Science Notes by Anil Dhakad
1 G.5 CHOURARA POINT PHOOLBAGH GWALIOR M.P, Ph. 0751-4085889,Mo.- 8602188262 Science Notes by Anil Dhakad
BIOLOGY Study of Life is known as Biology French biologist Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet de Lamarck (1744–1829) is credited with coining the term “biology” (from the Greek terms bios, meaning “life,” and logy, meaning “study of”) in 1802 to describe the science of life. Biology is divided into two branches 1- Zoology - Study of Animal Father of zoology - Aristotle. 2- Botany - study of plant Father of Botany -Theophrastus. - Zoology Apiculture - Rearing of honey bee. (Honey bee = Apis mellifera) Sericulture - Rearing of silk moth. (Silk Moth = Bombyx mori) Osteology - Study of Bone. Pomology - Study of Fruit. Ornithology - Study of Birds Father of ornithology- Salim Ali Pisciculture -Rearing of fishes. Mycology - Study of fungus. Phycology - Study of Algae Pomology - Study of fruits. Ichthyology - Study of fishes Entomology - Study of Insects. Ophiology - Study of Snakes Cytology -Study of Cells. Note : Cell is known as Basis Structural and Functional unit of life Pedology/ Edaphology – Study of soil. Embryology - Study of Development of Embryo. Paleontology - Study of fossils. Histology - Study of Tissues. Bacteriology - Study of Bacteria, their structure, their Classification and their causing diseases. Microbiology - Study of Microorganisms. (Microorganism are those organism which can't be seen with the Naked Eye.) Floriculture - Study of flowers. Taxi dermatology - Study of skin, its diseases, structure and its uses. Veterinary science - Study of Diseases of Animals Binomial Nomenclature It was given by Carolous Linnaeus in 1753. This Name consists of Genus and species. This Name is always written in Italic form. The first letter of Genus is always a capital letter while first letter of species is always a small letter. Any animal's zoological name is composed of two words. 1- Genus 2- Species.
2 G.5 CHOURARA POINT PHOOLBAGH GWALIOR M.P, Ph. 0751-4085889,Mo.- 8602188262 Science Notes by Anil Dhakad
Both Names are written in Italic form. E.g. Human- Homo Sapiens
Common Name Scientific Name Frog Rana tigrina Honey bee Apis mellifera Cat Felis domestica Dog Canis familiaris Cow Bos indicus Human Homo sapiens House fly Musca domestica Mango Mangifera iIndica Rice Oryza saliva Wheat Triticum aestivum Pea Pisum sativum Mustard Brassica compestris Gram Cicer areitinum Peacock Pavo cristatus Lotus Nilumbo nucifera Banyan tree Ficus benghalensis Tiger Panthera tigris Opium Papaver sominiferum
Human Systems (1)Digestive System
Teeth: 4 types of teeth are found in Human.
1. Incisors are a person’s eight front teeth, with four on top and four on the bottom. The two in the middle are the central incisors, while the two on either side of the central incisors are called lateral incisors. These primary teeth are later replaced by the same number of adult incisors.
Their main function is to bite food. Babies develop their incisors at around six months old. After the primary incisors fall out between ages six and eight, the permanent incisors emerge.
2. Canines are the sharp teeth located outside the incisors. Children and adults have four canines, two on the top and two on the bottom, to help tear their food. Canines first appear when a child is around 16 to 20 months old. The permanent lower canines come in at around 9 years old, and upper canines erupt between 11 and 12 years old.
3. Premolars, also called bicuspids, can chew and tear food. They are somewhat flat with ridges on top, and there are four on each side. The premolars are fully developed by about 10 to 11 years of age.
4. Molars also chew and grind food, yet they are stronger than premolars and they work with the tongue to help swallow food. These 12 teeth are located in the back of the mouth, and they begin to appear in children at around 12 to 15 months old.
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Then the permanent molars come in, first at around six years old, and the second molars emerge in children between 11 and 13 years old.
Temporary Teeth: Dental formula
2 + 1 + 0 + 2 5 푢푝푝푒푟 푗푎푤(표푛푒 푠푖푑푒) = 2 + 1 + 0 + 2 5 퐿표푤푒푟 푗푎푤 (표푛푒 푠푖푑푒) Permanent Teeth: Dental formula
2 + 1 + 2 + 3 8 푢푝푝푒푟 푗푎푤(표푛푒 푠푖푑푒) = 2 + 1 + 2 + 3 8 퐿표푤푒푟 푗푎푤 (표푛푒 푠푖푑푒) Diphyodont: Coming of teeth, two times in a life. E.g. Human General Terms used in Biology:
Dermatitis Swelling of Skin Retinitis Swelling of Retina (Eye) Nephritis Swelling of Nephron (Kidney) Tomy Removal of body organ or Surgical treatment Tubectomy fallopian Tube removal vasectomy Removal of Vas difference Mexocrine Both endocrine and exocrine gland Endocrine Hormones mostly Exocrine Enzymes Mostly. Ophthalmology Study of eyes Ophthalmologist specialist of eyes Osteology Study of Bones.
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Human Digestive System Digestion in Human involves 5 Processes 1- Ingestion - It is intake of food particles into the mouth. 2- Digestion - It is Break down of larger food particle into smaller food particle with the help of various enzymes and digestive juices so that this digestive food material can be easily absorbed. 3- Absorption - It is absorption of digested food material from small intestine. 4- Assimilation - It is use of absorbed food martial for the energy need or requirement of the body. 5- Egestion - It is removal out of waste food or faecal material from Anus.
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Human digestive system has following parts: 1- Alimentary Canal - It is digestive canal from mouth to anus. It's average length is 9 m of which small intestine is 6-6.5 m. Alimentary canal consists of mouth, Mouth cavity (Buccal Cavity/Oral Cavity) , Oesophagus, Stomach, Small intestine (Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum ) ,Large intestine. 2 Accessory digestive glands: E.g. Liver, Pancreas etc.
