JOURNAL OF P-ISSN: 2086-2636 E-ISSN: 2356-4644 Journal Home Page: http://ejournal.uin-malang.ac.id/index.php/JIA

O TTOMAN IN SANA'A, ARCHEOLOG ICAL AND A RCHITECTURAL STUDY

|Received June 27th 2016 | Accepted March 6th 2017| Available online June 15th 2017| | DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.18860/jia.v4i3.3533 |

Mohamed Ahmed Abd El Rahman Enab A BSTRAC T Department of Islamic archeology Faculty of archeology, Fayoum University, The Ottoman presence in Yemen is divided into two periods, first period from Fayoum, Egypt 945 AH until 1045 AH, and then the second from 1289 AH until 1336 AH, [email protected] Ottomans interested during their presence in Yemen to establish different types of charitable buildings especially, religious buildings, which include mosques, madrassas, and shrines. The aim of interest of Ottomans governors to make significant civilized and architectural renaissance in Yemen, especially Sana'a, with emphasis on establishment mosques to get closer to God and to gain sympathy and love of the people of Yemen. Most of these mosques do the role of the madrassas as documents indicate like of Özdemir, Al-Muradiyya and Al-Bakiriyya therefore, Ottomans are Hanifite Sunni and want by these mosques to facing shite and spread Sunni. In this paper researcher will discuss styles of Ottoman mosques in Sana'a. There are eight mosques, seven dates to the first period of Ottomans in Yemen and only one date to the second period of Ottomans in Yemen.

KEYWO RDS: Ottomans, Al-Bakiriyya, Özdemir, Sinan Pasha, Sana'a, Abdul Hamid II

INTRO DUC TIO N

Ottomans governors are interested during their stay in Yemen to set up various types of charitable buildings which perpetuate their memory in Yemen especially in the first period of Ottoman presence in Yemen (945‐ 1045 A.H/1538‐1635 A.D), where the Ottoman rulers built various types of charitable and religious buildings, which includes mosques, schools, shrines and khangahs and other buildings, while in the second Ottoman presence (1289‐1336 A.H /1872 ‐1918 A.D) was marked by establishment a lot of service projects and educational schools, government buildings and formation of the administrative structure of the State of Yemen [1]. Figure 1. A map showing the distribution of mosques in Sana'a, Yemen [2] Mosques were more remarkable buildings that Ottomans are interested in (Figure 1), the number of Table 1. Table indicate names of remaining mosques in Sana'a, remaining mosques constructed during the period of Yemen the first Ottoman presence, about eight mosques and Name of the Date of building Founder only one mosque constructed during the second Mosque Ottoman presence (Table 1), Ottoman Mosques have 1‐ Al‐Muradiyya (984‐985 A.H) Murad Pasha occupied the supreme place among buildings that Mosque ottomans were keen to establish especially in Sana'a 2‐Özdemir Pasha The mid‐ 12th A.H Özdemir Pasha Mosque ‐18 A.D Both in its large numbers, the beauty of its decoration, 3‐Al‐Bakiriyya 1005 A.H – 1579 Hassan Pasha and and diversity of its building materials, and the Shape Mosque A.D Sinan and location of these mosques have dominated the 4‐ Mosque of Talha 1029 AH‐ 1619‐ Mohamed Pasha general appearance of the city Sana'a. 1620 A.D

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5‐ Al‐Tawashi 1028 A.H – 1618 Al‐Tawashi Mosque A.D

Last 10 A.H – 16 6‐ Jannah Mosque PashaSinan A.D

7‐Al‐Mothahab Last 10 A.H – 16 PashaSinan Mosque A.D

1318 A.H – 1900 8‐Al‐Ordi Mosque sultan Abd Al‐Hamid II A.D

Ottomans were interested in establishment new mosques in Sana'a, and renewal of old ones, which have been damaged, destroyed and ceased to exist (Table 2).

