661 testis, 283 Romalea, 330, 583 tactile hairs, 745 transfer of compounds during rough endoplasmic reticulum, 51, 464, temperature regulation, 595 copulation, 309–310 626 tympanum, 755 transfer of sperm to the female, Rutellinae, 878 Schistocerca americana, 163, 163, 292–306 Rutilia, 240 164, 616 vas deferens, 283–284 Schistocerca gregaria, xxii, 88, 93, 96, vas efferens, 283–284 saliva 378, 379, 401, 402, 403, 416, 447, Requena verticalis, 306 functions of, 41–42 494, 547, 686, 690, 865 research production, 40–41 Schistocerca nitens, 258, 259 insects as model systems, xvi trophallaxis, 42–43 Schistonota, xvii resilin, xxviii, 16, 199, 212, 840, 841 salivarium, 5 Schizaphis graminum, 278 respiratory pigments, 515–516 salivary duct, 5, 18 Schizophora, 294 respiratory surfaces salivary glands, 39–40 Schizura, 894 water loss from, 575–576 saltwater insects Sciara, 288, 290, 506, 510, 611 Reticulitermes, 288 modification of primary urine, sclerites, 3, 150 Reticulitermes flavipes, 99 558–559 naming on segments, 151 Reticulitermes speratus, 873 Samia cynthia, 432 sclerotization of the cuticle, 494–497 retinal, 806 Saperda vestita, 69 scoli, 280 Rhagoletis, 314, 785 Sarcophaga, 22, 138, 255, 261, 262, scolopidia, 748 Rhagoletis pomonella, 865 262, 384, 524, 559, 605 Scolytidae, 863–864, 878, 879 Rhamphomyia, 278 Sarcophaga crassipalpis, 452 Scolytinae, 69 Rhinocoris, 400 Saturnia, 420, 453 secretory structures on the Rhinotermitidae, 288 Saturnia pavonia, 433 abdomen, 278 Rhodnius, 27, 34, 35, 36, 37, 59, 61, Saturniidae, 432, 526, 839, 894 seminal vesicles, 283–284 75, 77, 114, 129, 133, 164, 224, Satyridae, 806 transfer of sperm to, 292 251, 260, 302, 307, 322, 324, 327, Scapteriscus, 834 semiochemicals, 858 331, 333, 339, 349, 350, 352, 353, Scarabaeidae, 55, 58, 59, 62, 82, 519, sense organs 354, 354, 357, 373, 410, 416, 417, 591, 593, 755, 796, 800, 839, 878 functions of antennae, 12 437, 510, 548, 549, 554, 555, 555, scarabaeiform larvae, 407 types of sensilla, 772