Digestion Process - In human digestion starts in mouth cavity. Here starch is digested into monosaccharide & disaccharide. In mouth the food particle is divided in to smaller particles with the help of teeth. Tongue: Human tongue has various type of taste buds knows as papillae.
Smaller food particle is mixed with the saliva by tongue saliva. Saliva is secreted by 3 pairs of salivary Glands. Three pairs of salivary glands are parotid gland, sublingual gland and submandibular gland. (i) The saliva from each parotid gland is carried to the mouth in a small vessel.The main function is to relaese saliva. (ii) The sublingual gland produces mucin which is found in saliva. (iii) The submandibular gland has a very important role in shaping the salivary glands. Mucus cells are the main products of submandibular gland. Mucus cells secrete mucin which aids in lubrication of the lobes of food as it travels through the esophagus. After mixing of Saliva a small ball like structure is formed which is known as Bolus. Saliva has pH- 6.4 Saliva (pH-6.4) Salivary Amylase/Ptyalin Starch ------Monosaccharide + Disaccharide (Polysaccharide) Note :Human teeth is made up of the most hardest material of the human body known as Enamel .
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Bolus is moved into the stomach through esophagus by the Process known as Peristalsis. Note: Average Production of saliva is 1 to 2 litre/day. In stomach Gastric juice is secreted. 1- HCl- Secreted by Oxyntic cells. Function -1. It makes medium Acidic so that pepsin and Rennin enzyme can easily work 2. Hydrochloric acid kills microbes. 2- Pepsin - Secreted or Produced by peptic cell.It converts protein in to peptones. Pepsin Enzyme Protein ------Peptones. 3- Rennin - Rennin Caseinogen------Casein ------Calcium Paracaseinate (Milk Protein) This semi digestive food material is moved into duodenum part of small intestine. Human Stomach has 3 parts 1- Fundus 2- Body 3- Pylorus The entry of food material from the oesophagus into the stomach is guarded by small muscular aperture known as Oesophagial sphincter. The movement of food particle from the stomach into the dudoenum part which is again guarded by small muscle known as Pyloric sphincter .Human stomach is 'J' Shaped while the duodenum part is 'C' Shaped. In duodenum most of the digestion takes place. Here bile juice, pancreatic juice and Intestinal Juice helps in digestion. Bile juice is secreted by Liver which is then stored into Gall Bladder .With the help of Bile duct, bile Juice is released in duodenum from gall Bladder. This Bill Juice has no enzymes although it helps in the digestion of fatty material and absorption of it. Pancreatic Juice - It is secreted by Exocrine part of pancreas while endocrine part of Pancreas secretes hormone. Trypsin 1. Protein ------Peptones
Pancreatic Amylase 2. Starch/disaccharides ------Monosaccharide.
Pancreatic Lipase 3. Fat ------Diglyceride + Monoglyceride.
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Digestion in Small-intestine - Small intestine has 3 parts Duodenum, Jejunum and Ileum. In small intestine, intestinal juice is secreted which has following enzymes. Erepsin 1- Peptone/Protein ------Amino Acid
Intestinal Lipase 2- Diglyceride/Fat ------Monoglyceride.
Maltase 3- Maltose ------Glucose + Glucose
Sucrase 4- Sucrose ------Glucose + Fructose
Lactose (Fruit sugar) 5- Lactose ------ Glucose + Galactose (Milk sugar) Note: In Honey, Fructose is found in maximum proportion. After complete digestion, the absorption of food material takes place. Maximum absorption occurs in ileum part of small intestine while maximum digestion take place in duodenum but the digestion and absorption process starts in mouth. Caecum - Meeting part or Joining part of small and large intestine. In large Intestine no digestion takes place but the maximum absorption of water takes place in large intestine. Below caecum, there is vestigeal organ called Vermiform Appendix. (Vestigial organ are those organ which were useful in our ancestors but they are not useful now). In case of Indigestion/constipation/over eating, there is swelling in the Vermiform Appendix known as Appendixitis. Because of swelling in Appendix it causes pain while sitting so it is removed out by operation or by surgery this process is called Appendixtomy. Absorption in the small intestine takes place with the help of villi and microvilli. They are the finger like Projection which increases the surface area for absorption. Liver Cirrhosis is the disease of the liver generally occurs in those Persons who drinks excessive alcohol or more alcohol. Liver helps in detoxification of alcohol and drugs. Liver produces heparin (a type of protein) which prevents clotting of blood inside the body. Liver is made up of Hepatic cells known as Hepatocyte. Pancreas has endocrine part known as islets of Langerhans which has 3 Type of cells i.e. 훼, 훽, 훾 cell 훼 Cell - Secretes Glucagon hormone which help in the conversion of Glycogen into Glucose. 훽 Cell - Secretes Insulin which help in the conversion of Glucose into Glycogen. 훾 Cell- Secretes, Somatostatin which help in Absorption which ultimately helps in body growth. Note: Deficiency of Insulin Causes Diabetes.
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Skin is the largest organ of Human body while liver is the largest internal organ of the human body. Liver is the largest Gland of Human body while pancreas is the largest mexocrine Gland of the Human body. Pituitary Gland is smallest Gland of Human body. Respiratory System Human respiratory system consists of Nose, Trachea, Lungs.It has accessory structures like Diaphragm external Inter costal muscle, (b/w the Ribs). It has 2 processes: 1. Breathing - Inhalation and Exhalation of air is called Breathing.
2- Respiration - It has 2 types (a)Aerobic Respiration: It is burning of Glucose in the presence of oxygen.