Date of Ottoman Ottoman Name of the Mosque additions governor

1‐ Ogel Mosque 976 A.H ‐ 1559 A.D Iskander Pasha

2‐Felihi Mosque 994 A.H ‐ 16 A.D Sinan Pasha

3‐ Mosque of Frwa Ibn 994 A.H ‐ 1579 A.D Hassan Pasha Figure 2. Sana'a, general view of Al‐Muradiyya Mosque, Musik Photo: Enab, 2011 4‐ Da 'ood Mosque 996 A.H ‐ 16 A.D Sinan Pasha

5‐ Mosque of Al‐ 1002 A.H ‐ 1618 A.D Hassan Pasha Madrassa

6‐ Mosque of 1003 A.H ‐ 1619 A.D Hassan Pasha Salah al‐Din

7‐ Great Mosque of 1016 A.H ‐ 1607 A.D Sinan Pasha Sana'a

Table 2. Table indicate names of old mosques in Sana'a, Yemen renewed by ottomans The main purpose of construction of these mosques is desire of ottomans governors in Yemen to make closer to God and hope of reward and memorialization, As well as the desire of Ottomans in reaching out to Yemeni people and earn their love, respect and sympathy with them [3]. Especially since Yemeni people considered Ottomans were invaders and occupiers. Therefore

Ottomans keen to earn a good reputation among Figure 3. Sana'a ,general view of Al‐Bakiriyya Mosque, Yemeni people to glorify their memory and also to Photo: Enab, 2011 prove the Ottoman sovereignty to Yemen through establishment of buildings bearing their architectural The Ottoman governor Hassan Pasha consider styles. one of more Ottomans governors love in construction One of the most important reasons for of new mosques and renew old of them which has interesting of Ottomans in religious architecture is that helped him on that length of his rule on Yemen (988‐ these mosques do the role of madrassas as stated in 1013A.H/1580‐1605A.D) [5]. the documents, they used to spread the Hanifite Sunni One of his remarkable buildings in Sana'a is Al‐ and the eliminate the Zaydi Shiite [4]. It is known that Bakiriyya Mosque and madrassa (1005 AH/1597 AD). the Ottoman Empire in Yemen go hand in hand with Which was established in memory of his master Bakir the state of Zaydi which take Sa'dah in north of Agha, and this mosque is one of the masterpieces of Yemen base of its rule. These mosques‐madrassas have the Ottomans in Yemen Which reflect the greatness of allocated many endowments even doing its job fully Ottomans in Yemen. for examples Al‐Muradiyya Mosque (984‐985 A.H) Also The Ottoman governor Sinan Pasha, who (Figure 2) and Al‐Bakiriyya Mosque and Madrassa (1005 was minister of Hassan Pasha before the inauguration AH / 1597 AD) (Figure 3) etc. of the rule of Yemen for three periods (1013‐1016