Index 925

sensilla Sminthuridae, 511 sperm bundles, 288–289 on mouthparts, 22 Sminthurides aquaticus, 12 sperm capacitation, 305–306 on the wings, 201–202 social insects spermatocytes, 289–290 types of, 772 castes (polyphenism), 443–444 spermatogenesis, 289–290 sensilla chaetica, 772 colony temperature regulation, spermiogenesis, 290–291 sensilla on the antennae, 12 597–598 structure of mature sperm, 286–288 sensilla trichodea, 772 division of labor, 870–874 tail development, 291 sensillum capitulum, 773 head glands, 37–39 transfer of sperm to the seminal sensory structures mechanical communication, vesicle, 292 abdominal appendages, 276–277 830–831 transfer to the spermatheca, 302 sensory systems necrophoretic response, 874 Sphaerius, 539 for flight control, 225–229 nest mate recognition, 870 spherule cells, 125 legs, 162–164 pheromone biosynthesis, 881–882 Sphingidae, 279, 419, 526 temperature and humidity pheromones, 869–874 Sphodromantis, 31 receptors, 611–614 polyphenism, 443 spines on the abdomen, 279 sequestered toxins, 24 primer pheromones, 870–874 spiracles, 270, 511–515 serotonin, 37, 40, 251, 636–637, sex pheromones, 874 control of spiracle opening, 640–641 trophallaxis, 42–43 514–515 Sesamia nonagrioides, 875 water balance, 584 number and distribution, 511 sex determination, 388–390 sodium ion absorption, 74 structure, 511–514 sex pheromones, 858–863 Solenopsis invicta, 891 spiracular gills, 538–540 in social insects, 874 soma (nerve cell body), 626 Spodoptera, 91, 93, 127, 247, 447, sexual dichroism, 803 sound production. See mechanical 713, 715, 788 sexual dimorphism, 11 communication Spodoptera frugiperda, 54 short neuropeptide F, 37 wing modifications, 206 Spodoptera littoralis, 89, 98, 100, 446, Sialidae, xxv sound reception 787 Sialis, 278, 278, 302, 375, 557, 611 tympanal organs, 755–764 Spodoptera litura, 786 sialome, 41 Speophyes, 613, 615 stance silk moth coccoon formation, 420 spermatheca, 316–317 maintenance of, 167 silk production, 43 transfer of sperm to, 302 Staphylinidae, 188, 199, 409, 419, from the legs, 189 spermatids, 289, 290 715, 892, 893, 897 Silphidae, 892 spermatocytes, 289–290 Staphylinoidea, 204 Simuliidae, 421, 434, 537, 538 spermatogonia, 289 startle sounds, 831 Simulium, 434, 532, 538, 540 spermatophores, 297–303 Stegobium paniceum, 104, 878 Simulium ornatum, 427 fate of, 302–303 stem cells of the midgut, 49–51 singing production, 299–302 stemmata, 732–734 use of flight muscle activity, 591 structure, 298–299 Stenobothrus, 837 singing Hymenoptera, 892 transfer of sperm to the Stenobothrus rubicundus, 833 sinuses, 110–111 spermatheca, 302 Stenopelmatidae, 250 Siphonaptera, xxviii, 21, 24, 39, 155, transmission, 298 Stenus, 182 164, 177, 206, 288, 295, 319, 321, spermatozoa, 286–292 stenusin, 182 390, 399, 404, 419, 420, 642, 709 acrosome, 290 Sternorrhyncha, xxiv Siphonoperla, 832 axial filament, 291 sternum, 3, 151, 152–154 Sipyloidea, 177 biochemical changes during sterol nutrition Siricidae, 69 spermatogenesis, 291 role of microorganisms, 103–104 Sitophilus, 574, 584 centriole, 291 sterols, 84, 85, 675 skatole, 891 control of spermatogenesis, synthesis by fungal symbionts, skeletal muscles 291–292 103–104 structure, 237–241 mitochondria, 291 stings, 33, 335 Slifer’s patches, 597 nucleus, 291 stomatogastric ganglion, 639