퐶6퐻12푂6 + 602 → 6퐶푂 + 6퐻20 + 퐸푛푒푟푔푦.[In the form of ATP] (b)Anaerobic respiration - During heavy exercise like running, swimming, gym exercise, the oxygen need of human body increases. In this case the burning of glucose occurs in the absenee of oxygen it is known as anaerobic respiration. The Product in Anaerobic respiration is Lactic Acid . Note- Due to accumulation of Lactic acid in the muscle during heavy exercise, it causes pain in the Muscles.
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Animal Respiratory Organ Fish Gills Human Lungs Frog Skin Reptiles, Birds Lungs Mammals Lungs.
Human has a pair of external nostrils opening out above the upper lips. It opens in to a nasal chamber through the Nasal passage. The Nasal Chamber Opens into the Pharynx (A portion of which is the common passage for food and air).The Pharynx opens through the Larynx region into the Trachea. Larynx is the box which helps in sound production and hence called the sound box. During swallowing Glottis can be covered by a thin elastic flap called epiglottis to prevent entry of food into the Trachea. Trachea is a straight tube extending up to mid thoracic cavity (Whole chest) which divides at the level of fifth Thoracic vertebrae [퐶7, 푇12퐿5 푆1 푐푥1] in to Right and left Bronchiole as branches. Each Bronchi undergo repeated division to form the secondary and tertiary Bronchi and ends into a Terminal Bronchiole that give rise to a number of very thin, irregular walled and vascularised(Which has supply of blood vessels) bag like structure called alveoli. Note - Alveoli is the basic structural and functional unit of Lungs. The Branching Network of Bronchi, Bronchiole and Alveoli Comprises to form lungs. Human has two lungs which are covered by a double layered pleural membrane with plural fluid filled between them. It reduces the friction on the lung surface. 10 G.5 CHOURARA POINT PHOOLBAGH GWALIOR M.P, Ph. 0751-4085889,Mo.- 8602188262 Science Notes by Anil Dhakad
Respiration involves the following steps.
1- Breathing or Pulmonary ventilation by which atmospheric air is drawn in and 퐶표2 rich alveolar air is released out.
2- Diffusion of Gases (푂2 & 퐶푂2) across the alveolar membrane. 3- Transport of gases by Blood.
a) 푂2 is Transported in form of oxy-hemoglobin.
b) 퐶푂2 is Transported in the form of Bicarbonates, Carbonic acid and In dissolved plasma.
4- Diffusion of 푂2 & 퐶푂2 between blood and tissues.
5- Utilization of 푂2 by the cells for catabolic reaction. (Large molecule into smaller molecule, opposite of catabolic is anabolic) and results in release of 퐶푂2 Mechanism of Respiration Inhalation – (a) During inhalation dome shape diaphragm becomes flat. (b)Due to contraction in internal intercostals muscle and external intercostals muscle, Ribs goes outward and upward. (c)The volume of Thoracic cavity increases simultaneously the pressure inside the lungs goes down. So, by diffusion atmospheric air automatically moves into or goes in to the lungs. Exhalation - (a) During exhalation flat shape diaphragm becomes dome shape. (b)Due to relaxation in internal intercostals muscle and external intercostals muscle, Ribs goes inward and downward. (c)The volume of Thoracic cavity decreases simultaneously the pressure inside the lungs goes up. So, by diffusion, alveolar air automatically moves out or goes out from the lungs. Note: One Human lung has 150 million alveoli. Note:(Average Respiration rate is 14-16 Times/Minute) Breathing involves inhalation and exhalation and this Breathing rate is regulated by medulla oblongata. Note: Medulla Oblongata also known as vomiting centre.
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Blood Circulation System In Animal kingdom circulation system is of 2 types. 1- Open circulation system - This system is found in arthropods (Insects). E.g. - Cockroach. In this system the pumped blood is drained in to an open space. Either it has some blood vessels or blood vessels are absent. 2- Closed circulatory system - It is found in Annelida group (Earth worm) and chordates (PARAM- Pisces, Amphibian, Reptiles, Aves, Mammals). In this system blood is pumped by heart in the network of blood vessels. It is more developed than open circulatory system and it has many advantages over later system because blood pressure can be easily regulated in closed circulatory system. In all chordates heart has chambers. (a) Pisces has only two chambers. One Atrium and ventricle (Mixed blood is found in Pisces heart) (b) In Amphibians and Reptiles (Except Crocodile) heart has 3 Chambers in which 2 atrium and 1 ventricle is present. (Mixed blood found) (c) Crocodile, Aves (Birds) and mammal’s hearts has 4 chambers which has 2 Atrium and 2 Ventricles In these hearts there is no mixing of blood. Human Circulatory System Human circulatory system has heart, blood vessels and blood flowing through it.