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AH/1605‐1608 A.D) considered one of the highlights of METHO DS the Ottoman rulers who have a lot of architectural buildings, he was Interested in establishment of mosques and renewal of dilapidated ones not only in A NA LYTIC A L STUDY O F THESE MO SQ UES Yemen but in all the country that he ruled. It was estimated number of mosques that built by Sinan We can be classified religious architecture in pasha at least 40 mosques in Egypt, Yemen, Levant Yemen by its job type into three types: and Turkey [6]. 1) Great mosques ( mosques): It was Sinan has a great role in interesting and known that Yemen considered the first country, who maintaining of these mosques, he ordered to put a converted to , and mosques were built influenced book collects Waqfs of mosques of Sana'a to keep by the mosque of the Prophet Muhammad, peace is them from looting, this book is known as Sinan Draft upon him. saved in a domed square structure located inside the The plan of these mosques consisted of open court, not exactly at its center of The Great Mosque of courtyard surrounded by four Rewaqs; the largest Sana'a [7]. rewag mostly is rewag. This plan was known as It was built by Sinan pasha (1016 A.H ‐1607 A.D), (great mosque). Examples of this model, Great this called Dome of the Oil. This Ottoman dome mosque of Sana'a, Al Janad mosque in Ta'iz, Great somewhat resembles the Ka'ba at , with its mosque of and Great mosque of Dhamar etc [9]. design of alternating layers of varying colored 2) Small mosques "cubical mosques": They one material (Figure 4, 5). pre‐Islamic cult building was also perpetuated in a particular form of mosque, called a "cubical mosque". Its floor plan is usually almost square, with an inner chamber divided by two rows of three columns, on capitals of which rests a flat ceiling [10], this type of mosques is characterized by its small area compared by Great mosques. This type of mosques has spread widely in Yemeni cities. The travelers Renzo Manzoni Yemen mentioned in its book (Un viaggio a Sana'a 1877‐1878) small mosques in Yemen that they are smaller than the great Mosque and some of them lacked through to the , and these small mosques looks like as Renzo mentioned the choir singing in churches [11]. 3) Madrassas "schools": The madrassa was introduced into Yemen by the Ayyubids in the twelfth century, and essentially replaced foundations that only Figure 4. Sana'a,plan of The Great Mosque of Sana'a [8]. mosques.

According to written records, the first in Zabid was an structure. Large madrassas might have in addition a library, a khangah, and a Quranic school for children [12].

DISC USSIO N

STYLES O F O TTOMA N MO SQ UES IN SA NA 'A

1) Local Yemeni style: before the Ottoman presence, Yemeni mosques followed in its planning two different models in architecture of mosques, each model differs from the others in the factors that led to his appearance, and its architectural and artistic characteristics. Small mosques style: Most Ottoman mosques that follow local Yemeni style. Constructed according to this model, the plan of these mosques consisted of only sanctuary led by one courtyard or more, Examples of this model in Sana'a during ottoman rule Al‐Mothahab Mosque (Figure 3), Al‐Tawashi Mosque (Figure 6) and Mosque Figure 5. Sana'a,general view of Dome of Oil, Photo: Enab, 2011 of Al‐Pasha (Figure 7) etc.

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small shallow [17], this Rewaq opened in the courtyard (), and opened in Sahn Bathroom's (Almtahir) and other services and Utilities. Some Ottoman mosques in Yemen have been designed in this model, but happened upon some changes to add open courtyard that was common place in most mosques in Yemen layouts. Examples of this style in Yemen, Mosque of Mohamed Pasha in Yarim and Mosque of Dadi dome in Dhamar. In Sana'a, this style has spread in ottoman mosques, examples of this style in Sana'a: 1) Al‐

Figure 6. Sana'a,plan of Al‐Tawashi Mosque [13] Muradiyya Mosque (984‐985 A.H), its layout is a square area topped with a central dome and the eastern façade is advancing by portico or zulla covered by a wooden roof, (Figure 8, 9).

Figure 7. Sana'a, plan of Mosque of Al‐Pasha [14]

Newcomer Ottoman‐style: Ottoman‐style could not spread in planning of Mosques of Sana'a, due to several reasons, listed as follows: A small period of presence of the Ottomans in Yemen especially in the second Ottoman presence

(1289‐1336 A.H/1872‐1918 A.D) and Preoccupation with Figure 8. Sana'a,plan of Al‐Muradiyya Mosque [18] wars and conflicts. As well as some of Ottomans governors in Yemen were infamous and notorious for looting and injustice, corruption, and they went away from the construction and reconstruction. Ottoman policy of the so‐called philosophy of Ottoman rule, which is to keep the situation as it is, that Ottomans did not impose their Architectural style to keep situation as it was to gain love and Sympathy of people. This was clear in many Ottomans Arabian Governs, such as Egypt, Yemen and other countries [15]. The cultural and civilizational depth of Yemen. Also, it has been related to communities of construction and arts major impact in continuation of the local Yemeni‐style, where those communities have not abandoned their old ways and character of architectural heritage, they have maintained in view of the circumstances permitted by age and potential [16]. In spite of this, Ottoman‐style appeared in planning of mosques in two modes: 1) This style called (Domed Mosque‐Bursa Style). 2) This style called (Classical– Imperial Ottoman Style). The domed mosque: The layout of this model consists of a square space vary from a mosque to another covered by central huge dome, this dome stands on transition zones or spherical triangles penditives or stalactites. This square space is Figure 9. Sana'a,general view of Al‐Muradiyya Mosque, Photo: advanced by Rewaq consist of one arcade covered by Enab, 2011