926 Index

stomatogastric system, 441 Symmoracma, 843 temperature changes formation in the embryo, 373 Sympecma, 336 nervous system responses, 614–616 stomodeal nervous system, 58 Sympetrum, 349, 435 temperature sensation stomodeum, 47–48 Symphypleona, 275 cellular mechanisms, 613 Stomoxys, 22, 309, 787 Symphyta, xxxi, 19, 111, 200, 275, Tenebrio, 241, 244, 283, 285, 400, Stomoxys calcitrans, 51 335, 733, 734 488, 549, 576, 578, 579, 584, 606, storage excretion, 565–567 synapses, 626–628, 633–634, 659–660 725, 734 Stratiomya, 529 chemical synapses, 633–634 Tenebrio molitor, 362, 426, 562, 685 Streblidae, 381 electrical synapses, 634 Tenebrionidae, 118, 399, 503, 578, Strepsiptera, xxvii, 164, 188, 204, 207, synchronous skeletal muscles, 582, 715, 839, 892 304, 380, 383, 385, 407, 409, 422, 237–240 Tenebroidae, 483 547 syncytial cleavage, 358–359 teneral period, 258 Streptomyces, 895 synomones, 886–887 Tenodera, 31, 32, 342, 712, 714, 726 stretch and tension receptors, 764–768 Syntonarcha minoralis, 839 tension receptors. See stretch and functioning of stretch receptors, Syritta pipiens, 720 tension receptors 767–768 Syrphidae, 294, 421, 709, 831 Tenthredinidae, 369, 408, 733 muscle receptor organs, 766–767 Syrphus, 589 Tenthredinoidea, 189, 275 receptors with accessory structures, tentorium, 5, 8 766–767 Tabanidae, 295, 709 Tephritidae, 177, 194, 279, 335, 839, strand receptors, 766–767 Tabanus, 224 865 tension receptors, 766–767 Tachinidae, 384, 541 Terebrantia, 335 unspecialized receptors, 764–766 tachykinin-related peptides, 37 tergum, 3, 151 stridulation, 833–839 tactile hairs, 745 termites, 55, 59 Strobilomyia neanthracina, 865 Taeniochorista, 203 Termitidae, xx, 69 Strouhal number, 222 tannic acid, 88 Termitomyces (fungus), 69 styloconic sensilla, 773 Tanyptera, 408 Termitoxenia, 384 Stylopidia, xxviii Taphrophila, 538, 539, 540, 611 terrestrial insects Stylops, 384 Tardigrada, 547 modification of primary urine, subesophageal ganglion, 22 Target of Rapamycin (TOR) signaling 555–556 subgenal sulcus, 5 pathway, 138, 142–143, 693 territorial behavior and subgenual organs, 752–753 tarsomeres, 160 competition, 830 sucking mouthparts, 19–22 tarsus, 160 testis, 283 sugars taste (gustation), 771 testis ecdysiotropin, 693 absorption, 73 tebufenozide, 693 tetrapyrroles, 805 Sulcia muelleri (bacterium), 102 tegmina, 206 Tetrix, 350, 350 sulfakinins, 37, 681 Teinopalpus imperialis, 800 Tettigoniidae, 202, 289, 295, 298, 306, Supella, 90 Tekomyia, 393 335, 751, 755, 760, 763, 831, 833 supercooling, 601–606 Telea, 12 Tettigonioidea, 196, 755, 833, supernumerary chromosomes, 391 Telea polyphemus, 11 835–837 superposition eyes, 709, 711–712 Teleogryllus, 246, 246, 308, 333, 355, Thaumantis odana, 797 swimming 492, 758 thecogen cells, 775 buoyancy in water, 185 Teleogryllus commodus, 751 thelytoky, 390–391 using legs, 182–183 telotrophic ovarioles, 319–321, 348 thermal hysteresis factors, 606 without using legs, 183–186 temperature thermal relations Symbiotaphrina (fungi), 104 effects of climate change on acclimation, 609–611 symbiotic microorganisms, 349 insects, 588 antifreeze proteins, 606 contribution to insect nutrition, influence on diapause, 451 cellular mechanisms of temperature 99–104 influence on digestion, 61 sensation, 613 provision of nitrogen, 99–102 temperature and humidity receptors, classification of freeze tolerance vitamin production, 103 611–614 levels, 601