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Human Heart Human heart is originated from mesoderm layer and it is situated between two lungs in the Thoracic cavity. It is slightly tilted towards left side and it is of a closed fist shape. Human heart has 4 chambers viz. right Atrium, right ventricle, left Atrium and left ventricle. Atrium is slightly smaller in size as compared to ventricles while ventricles have thicker wall as compare to Atrium. It is so, because ventricles have to pump blood to whole of the body. Heart is protected by double membrane pericardial membrane in which pericardial fluid is present. This pericardial fluid decreases the friction between heart and pericardial membrane. Two Atriums are separated by inter Atrial septum and ventricles are separated by inter ventricular septum. Right Atrium and right ventricle is separated by Inter Atrio ventricular aperture which is guarded by Tricuspid valve which in turn prevents back flow of blood from ventricles into the Atrium during systolic condition(Contraction phase). Left Atrium and left ventricle is separated by Left Inter Atrio ventricular aperture which is guarded by Bicuspid valve or Mitral valve. Pulmonary Aorta is guarded by pulmonary vale while Aorta that originates from left ventricle is guarded by Aortic valve, this Aortic valve is also known as semi lunar valve. Double Circulation
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Deoxygenated blood from the body is collected by inferior vanacava (Lower body part) and superior vanacava (Upper body part) and pours this blood into Right Atrium. Then due to contraction in atrium, this blood goes into right ventricle. Due to contraction in Right ventricle (Systolic phase), this deoxygenated blood gets pumped towards the lungs by pulmonary artery. Note - Arteries are those blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart. All arteries carry pure or oxygenated blood except pulmonary Artery, which carries impure or deoxygenated blood. After oxygenation of blood at the levels of lungs, oxygenated or pure blood moves towards left Atrium through pulmonary vein. Due to contraction in left atrium, this pure blood moves down into left ventricle and in contraction of muscles of left ventricle, this pure blood pumped to whole body by Aorta. Note - Veins are those blood vessels which bring blood back towards the heart all veins carry deoxygenated or impure blood except pulmonary vein. Some important point - Stethoscope - Instrument use to measure heart beat rate. Average heart beat rate is 72 beat per minute. Sphygmomanometer- Instrument use to measure blood pressure. Normal blood pressure is 120/80 mm of Hg. (120mm of Hg=Systolic pressure,80mm of Hg=Diastolic Pressure) Pace maker - Used at the place of Sinu Atrial node (SA Node) Coronary Artery - Those Arteries which supply blood only to the heart. Clotting in the coronary artery leads to heart attack (minor or major). Average weight of the heart is 270-300 gm. Normal condition when heart is located left side Sinistrocardia and when shifted to Right.,it is known as Dextrocardia. Hole in the heart actually is the passage of mixing of blood of right atrium and left atrium through foramen ovale. This hole is corrected or get filled up with cardiac tissue. (This is a form of muscular Tissue). Blue baby syndrome is caused due to contact of pregnant female with the nitrates or fertilizers. Tropism - Movement of plant towards a stimulus e.g. Geotropism, photo Tropism (sun Light).
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Excretory System Excretion - The removal of excretory waste product from the body is known as excretion. These waste products are produced during catabolic processes. Waste product includes 퐶푂2, 푁퐻3, 푒푡푐 Excretion is done mostly by 4 organs. 1- Skin - Skin has 2 types of glands (a) Sebaceous gland: These glands secrete sebum (Oily material) so that the skin can be remain moist. (b) Sweat gland - These secretes water and minerals so that the thermostatic condition of the body can easily maintained i.e. Temperature of the body remains constant. 2- Liver - It helps in detoxification of drugs and alcohol. It also helps in the removal of ammonia and 퐶푂2 by process known as Ornithine cycle. In this 퐶푂2 and 푁퐻3 gets converted into urea. [푁퐻2 − 퐶푂 − 푁퐻2, 퐴푡표푚푖푐 푚푎푠푠 표푓 푈푟푒푎 = 60 ] Note - The ammonia content in urea is approximately 46%.
3- Lungs - It helps in removal of 퐶푂2 that is produced during respiration. 4- Kidney - It helps in the excretion of Urea e.g. Mammals. (a) Excretion of Ammonia - Ammonia excretion requires plenty of water. E.g.- Pisces and Amphibians. (b) Excretion of Uric acid - Uric acid excretion does not require more water E.g.- Insects, Reptiles (Lizard), Aves, Snail. (c) Excretion of Urea - Urea excretion requires some water e.g. Mammalian class including Human. Note - Urea excretion is called Ureotelic; Ammonia excretion is called Ammoniotelic while uric acid excretion is called Uricotelic. Human excretory system
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Human excretory system includes 2 Kidney, 2 Ureter, 1 Urinary bladder and 1 urethra. Kidney: Human kidney is bean shaped organ. It has outer region known as Cortex, while inner region is called Medulla. Hilus is the region from where Ureter comes out. Kidneys are Brown colored of size 7 to 8 cm width, 12-14 cm length and 3-4 thick. Medulla is divided into cone shape structure known as pyramids. The base region of these pyramids are called column of Bertini. Each kidney has 1million Nephron (10 Lakh). Note - Nephron is a basic structural and functional unit of kidney. Nephron - Nephron has two parts. 1- Glomerulus. 2- Kidney Tubules. Glomerulus - It is made up of afferent arteriole and efferent arteriole. The aperture of or lumen of efferent arteriole is smaller as compare to efferent arteriole so that Glomerular pressure (GHP- Glomerular Hydrostatic Pressure) can be generated. In this condition due to pressure glucose molecule, urea, water, some minerals, salts like 푁푎−1, 푐푙−1, 퐾+, 퐶푎++ gets filtered into Bowman's capsule. This filtration is called as ultra filtration and the material is known as filtrate. Nephron Tubules - These tubules starts with the double membranous Bowman's capsule in which Glomerulus is present. Glomerulus and Bowman's capsule are together known as Malpighian corpuscle. Bowman's capsule is made up of specialized cell known as Podocyte. Bowman's capsule connected with a coiled structure known as proximal convoluted tubules(P.C.T.), and collecting tubules which give rises to collecting ducts. When filtrate comes out in P.C.T., the reabsorption of glucose occurs from P.C.T. to vasarecta (absorb minerals) then this filtrate moves to descending limb of loop of Henle where re-absorption of water occurs. Mineral re-absorption is done at the level of ascending limb of loop of Henle. Then when This filtrate reaches to D.C.T. the water re-absorption occurs with the help of A.D.H. hormone. (Anti- Diuretic Hormone) Note - More urine formation than the normal condition is known as diuresis. At the level of ascending limb of loop of Henle, urea is secreted out from vasarecta into ALLH [Ascending limb of loop of Henle] .The remaining filtrate from DCT moves in to collecting duct from where it opens
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into ureter or hilus part. From there urine is collected or stored in the urinary bladder and from the urine bladder urine is excreted out by Urethera (Uretheral opening). Urethra is guarded by the Uretheral sphincter which maintains or regulates the Urine amount in the urinary bladder. Some important Points- Human kidney are 2 in number and average weight is 120-170 gm. Kidney stones are made of calcium oxalate. Swelling in kidney is known as nephritis. Urine composition 95% Water, 2 % salts, 2.6 % Urea, 0.02% Uric Acid, 0.2% others. pH-6 (Slightly acidic). The Yellow color of urine is due to Urochrome (Urochrome produced by disintegration of Hemoglobin)
Animal Excretory Organ Unicellular organism annelida group (Earthwom) - Diffusion Arthopoda(Cockroach) ------ Nephridia Flate worms (Platyhelminthes, Planaria)------ Malpighian organ Atrial Natri-Uretic factor - It is secreted by the muscles of Atrial wall of heart. It is secreted when blood volume or blood pressure get increased. It has function just opposite to Aldosterone hormone. Aldosetrone increase the rate of re-absorption or retention power of sodium ions. Renin - Angiotensin System - This system is made up of Renin and Angiotensin enzyme. This system works only when blood pressure or blood volume is low. Renin is the protein secreted by kidney cells. This Renin converts Angiotensinogen into 10 Amino acid long Angiotensin enzyme which is then gets converted into 8 amino acid long Angiotensin enzyme in the presence of Angiotensinase enzyme which is secreted by inner walls of blood vessels, i.e. endothelium. Angiotensin constricts blood vessel so that blood pressure can be increased.