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2) Al‐Bakiriyya Mosque (1005 A.H – 1579 A.D), its layout is sanctuary consist of a square area topped with a central huge dome, and open in the eastern wall from a small iwan overlooking the square area by two pointed arches based on a short pillar in the center and it covered by two domes stand on penditives (Figure 10, 11). The sanctuary is advancing by portico overlooking courtyard by three pointed arches. This portico was renovations by Sultan Abdul Hamid 11 in 1298 AH/1880 A.D. (Figure 12, 13).

Figure 13. Sana'a,sanctuary of Al‐Bakiriyya Mosque advancing by portico added by Sultan Abdul Hamid 11, Photo: Enab, 2011

Mosque of Talha: dating to 4 A.H/10 A.D, it was fully renewed by Minister Mohammed Pasha in 1029 AH/1619 AD. He renewed it in the domed mosque; it consists of a square area covered by central dome. The western façade is advancing by portico overlooking the courtyard through two semicircular arches based on a column in the middle (Figure 14,15).

Figure 10. Sana'a,plan Al‐Bakiriyya Mosque[19]

Figure 14. Sana'a, plan of Mosque of Talha[21]

Figure11. Sana'a,Perspective of Al‐Bakiriyya Mosque[20]

Figure 12. Sana'a,general view of Al‐Bakiriyya Mosque, Photo: Enab, 2011 Figure 15. Sana'a,general view of Mosque of Talha[22]

128 | Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(3) June 2017 Mohamed Ahmed Abd El Rahman Enab

This style called (classical – imperial ottoman style) the mosques and domes built by the Ottomans in [23]: Yemen (Table 3). Also Zaydi imams during the period of It consists of two main parts, first part is independence from Ottoman rule after the Ottomans Sanctuary, and it is a Square space covered by central out of Yemen in 1045 AH/1635 AD added some Zaydi huge dome surrounded by half domes in sides. The Shi'ite phrases and words like There is no god but Allah second part is opened, it is the Sahn (open courtyard) the One , Muhammad is the messenger of which known as , it consisted of asquare space Allah , Ali is the of Allah , Fatima Hassan and Hussein, the eliteفاطمة أمة ﷲ, surrounded by four Rewaq, every Rewaq covered by sunburst and there is a rareالحسن والحسين صفوة ﷲ) small shallow domes, and opened in Sahn Bathroom's of God (Almtahir) and other services and Utilities. Famous Shi'ite phrase recorded on of Özdemir Pasha على examples of this style in Turkey: The Şehzade Mosque Mosque (who hates them deserve God's curse .(Figure 18‐19)باغضھما لعنة ﷲ) in Istanbul (951‐955 A.H/1544‐1648 A.D), Sultan Amad Mosque in Istanbul "Blue Mosque" (1018‐1027 A.H/1609 ‐1617 A.D) and The Süleymaniye Mosque (10 A.H‐16 A.D) Table 3. Table indicate names of Rundown ottomans mosques in etc. Sana'a, Yemen which have been demolished and ruined This plan has appeared in Sana'a mosques built Name of the Mosque Date of building Founder during the Ottoman rule in only one mosque, its 1‐Mosque of Mustafa. The first of 10th Mustafa. Pasha Al Jannah Mosque dating Last 10 A.H – 16 A.D. But with Pasha Al Nashaar A.H ‐16 A.D Nashaar some differences in the House of Prayer (sanctuary). 2‐ Iskander Pasha Mosque 967 A.H ‐1528A.D Iskander Pasha Noting that the House of Prayer in Jannah mosque known as (Mohsen Dome) consists of two square areas, each area was covered by one huge dome (Figure 16, 17). 3‐Al‐Abzar Mosque 1005 A.H – 1579 Iskander Pasha known as (Abrar Mosque) A.D 4‐ Mosque of Özdemir 967 A.H ‐1528A.D Özdemir Pasha Pasha 5‐ Al‐Abyadian Mosque 1028 A.H – 1618 Hassan Pasha known as (Ottoman A.D Cemetery) 6‐ Mosque of Mohamed Last of 10 A.H – Mohamed Guzal Guzal pasha 16 A.D pasha 7‐Noah Mosque 10 A.H – 16 A.D PashaHassan 8‐ Mosque of Al‐Pasha 10 A.H – 16 A.D Mohamed Pasha known as (Mosque of Al‐ Haimi)

