CLIMATE CLASSIFICATION OF PAKISTAN Saif Ullah Khan 1 Ph.D Scholar

[email protected]

Prof. Dr. Mahmood-Ul-Hasan 2 [email protected]

Prof. Dr Fazal Karim Khan3 Dr Anjum Bari (Late)4

1. Ph.D Scholar Department of Geography University of Peshawar, Manager GIS and Mapping USF CO 5th Floor HBL Tower Blue Area Islamabad, Pakistan 2. Chairman Department of Geography, Urban and Regional Planning Peshawar University, NWFP, Pakistan.

3. Former, Chairman Department of Geography University of Karachi, Sind, Pakistan. 4. Late, Director, Pakistan Meteorological Department, Islamabad, Pakistan Abstract

The work deals with the climates of Pakistan. It is based on the study and analysis of the data regarding temperature, rainfall, number of rainy days, humidity, wind speed and direction, pressure, evapotranspiration, sunshine, and also with the classification of climates. The factors bringing variation in the climates of Pakistan are latitudinal location, proximity to sea level, rough topography, continentitlity, marine influence in the extreme south, vegetation cover, and soil contents. On the basis of temperature, Pakistan has been classified into five regions i.e. hot, warm, mild, cool, and cold. The southern parts of Pakistan have high temperature (28oC at Hyderabad) that decreases toward north upto 10oC at Astore. Four rainfall regions have been identified i.e. arid, semi-arid, sub-humid, and humid. The rainfall concentration decreases from 171.4cm (68.6inches) at Murree in the north to 3.4cm (1.5inches) at Nokkundi in the south. The eastern part of Pakistan receives heavy rains during summer, from southwesterly currents, called monsoon, whereas the western parts have high rains in winter, from southwesterly winds, called western disturbances. The extreme north of the country has heavy rains from local thunderstorms caused by convectional uplifting of air parcel due to local heating. Pakistan experiences four rainy seasons i.e. winter rainfall, pre-monsoon rainfall, monsoon rainfall, and post monsoon rainfall. The winter and monsoon are the moistest seasons, while the other two constitutes as the driest seasons of the country. The highest annual number of rainy days is 91.3 at Murree in the north, while it decreases to 4 at Nokkundi in the south. The relative humidity of Pakistan is above 70% at Makran coast and less than 40% in southwestern Balochistan, and in the extreme north, while the rest of Pakistan has 40% to 70percent. The lower latitudes of the BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 1

country along with coastal belt have a recorded wind speed of above 6knots, while it decreases to 2knots in the northern mountainous region. The lower Indus plain and southwestern Balochistan records low pressure in summer, while a ridge of high pressure develops over Himalayas in winter. The Makran coast and parts of Balochistan and Sind have sunshine duration above 8hr/day, which reduces to 7hr/day toward northern mountainous region. Most of the plain has evapotranspiration above 3mm (0.12inches), while it decreases to 2mm (0.08inches) in highland. Due to its sub-tropical location, Pakistan has two main season’s i.e. summer and winter. The summer season of the country lasts for seven months in plain and for four months in highland, while the winter season varies for five months in plain and seven months in highland. These two main seasons of Pakistan are further sub-divided into four sub-seasons i.e. cold, hot, monsoon, and warm. The cold season varies from mid-November to mid-April, hot season from mid-April to June, and monsoon season from July to mid-September and warm season from mid-September to mid-November. On the basis of distribution and variation of weather elements, Pakistan can be divided into five macro-regions, which are further sub-divided into 18 meso and 46 micro climatic types.

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1. Introduction:

The term climatology is a Greek word, which literally means, “inclination,” i.e. inclination of the sunrays to the ground; to denote the mean weather condition. The word climate refers to the mean or normal condition over a long period; such as 20, 30 and 100 years (Trewartha, 1937). According to Pettersson (1941), “climatology or statistical meteorology determines the statistical relations, mean values, normal, frequencies, variation distribution, etc, of the meteorological elements, such as temperature, pressure, precipitation, wind speed and direction, humidity, sunshine, cloudiness and number of rainy days etc. Blair (1942) has defined the climate as “the summation of weather conditions in historical time” or “climate is the summary of all the manifold weather influences”. Miller (1959) is of the opinion that the science that discusses the weather condition of the earth surface”. Thus although, the wind, temperature, humidity, precipitation, vegetation and sunshine etc, are subjected to continuos variations, which is more or less invariant at a given place. According to Oliver (1981), “climate is the aggregate of weather at a given area for a given time period”. The term weather refers to the more or less instantaneous conditions of these elements over a relatively short time period. The generalized picture of weather is called climate (Anwar, 1993). Climatology deals with atmospheric conditions over a longer time period and as a result, is often defined inadequately as “average weather”. It is difficult to devise a proper system of climate classification because various climatologists have defined it according to their own criteria. However, some specific definitions are stated as under: According to Trewartha (1968), “classification of climate is a process basic to all sciences, consisting of recognizing individuals with certain important characteristics in common and grouping them into a few classes or types”. Griffith in 1978 defined it as, “Climatic classification is merely a method of arranging various climatic parameters either singly or grouped into ranks or sets, so, as both to simplify the mass of data and to identify analogies. In other words, “there are no two places in the world that experience exactly the same climate; but it is possible to identify areas with similar climate; this grouping or analogue method is referred to as climate classification”. A classification is often developed to deal with a special problem, such as the study of inter-relationship between climate, vegetation, temperature and precipitation etc. There are three broad approaches, which are equally feasible for climatic classification of a locality or a region (Critchfield, 1987) that is: 1.1. Empirical approach: It is based on the observable feature of climate, which may be treated singly or in combination to establish criteria for climatic types. Temperature criteria; for example, might yield, “hot, warm, cool and cold. 1.2. Genetic approach: It attempts to study climates according to their effects e.g. latitude, longitude, slopes, altitude and continentality. However, explanations are often theoretical, incomplete and difficult to explain. 1.3. Applied or technical or functional approach: It is the most advance and specific approach of climate classification. Recently most of climatologists used applied approach for the climatic division or classification of a region, because it is easier and more systematic way. This approach helps to solve special problems that involve one or more climatic factors, such as natural vegetation, precipitation and temperature. The above mentioned approaches constitute the basic objects for the climatic classification, but the features of all three may be incorporated in a single system. Sometimes, we classify climate of a region based on certain similar effects, for example, group together all the desert climates irrespective of their cause of aridity, therefore, this type of classification is termed as, “classification of convenience,” (Trewartha, 1954).

There are many classifications of climate both for Pakistan and the world as a whole. Some are the qualitative descriptions of the climate, while the others are quantitative in nature. Some classifications are complex; while some are simple. Whatever the basis of divisions for the various climates are, and whatever name, symbol, or letter used to show the divisions. The goal of all the schemes is essentially the same i.e. to divide climate of a specific area or the world. The classifications are different from each other in term of criteria, as some of them accomplish one thing better thence other do. Some workers have used empirical approaches, while some have genetic and applied approaches or both. The brief description of various climatic classifications adopted by different workers in Pakistan and abroad is as follow. Permanide a Greek Philosopher (Fifth Century B.C) being the first who divided climate of the world on the basis of solar concentration. He proposed five well-known zones i.e. torrid, two temperate and two frigid. Aristotle’s in 350 B.C. suggested astronomical limits for these zones. He 1 0 limited the torrid zone by the horse latitudes (23 /2 North and South) and the Arctic and Antarctic 1 0 at 66 /2 in either hemisphere. The former defines the extreme seasonal limits of the sun vertical rays, and later, the limits of the tangent rays. Generally, he did not identify the micro-climatic regions of the world but the study, conducted provides a base for further work and introduces an idea of climate classification, a great contribution of that time. After them the most well know workers are, Supan in 1896, Koppen (1846-1940), Thornthwaite (1931-48), Blair (1942), Rodoulf Geiger a German climatologist (1953), Miller (1969), and Griffiths (1978). In Pakistan the prior contributors are, Kendrew2 (1941), Spate and Learmonth (1951), Kazi in 1951, Shamshad in 1956, Nasarullah (1968), Johnson in 1979, Raja and Twidell (1990), Khan in 1991, and Khan F. K (1993). 2. Methods and Data:

The present study has been focused to study the distribution of temperature, precipitation, number of rainy days, humidity, wind speed and direction, sunshine, evapotranspiration and atmospheric pressure of Pakistan. Also to identify regions of similar climatic condition and to divide Pakistan into various climatic types and to prepare a map of the climatic regions and to describe factors effecting the climate of Pakistan. The work will be useful for the study of environment, agriculture, water management, soil conservation, forestry and tourism departments of Pakistan. The specific purpose of the study is to develop proper criteria for the climatic division and to give by analytical approach the chief characteristics of all climatic regions of Pakistan and designate them by names/symbols and to show them on map. There are a number of weather elements used for the study and observation of weather and climatic condition. But the present study based on the analysis of temperature, precipitation, number of rainy days, relative humidity, pressure, wind speed and direction, sunshine, evapotranspiration, physiography of the land, and natural vegetation.