Some factual information Weight of Kidney120-170 gm. Kidney stone - Calcium Oxalate. Urine (푃퐻 =6) - Water 95%, Urea 2.6%, salts 2.0%, Uric acid0.1%, other 0.3% Nephritis - Inflammation of kidney Urochrome - Due to this pigment, Urine is of yellow color.
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Blood Blood is a fluid connective tissue that transports Oxygen, 퐶푂2 protein, enzymes, hormones, minerals, salts, fat, glucose and other digestive and essential materials (food particles) from one part of body to another part where it is needed. It constitutes approximately 7 to 9% of human body weight which is approximately 5 to 6 litre. It has P.H. 7.36 It is divided into two parts. (a) Blood Corpuscles (b) Plasma
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Blood Corpuscles - These constitutes approximate 40% blood volume. Blood Corpuscles are of 3 types. 1-R.B.C. (Red Blood Corpuscle):- In mammals, R.B.C. is of biconcave structure so that it cannot get rupture when it passes through through blood vessels. It is devoid of nucleus so that it can have more space to accommodate more hemoglobin. Note - Llama and Camel (both are mammalian) have nucleus in their R.B.C.
Llama Camel The formation of R.B.C. occurs in born marrow. Bone marrow present mostly in larger bone like femur humorous, vertebral bones and ribs. For the formation of R.B.C. Iron, Vitamin 퐵12 (it has Cobalt 60 퐶푂표27 Radioactive), Folic acid (푉푖푡푎푚푖푛 퐵9) required.
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Note -During embryonic development, the formation of R.B.C. occurs in liver and spleen (because bones at that period have not sufficiently developed). The Average life span of R.B.C. is 120 days it the blood. If it kept in blood bank then life span of R.B.C. reduced to 60 days. The Red color of Blood is due to availability of Hemoglobin in R.B.C. Old and damaged RBCs are destroyed in the spleen. Hence, it is known as the graveyard of RBCs. Hemoglobin - Hemoglobin is a red pigment which has two parts haem and globin. Haem is an iron containing pigment while globin is the protein. Hemoglobin carries oxygen from lungs to other parts of human body. During certain diseases like malaria etc. the amount of hemoglobin decreases, this is known as Anemia. Average hemoglobin in male is 14.5-16.5 gm/100 ml blood (cubic milli mitre) while in female it is 12.5 -14.5 gm/100ml of blood.
20 G.5 CHOURARA POINT PHOOLBAGH GWALIOR M.P, Ph. 0751-4085889,Mo.- 8602188262 Science Notes by Anil Dhakad
The Average R.B.C. count in Human is 5 to 5.5 million/ 100 ml of Blood. The R.B.C. count is done by Hemocytometer. The Average count of R.B.C. is more in those persons who lives in hilly areas as compare to plain areas because in hilly areas atmospheric pressure is low as compare to plain area but those persons require same amount of 푂2 and it can be only full-filled by increasing average count of R.B.C./100 ml. of Blood. 2- W.B.C./(Leucocytes:- They are amoeboidal in shape and They don't have specific shape. Nucleus is present in leucocytes or W.B.C. and the formation of W.B.C. occurs in bone marrow and lymph nodes. W.B.C. has an Average life span of 3 to 10 days. Leucocytes mainly helps in the immune system of the human body that is why these cell fight against disease causing micro organism/ antigen/foreign particles so these cells are known as police man of body. The average count of W.B.C. is 8,000 to 12,000/100 ml of blood. Decrease in Leucocyte count is known as Leucopenia while the increase in Leucocyte count is known as Lecuocytosis. Similarly decrease in R.B.C. count is known as Erythrocytopenia while increase in R.B.C. count is known as Erythrocytosis. The disease in which the production/formation of W.B.Cs get increased but the size remains smaller, this is known as leukemia (Blood Cancer). For the Treatment of Leukemic 퐶푂60 is used. White Blood Corpulses can be divided into 2 parts. 1. Agrandular W.B.C. – It has 2 types: Monocyte: It can phagocitise disease causing micro organism or foreign particle (Antigens). The process of engulfing and digesting foreign particle is known as phagocytosis.(Liquid drinking by cell is known as Pinocytosis) Lymphocyte: - These are those cells which produce Antibodies and these are those molecule which helps in Human immune system and fight against antigens. Antigens-Antibody reaction is known as aggluitinization. Lymphocytes are of 3 Types: (a) T-Lymphocytes (b)B-Lymphocytes (c)NK-(Natural Killer) Cell 2.Granular W.B.C. - These are of 3 types : (a) Eosinophil (b) Neutrophil (c)Basophil These also helps in immune system. *Note:Neutrophils are approx 60 to 70% part of W.B.C. *Note - The Ratio of R.B.C. to W.B.C. is 600:1