Figure 16. Sana'a,plan of Jannah Mosque and Al‐Mothahab Mosque [24]

Figure 17. Sana'a,general view of Jannah Mosque, Photo: Enab, 2011

Political and doctrinal religious differences between the Ottomans and the State of Zaydi Imams [25], this difference have Abad impact on the Islamic architecture in Sana'a, one of the results of these Figure 18. Sana'a,Mihrab of Özdemir Pasha Mosque, Photo: Enab, differences that the Zaydi imams demolished many of 2011

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Istanbul which in turn resemble the entrances of religious buildings in Istanbul, which also came in the form of entrances Seljuk's buildings. It is an arched entrance by pointed archfilled by stalactites. The finest examples in ottoman mosques , Mihrab of Al‐ Muradiyya Mosque (Figure 20), Al‐Bakiriyya Mosque (Figure 21) and Mihrab of Al‐Ordi Mosque (Figure 23).

Figure 19. Sana'a,Shi'ite phrase recorded on Mihrab of Özdemir Pasha Mosque [26]

Yemeni local effects on the Ottoman mosques in Sana'a: Yemeni influence appeared strongly on the Ottoman mosques. Majority of Ottoman mosques came on Yemeni style as we mentioned. And even mosques constructed Ottoman‐style, Ottoman Influence was only in the overall shape but the content and decorations were on local Yemeni style. It continued local materials and the implementation of indigenous methods and techniques, local materials such as baked bricks, stones and dried flowers have Figure 20. Sana'a,Mihrab of Al‐Muradiyya Mosque, Photo: Enab, been used. Mud and stone are usually used for the 2011 lower classes of the building and for the higher class; baked bricksare more often applied which is exactly related to Yemenis thinking way. Since stone is abundant in Yemen, it is used a lot in their building and it shows power, strength and stability of the building construction in Yemen. Local gypsum was used widely in construction or decoration, it used as for walls, ceilings, and floors, as well as for decorative arches over windows and doors. Also Traditional Yemeni technique Al‐Qadad, a traditional mortar composed of lime and volcanic aggregate that is polished with a smooth stone and daubed with animal fat was employed wherever possible, it used as a roof covering. Also it continued some Yemeni architectural elements like Minerat and Bathroom (Almtahir) and other services and Utilities. It continued same decorative methods that were common in Yemen before ottoman presence.

Turkish effects on the Ottoman mosques in Sana'a: Turkish influence appeared in the planning of some Ottoman mosques in Sana'a, but this influence cameonly in the general shape. Turkish influence also appeared in some of the architectural and decorative elements. Ottoman mosques in Yemen included which are similar to those before the Ottoman presence. But some of them characterized that some Figure 21. Sana'a,Mihrab of Al‐Bakiriyya Mosque, Photo: Enab, of them Affected by Mihrabs of ottoman mosques in 2011

130 | Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(3) June 2017 Mohamed Ahmed Abd El Rahman Enab