Index 927

cold hardiness, 601–607 Tinaeoidea, 204 399, 404, 407, 419, 420, 432, 435, cryoprotectants, 603 Tineola, 64 532, 550, 558, 654, 733, 767, 839 cryptobiosis, 611 Tineola bisselliella, 62, 410 Tridactyloidea, 294 ﬂight at low temperatures, 600–601 Tipula, 108 Trimerotropis, 574 genes involved in cold hardiness, Tipulidae, 161, 164, 180, 205, 294, tritocerebrum, 22, 659 601 408, 540 triungulins, 896 high temperature effects, 607–609 tormogen cells, 775 trochanter, 159 ice-nucleating agents, 603 Torridincola, 539 Troctomorpha, xxiv large-scale patterns in insect Tortricidae, 786 Trogiomorpha, xxiv thermal biology, 616–617 Toxoptera, 839 trophallaxis, 42–43 low temperature effects, 600–606 tracheae, 502–503 trophocytes, 133–135, 318–319 nervous system responses, 614–616 tracheal gills, 532–534 transport to oocyte, 322 performance curves, 598–600 tracheal system, 502–511 Tropidopola, 169 range of insect research development of the embryo, 373 tropomyosin, 248–249 applications, 618 distribution of tracheae within the tryptophan, 82, 565, 805, 813 supercooling, 601–606 insect, 505–508 Tryridopteryx ephemeraeﬁrmis, 860 survival at low temperatures, effects of metamorphosis, 431 tubular glands, 40 601–607 functions other than gas exchange, tymbals temperature and humidity 541–542 mechanical communication, receptors, 611–614 molting, 508–511 839–843 thermal hysteresis factors, 606 pneumatization, 510–511 tympanal organs, 755–764 Thermobia, 288, 319, 608 tracheae, 502–503 directional sensitivity, 762–763 Thermobia domestica, 406 tracheal development, 503–505 frequency, 760–762 Thermonectus marmoratus, 734 tracheoles, 503 functioning, 759–763 thermoregulation, 595–598 trail pheromones, 866–869 functions, 763–764 behavioral regulation, 595–596 transferrin, 120 loudness, 760 evaporative cooling, 596–597 trehalose, 120, 139–140 pulse rate, 762 physiological regulation, 596–597 Triaenodes, 160, 182 structure and occurrence, social insect colonies, 597–598 Trialeurodes vaporarium, 348 755–759 See also body temperature. Triatoma, 113, 224 tyramine, 213 thorax, 3 Tribolium, 83, 334, 361, 363, 376, 478, Tyria jacobaeae, 888 muscles, 155 492, 496, 581, 698 tyrosine, 82, 88, 139 segmentation, 150–151 Tribolium castaneum, 476, 481, 495 thorax morphology, 151–155 trichobothria, 739 unguifer, 160 articulation of the legs, 151 trichogen cells, 775 unguitractor, 161 articulation of the wings, 151 Trichogramma brassicae, 863 Urania, 839 notum, 151 Trichogramma cacoeciae, 390 Urania leilus, 797 pleuron, 151, 154–155 Trichogramma carverae, 610 urate, 563 sternum, 151, 152–154 Trichogramma evanescens, 863 urate cells (urocytes), 136 tergum, 151 Trichogramma kaykai, 391 urea, 562 Thrips, 198 Trichogramma minutum, 334 uric acid, 562, 563, 813 Thymelicus lineola, 307 Trichogrammatidae, 204 uric acid pump, 563 Thysanoptera, xxv, 19, 54, 57, 161, trichoid sensilla, 739, 746–747, 772 uricase (urate oxidase), 564 204, 237, 288, 335, 380, 384, 390, Trichoplusia, 61, 787 urine production, 552–555 405, 419 Trichoplusia ni, 54, 386, 387, 877 control of diuresis, 559–562 Thysanura, xvii, xxvii, 8, 16, 109, 111, Trichopsenius frosti, 897 excretion of ions, 554–555 135, 276, 279, 288, 293, 298, 319, Trichopsylla, 434, 434 movement of solutes, 553–554 332, 335, 364, 406, 578, 608, 642, Trichoptera, xxix, 43, 49, 69, 159, 164, primary urine formation, 685, 686, 709, 713, 715 182, 194, 195, 202, 237, 256, 275, 552–553 tibia, 160 278, 288, 297, 302, 303, 341, 388, urocytes (urate cells), 136