21 G.5 CHOURARA POINT PHOOLBAGH GWALIOR M.P, Ph. 0751-4085889,Mo.- 8602188262 Science Notes by Anil Dhakad
3-Platelets or Thrmbocytes:- These cells are Rhomboidal in shape and have Average life span of 7 to 9 days. Nucleus is absent and Average count is 1-1.5 Lakh/100 ml of blood. These cells mostly help in clotting of blood. *Note -Heparin is a protein produced by liver and prevents clotting of blood inside the blood vessel. *Note -Fibrinogen is also a protein produced by Liver but it helps in clotting of blood. In case of dengue the Average count of Thrmbocytes decreases, this condition is known as Thrombocytopenia. Function of Blood: To carry oxygen to Tissues and organs of human body. To carry nutrients like Glucose, amino acid, Lipid, protein, etc. to the organs of Human body. To excrete out waste product from the human body like excretion of urea through kidney and excretion of 퐶푂2 through Lungs. To protect human body from diseases. To maintain 푝퐻 , Temperature and mineral contents in human body. To Transport water from one part of human body to another. Blood Group: Blood groups are discovered by Carl Landsteiner. At the surface of R.B.C. a specific glycoprotein is present which is known as antigen. According to structure of these glycoproteins. These are of 2 types: (a)Antigen A (b)Antigen B Blood Group Antigen on RBC Antibody in Serum A A b/Anti-B B B a/Anti-A AB AB No antibody O No antigen. ab/Anti-A and Anti-B Blood Transfusion / Blood Compatibility: Antigen 'A' and Antibody 'a' or Antigen 'B' and antibody 'b' can't be present together, if it is so, then antigen and antibody coagulates to each other. This is known as agglutination. In this case a clot inside the blood vessels, known as thrombus, is formed. A blockage inside blood vessel due to Thrombus is known as Thrombosis. If a clot (Thrombus) moves from one part of blood vessel to another part of vessel then it is known as embolus and the blockage due to embolus is known an embolism, so to avoid agglutination during blood transfusion blood compatibility is checked. During blood Transfusion we have to take care of that. Blood group of one person is cross - tested with another person.
22 G.5 CHOURARA POINT PHOOLBAGH GWALIOR M.P, Ph. 0751-4085889,Mo.- 8602188262 Science Notes by Anil Dhakad
Relationship b/w blood Type and Antibodies: Blood Type Antigen on Can donate Antibodies in Can receive R.B.C. blood to. serum blood from A A A, AB b A, O B B B, AB a B, O AB AB AB Nil AB, O, A,B O Nil A, B, AB, O ab O Note - ''AB'' blood type is called as universal recipient while ''O'' blood type is known as universal donor.
Rh factor: It was discover by Landsteiner and Weiner. It is called so because it was discovered in Rhesus monkey. If Rh antigen is present then blood type is Rh +ve, if Rh is not Present then it is called Rh – ve . *Note - In world, 85% population is Rh+ve While in India, Rh +ve population is 90%.
Father*Mother Blood group Possible Blood group of Impossible Blood group of offsprings(Children) offsprings(Children) O×O O A,B,AB O×A O,A B,AB, O×B O,B A,AB O×AB A,B O,AB A×A A,O B,AB A×B O,A,B,AB NONE A×AB A,B,AB O B×B B,O A,AB B×AB A,B,AB O AB×AB A,B,AB O
Erythroblastosis foetalis -Generally this is rupturing of R.B.C. during foetal period. It occurs if father is Rh + ve and mother is Rh-ve. During conception (attachment of zygote), If child is Rh+ve then antibody against this blood type is formed inside the body of pregnant female. The first child in this case will be normal but if 2nd child is also Rh+ve, then the already formed antibody will coagulate to the RBC of 2nd Rh +ve child, Agglutination occurs and this results in death of 2nd child.
23 G.5 CHOURARA POINT PHOOLBAGH GWALIOR M.P, Ph. 0751-4085889,Mo.- 8602188262 Science Notes by Anil Dhakad
. Blood Clotting:
During injury or rupture of blood vessel’s innermost layer (i.e. Endothelium), the heparin, when comes in contact with air, becomes inactivated (Heparin is the protein produced by Liver prevent blood clotting inside the blood vessel) and the process of blood clotting starts. Step I : Thromboplastin+ Prothrombin ------ Thrombin Step II : Thrombin + Fibrinogen ------ Fibrin
24 G.5 CHOURARA POINT PHOOLBAGH GWALIOR M.P, Ph. 0751-4085889,Mo.- 8602188262 Science Notes by Anil Dhakad
Step III: Fibrin + Platlets ------ Blood clot *Note - Prothrombin and Fibriongen are also proteins which are produced by liver in the presence of vitamin 'K' *Note - Calcium ions are required for normal clotting of blood. This is also very much useful in muscle contraction (Narrowing of passage/ constriction).