Some ottoman mosques in Yemen included an important architectural element, its Bench amount for repeating sound "Dikt Almobalgh". Which it was not common in Yemen before the Ottoman era. This element is look like "Mahfil in ottoman mosques [27]. It located mostly in the opposite wall to Qibla wall, based on the pillars, and it is to climb through the ladder in the wall. Examples in ottoman mosques in Yemen, Muradiyya Mosque, (Figure 26), Al‐Bakiriyya Mosque (Figure 27), and Al‐Ordi Mosque (Figure 28). Primary function of this bench, It was dedicated to the sitting ottoman governor. In addition to echoing the voice of the Imam.

Figure 23. Sana'a,Mihrab of Al‐Ordi Mosque, Photo: Enab, 2011

Some ottoman mosques in Yemen included marble pulpits which appeared for the first time in Yemen during the Ottoman era. These marble pulpits influenced by Turkish models in Istanbul. It characterized by its conical shape pavilion looks like pencil, documents, it called it "" Jrbuc". Examples in ottoman mosques in Yemen, Al‐Bakiriyya Mosque which added by Sultan Abdul Hamid 11 in 1298 AH/1880 A.D (Figure 24) and marble pulpit of Al‐Ordi Mosque Figure 26. Sana'a,Dikt Almobalgh (Mahfil) of Al‐Muradiyya Mosque, Photo: Enab, 2011 (1318 A.H – 1900 A.D) (Figure 25).

Figure 24. Sana'a,Marble pulpit of Al‐Bakiriyya Mosque, Photo: Enab, 2011 Figure 27. Sana'a,Dikt Almobalgh (Mahfil) of Al‐Bakiriyya Mosque, Photo: Enab, 2011

Figure 25. Sana'a,Marble pulpit of Al‐Ordi Mosque, Photo: Enab, Figure 28. Sana'a,Dikt Almobalgh(Mahfil) of Al‐Ordi Mosque, 2011 Photo: Enab, 2011

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Ottoman mosques in Sana'a Included variety of C O NC LUSIO N decorations like floral, geometric and inscriptions. The majority of the sedecorations Carried out by stucco. Ottoman influence appears in planning of some They were all affected by local Yemeni style, Turkish of these Mosques like Muradiyya, Bakiriyya Mosque, motifs appeared in Ottoman mosques in Sana'a, its and Talha Mosque. But Ottoman Influence was only in Baroque and Rococo ornaments which known as the overall shape and the content and decorations "Turkish Rumi style". It appeared in the finest were on local Yemeni style. examples in Decoration of place of prayer of Al‐ Some new Ottoman architectural and artistic Bakiriyya Mosque (Figure 29). Among the Ottoman elements appear in Mosques of Sana'a like: Marbles decorations Tugri, it is Monogram of Sultan Abdul pulpits ()‐Dikt Almobalgh (Mahfal)‐Mihrabs Hamid 11 appeared in Al‐Bakiriyya Mosque and Al‐Ordi (like Seljuk and ottoman entrances and Mihrabs ‐ Mosque (Figure 30). As well assomecalligraphy (Decorations (Rumi Turkey Baroque and Rococo– inscriptions recorded by Turkish language as in Al‐Ordi Tugri" Monogram"–Turkish calligraphy inscriptions). Mosque (Figure 31). Yemeni architectural and artistic elements still appear in Ottoman Mosques of Sana'a like: , Materials of building (Alqdad‐Habsh stone‐ etc)‐Stucco decorations‐services and Utilities (Almtahir). Political and Religious differences between the Ottomans and the State of Zaydi Imams influenced in the shape of these mosques (demolished‐repaired‐all have shite inscriptions).

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Figure 31. Sana'a,Turkish inscriptions of Al‐Ordi Mosque, Photo: Enab, 2011 [6] Mubarak Ali Pasha, the new compromise plans

132 | Journal of Islamic Architecture, 4(3) June 2017 Mohamed Ahmed Abd El Rahman Enab

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