928 Index

urogomphi, 279 stemmata, 732–734 Wigglesworthia (mycetocyte Utetheisa, 310 transduction, 721–723 symbiont), 103 Utetheisa ornatrix, 860, 894 use in flight control, 226–227 wing development, 424–427 visual flow fields, 721 brachyptery, 445 Vanessa, 34, 727 visual pigment, 721–723 importance of the pupal vas deferens, 283–284 visual tracking, 720 stage, 422 vas efferens, 283–284 visual signals, 793 polyphenism, 445 ventriculus, 48–52 aposematic coloration, 815 wing kinematics, 214–221 Vermileo, 280 coherent scattering of light, factors affecting flight control, 216 Vespa, 198, 816 800–801 pronation, 218 Vespidae, 199, 321, 895 color change, 808–812 relative phasing of wings, 216 Vespula, 7, 42, 408, 816 color patterns, 806–808 stroke amplitude, 219 vibrational signals, 825 crypsis, 813 stroke plane angle, 215–218, 219 organized patterns, 845–847 deflection marks, 814–815 supination, 218 unorganized signals, 847 deimatic behavior, 813–814 wing deformation, 220–221 See also mechanical interference colors, 794–800 wing rotation, 219–220 communication. intraspecific recognition with color, wingbeat frequency, 216–218 vibrotaxis, 827–829 816–817 wing load sensors visceral muscles light production, 817–821 use in flight control, 228 control of, 251 mimicry, 815–816 wing movements, 207–214 structure, 241 nature of color, 794 control of, 213–214 vision, 708–709 pigmentary colors, 801–806 initiation and maintenance of flight, adaptation to light levels, 723–727 pigments obtained from food, 806 212–213 color vision, 727–729 predator avoidance, 813–816 innervation of flight muscles, 209 compound eyes, 709–715 scattering of light, 794 movements due to elasticity, dermal light sense, 735 significance of color, 812–817 211–212 discrimination of the plane of structural colors, 794–801 movements produced by the flight vibration, 729–730 synthesized pigments, 802–806 muscles, 209–211 distance perception, 718–720 vitamins types of flight muscles, 207–209 dorsal ocelli, 731–732 nutritional requirements, 86–87 wing pulsatile organs, 111 field of view, 718 production by microbial winged insects, xvii form and motion, 715–721 symbionts, 103 winglessness, 206–207 form perception, 718 vitellogenin synthesis, 323, primitively wingless insects, xvi image expansion cues, 226 324–327 wings, 193 image formation, 715–717 vitellogenins, 138, 139, 323 areas of the wing, 200–201 larval stemmata, 732–734 vitellophages, 359–360 articulation with the thorax, light sensitivity of the brain, 735 viviparity, 380–385 202–204 looming-sensitive neurons, 226 coupling, 202 magnetic sensitivity and warning sounds, 831 elytra (tegmina), 206 photoreception, 735 water flexion lines, 197–199 optic flow, 226–227 absorption, 74–77 flight adaptations, 204–205 optic lobes of the brain, 654–657 water regulation, 573–584 fold lines, 199–200 polarization sensitivity, 729–730 adaptation to water loss, 577 forms of, 204–207 regulation of light reaching the eggs, 353–356 halteres, 205–206 receptors, 724–725 role of the excretory system, hemelytra, 206 regulation of receptor sensitivity, 546–547 modified forewings, 206 725–727 social insects, 584 modified hindwings, 205–206 resolution, 717–718 water balance, 581–584 sensilla on the wings, 201–202 rhodopsin, 721–723 water gain, 577–581 sound production spectral sensitivity, 727–729 water loss, 574–577 modifications, 206

Index 929

structure, 194–204 Xyleborus ferrugineus, 104 Zophobas, 725 veins and venation, 195–199 Xylocopa, 576 Zoraptera, xxiii wing membrane, 194–195 Xylocoris galactinus, 304, 305 Zorotypus, xxiii winglessness, 206–207 Zygaena, 302 Wolbachia (bacterium), 349, 391 yaw control in ﬂight, 226 Zygaenidae, 205, 890, 894 Yponomeutidae, 786 Zygentoma. See Thysanura xanthine, 563 Zygoptera, xviii, 183, 204, 277, 279, xanthommatin, 803 Zeugloptera, xxx 294, 296, 532, 536, 551, 556, Xestobium, 832 Zootermopsis, 85, 831, 832 720, 808