Hemophilia: 1- Normal Time of blood clotting is 15 sec but in this disease this blood clotting time may go up to 15 min or even more so the person who suffers from hemophilia disease can die in case of accident due to more blood loss. It occurs due to lack of anti hemophilic factor. This disease is also known as Royal disease. It is a hereditary disease. Jaundice - It occurs due to increase in bilirubin level. In Jaundice the color of skin becomes yellowish. The Average level of bilirubin is 0.3-1.9 mg. per 100 ml of blood (100 ml= 1 Deci litre). Causes of Jaundice – Some underlying conditions that may cause jaundice are: 1. Acute inflammation of the liver - may impair the ability of the liver to conjugate and secrete bilirubin, resulting in a buildup. 2. Inflammation of the bile duct - may prevent the secretion of bile and removal of bilirubin, causing jaundice. 3. Obstruction of the bile duct - prevents the liver from disposing of bilirubin. 4. Hemolytic anemia - production of bilirubin increases when large quantities of red blood cells are broken down. 5. Gilbert’s syndrome - an inherited condition that impairs the ability of enzymes to process the excretion of bile. 6. Cholestasis - a condition where the flow of bile from the liver is interrupted. The bile containing conjugated bilirubin remains in the liver instead of being excreted. During Malaria or other certain diseases, the rupturing rate of R.B.C. increases which in turn increases the billirubin level in blood. It results in Jaundice. During certain diseases the working capacity of liver decreases this will also results in jaundice e-g Liver cirrhosis. Diagnosis of jaundice: Doctors will most likely diagnose jaundice based on the patient's history and a physical exam, paying close attention to the abdomen. Doctors will be feeling for masses (tumors) in the abdomen and/or checking the firmness of the liver; a firm liver indicates cirrhosis, while a rock-hard liver indicates cancer. The severity of jaundice is determined by several tests, the first of which is a liver function test to find out whether or not the liver is functioning properly. If the cause of the symptoms cannot be identified, a doctor may require blood tests to check levels of bilirubin and evaluate the composition of the blood. Some of these tests include: 1. Bilirubin tests - a high level of unconjugated bilirubin relative to levels of conjugated bilirubin indicates hemolysis (accelerated breakdown of red blood cells) 2. Full blood count (FBC), or complete blood count (CBC) - measures levels of red blood cells, leucocytes (white blood cells), and thrombocytes (platelets). 3. Hepatitis A, B, and C tests.
25 G.5 CHOURARA POINT PHOOLBAGH GWALIOR M.P, Ph. 0751-4085889,Mo.- 8602188262 Science Notes by Anil Dhakad
Vitamin Vitamins: These are those carbonic compound which don't produce energy and very much important for human body growth. These are those substances which help to complete the various physiological functions of the human body. Along with these other nutrients are required for normal body growth is fat, protein and carbohydrate remaining later 3 Nutrients produces energy. Vitamins were discovered by ''C funk'' in 1911 On the basis of solubility of vitamins these are divided into two parts. 1-Fat soluble – Vit. A,Vit D, Vit. E, Vit. K 2-Water Soluble – Vitamin B, Vitamin C Except Vitamin D & K all vitamins are taken with the food. Vitamin D is produced inside the human body in 3 steps from cholesterol. First step is completed in Skin, 2nd Step in kidney and 3rd Step is completed in Liver where it is stored. Vitamin K is synthesized in small intestine and it is absorbed from there too. Table of Vitamins
Vitamin Name Chemical Name Deficiency Disease Source Vitamin A Retinol Night blindness, Milk, Egg, Cheese, Infection in eyes, Green vegetable, Xerophthalamia Cod liver oil (Oil of
26 G.5 CHOURARA POINT PHOOLBAGH GWALIOR M.P, Ph. 0751-4085889,Mo.- 8602188262 Science Notes by Anil Dhakad
fish) Ground nut, Carrot. B Complex Vitamin 퐵1 Thiamine Beri-Beri Cod liver oil, Green (Mental retardation) vegetables. Vitamin 퐵2 Riboflavin Sclerosis Green Vegetables, milk Vitamin 퐵3 Nicotinomide (Niacin 4-DSyndrome, Groundnut, Green / Nicotinic acid) Pellagra Vegetable, Tomato Vitamin 퐵5 Pentothenic acid Mental retardness, Milk, Ground nut Whitening of hairs Vitamin 퐵6 Pyridoxine Anemia Cod liver Oil, Cereals Vitamin 퐵7 푣푖푡 − Biotin Falling of hairs Milk, Cod liver oil 퐻 Cereals. Vitamin 퐵12 Cyano-cobalamine Pernicious Anemia Milk, Cod liver oil Vitamin Folic Acid Anemia Milk, Cod liver oil, 퐵9 푉푖푡. 푀 Cereals Vitamin C Ascorbic acid Scurvy Lemon, Orange, Tomato etc Vitamin D Calciferol/Ergocalciferol Ricket,Osteomalacia Milk Vitamin E Tocoferol Loss in reproduction Green vegetable, power milk, cereals Vitamin K Phylloquinone Absence of clotting of Tomato, Green blood Vegetable
Note - Kwashirokar and Marasmus are protein deficiency diseases.
Carbo hydrate - These are those compounds that have carbon, hydrogen and oxygen as its component in the ratio 1:2:1 e.g. 퐶6퐻12푂6 . Carbohydrate produces energy. Carbohydrates are of 3 Types 1- Monosaccharide - It has one glucose unit e.g. Glucose, Fructose and Galactose. 2- Oligosaccharide - It has 2 to 10 Glucose unit e.g. Lactose, Maltose, Sucrose [Disaccharides]. 3- Polysaccharide - It has more than 10 glucose units e.g. starch, cellulose.
Skelton System
This system helps in locomotion and movement of the human body. It consists of (1)Axial skeleton: Total no. of bones in Axial skeleton is 80.
27 G.5 CHOURARA POINT PHOOLBAGH GWALIOR M.P, Ph. 0751-4085889,Mo.- 8602188262 Science Notes by Anil Dhakad
It has four parts (a) Cranial Bones: They are 29 Bones. It has 4 parts (i) Skull Bones: They are 8 bones. Frontal Bone (1) Occipital Bone (1) Temporal Bone (2) Parietal Bone (1) Sphenoid Bone (2) Ethmoid bone (1) (ii) Facial Bone: They are 14 bones. Palatine bone (2) Lachrymal Bone (2) Nasal bone (2) Zygomatic Bone (2) Maxilla Bone (2) Mandible Bone (1)
28 G.5 CHOURARA POINT PHOOLBAGH GWALIOR M.P, Ph. 0751-4085889,Mo.- 8602188262 Science Notes by Anil Dhakad
Nasal Conchae(2) Vomer bone (1)
(iii)Ear Ossicles: They are 6 Bones. Incus (2) Maleus (2) Stapes (2)- It is smallest bone of human body. (iv) Thyroid bone (Hyoid bone): It is 1 Bone. (b) Sternum: It is from neck to stomach in anterior part. (c) Ribs: They are 24 Bones. True Ribs: 7 pairs False Ribs: 3 pairs Floating Ribs: 2 pairs (d) Vertebral Column: It has 26 bones. Cervical Vertebrae: 7 Bones, The 1st vertebrae of cervical region is known as Atlas while 2nd vertebrae is known as Axis. Thoracic Vertebrae: 12 Bones Lumbar Vertebrae: 5 Bones Sacral Vertebrae: 1 Bone Coccygeal Vertebrae: 1 Bone
29 G.5 CHOURARA POINT PHOOLBAGH GWALIOR M.P, Ph. 0751-4085889,Mo.- 8602188262 Science Notes by Anil Dhakad
2. Appendicular Skelton : It has 126 bones (a) Hand Bones: Humerus (1×2=2) Ulna (1×2=2) Radius (1×2=2) Carpals (8×2=16) Meta carpals (5×2=10) Phallanges (14×2=28) (b) Leg Bones: Femur(1×2=2) Tibia (1×2=2) Fibula (1×2=2) Patella (1×2=2) Tarsal (7×2=14) Meta tarsal (5×2=10) Phallanges (14×2=28) Note: Patella bone is also known as Knee cap.
30 G.5 CHOURARA POINT PHOOLBAGH GWALIOR M.P, Ph. 0751-4085889,Mo.- 8602188262 Science Notes by Anil Dhakad
(c) Girdles : 2 Types of Girdls Pectoral Girdle: 4 Bones 1. Clavicle: 2 bones, Clavicle also known as Beauty bone/ Collar bone. 2. Scapula : 2 bones Pelvic girdle : 2 Bones, Each bone is made up of 3 bones viz. Ilium, Ischium and Pubis.Both bone joins to form Pubic Symphisis. Bones are mainly made up of calcium phosphate and milk is the rich source of calcium. Total No. of Skeletal Muscles -639(~640) Total No. of Bones - 206 (at birth, No of bones are around 300) Diseases: Osteoporosis - This is the age related disorder in which the estrogen level goes down as the age increases. This disease is mostly found in female as estrogen hormone is found in female. Estrogen Hormone strengthen bones by depositing calcium and phosphate from blood stream into the bone. Gout - Deposition of Uric acid in the joints. It causes pain in the joints. Arthritis - Swelling in Joints. Note: Protein is a polymer of Amino acid (Monomer). It is synthesized with the help of R.N.A. (Ribo Nucleic Acid) on the surface of Ribosome.R.N.A. is of 3 types. 1-m RNA (Messenger RNA) 2- t RNA (transfer RNA 3- r RNA (ribosomal RNA)
Endocrine System
31 G.5 CHOURARA POINT PHOOLBAGH GWALIOR M.P, Ph. 0751-4085889,Mo.- 8602188262 Science Notes by Anil Dhakad
Human endocrine system includes all the glands in your body that make hormones. These chemical messengers play a key role in making sure your body works the way it should. If your endocrine system isn't healthy, you might have problems developing during puberty, getting pregnant, or managing stress. You also might gain weight easily, have weak bones, or lack energy because too much sugar stays in your blood instead of moving into your cells where it's needed for energy. Many different glands make up the endocrine system. The hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and pineal gland are your brain. The thyroid and parathyroid glands are in your neck. The thymus is between your lungs, the adrenals are on top of your kidneys, and the pancreas is behind your stomach. Your ovaries (if you're a woman) or testes (if you're a man) are in your pelvic region. Hypothalamus: This organ connects your endocrine system with your nervous system. Its main job is to tell your pituitary gland to start or stop making hormones. Pituitary: This is the "master" gland of your endocrine system. It uses information it gets from your brain to "tell" other glands in your body what to do. It makes many different important hormones, including growth hormone; prolactin, which helps breastfeeding moms make milk; and luteinizing hormone, which manages estrogen in women and testosterone in men. Pineal: This gland makes a chemical called melatonin. It helps your body get ready to go to sleep. Thyroid: This gland makes thyroid hormone, which controls your metabolism. If this gland doesn't make enough (a condition called hypothyroidism), everything happens more slowly. Your heart rate might slow down. You could get constipated. And you might gain weight. If it makes too much (hyperthyroidism), everything speeds up. Your heart might race. You could have diarrhea. And you might lose weight without trying. Parathyroid: This is a set of four small glands behind your thyroid. They are important for bone health. The glands control your levels of calcium and phosphorus. Thymus: This gland makes white blood cells called T-lymphocytes that fight infection and are crucial as a child's immune system develops. The thymus starts to shrink after puberty. Adrenals: Best known for making the "fight or flight" hormone adrenaline (epinephrine), these two glands also make corticosteroids. These are hormones that affect your metabolism and sexual function, among other things. Pancreas: The pancreas is part of both your digestive and endocrine systems. It makes digestive enzymes that break down food. It also makes the hormones insulin and glucagon. These help ensure you have the right amount of sugar in your bloodstream and your cells. If you don't make any insulin, which is the case for people with type 1 diabetes, your blood sugar levels can get dangerously high. In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas usually makes some insulin but not enough.
“Best Wishes for YOUR FUTURE”
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