2.1. Source/collection of data: The work is based on the normal data of the above mentioned weather elements covering time period of sixty years i.e. 1931-60 and 1961-90 published by Pakistan Meteorological Department Karachi. The secondary data about sunshine, and evapotranspiration by UNO, World Food Program, and physiographical maps, forest maps with population data and forest data published by Pakistan forest Institute Peshawar and Pakistan census department Islamabad.

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2.2. Methodology: The following statistical as well as mathematical techniques were used to process the data. i. To process and calculate the averages of the climatic data for a time period of sixty years i.e. from 1931-90. ii. To plot the data on the maps and to prepare graphs/charts to show the distribution of temperature, rainfall, number of rainy days, pressure, wind speed and direction, sunshine and evapotranspiration on maps. iii. To interpret and explain the distribution of weather elements. iv. To identify climatic types and regions and to make climatic division from the maps proposed, by super imposing the distribution maps of weather and climatic elements.

2.2.1. Criteria based on temperature: To know about the distribution of various weather elements in Pakistan, the year was divided into two main seasons that is summer and winter. The boundaries suggested for summer as well as winter months are mentioned in Table-1. Summer month Winter month Mean monthly temperature ≥22oC Mean monthly temperature ≤22oC Mean monthly maximum temperature Mean monthly maximum temperature ≤34oC ≥34oC Mean monthly minimum temperature Mean monthly minimum temperature ≤10oC ≥10oC Table-1: Criteria for summer and winter months. The mean monthly and mean monthly maximum temperature is suggested as a primary deciding factor but for marginal cases, where the mean monthly and mean monthly maximum temperature is above or below the suggested values, the mean monthly minimum temperature has been considered as the criteria. A summer month in the plain is not a summer month in the mountains and a winter month in the mountains is not a winter month in the plain, therefore, for the distribution of climatic elements, excluding temperature, the methodology has been generalized. Thus, winter in mountainous area has been suggested for seven months (October to April) and in plain it is for five months (November to March), while summer season in mountainous region lasts for five months (May to September) and in plain it is for seven months (April to October) see Graph-1.

2.2.2. Criteria for seasonal division: The two main seasons of the country i.e. summer and winter, are further divided into four sub-seasons, based on the deviation from the mean and the monthly intensity of various weather elements i.e. cold, hot, warm and monsoon. The cold season of the country is from the mid- November to mid-April, with all the months mean monthly temperature of below 29oC, rainfall less than 6cm (2.4inches), humidity above 55%, pressure above 1020mb or 30.2inches (amsl), sunshine below 7hr/day, and evapotranspiration below 5mm or 0.2inches. The hot season varies between mid-April and June with mean monthly temperature of above 30oC, rainfall below 3cm (1.2inches), humidity below 45%, pressure above 1015mb or 30.1inches (amsl), sunshine above 9hr/day, and evapotranspiration above 5mm or 0.2inches. The monsoon season ranges from July to mid-September with each month mean monthly temperature below 30oC, rainfall above 6cm or 2.4inches, humidity above 55%, pressure above 1010mb or 29.9inches (amsl), sunshine above 9hr/day, evapotranspiration above 5mm (0.2inches). Warm season lasts from mid-September to mid-November when the mean monthly temperature remains below 25oC, rainfall less than 3cm BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 3

(1.2inches), humidity above 50%, pressure below 1020mb or 30.2inches (amsl), sunshine above 7hr/day, and evapotranspiration remains below 5mm or 0.2inches. Sometime, November is completely winter month in hilly regions, while April is a complete summer month in plain (Graph- 1 and 2). Therefore, these months are divided into two parts and the average of half month has been added to each season. The four sub-seasons of Pakistan and its time duration is stated in Table-2. Season Name Time Duration

Cold season Mid-November to Mid-April.

Hot season Mid-April to June.

Warm season Mid-September to Mid-November

Monsoon season July to Mid-September Table-2: Seasonal division of Pakistan.

2.2.3. Criteria for climatic division: The regional climatic classification is based upon the annual and monthly means of weather element’s data, where as the temperature and precipitation are considered as primary variables for deciding the boundaries of climatic regions (Table-3). In view of the importance of flora, for climates, the native vegetation have also been taken into account, while deciding the climatic boundaries, as the vegetation of an area is the best expression of the totality of the climates. The plant development and growth depends not alone upon the amount of precipitation and temperature but also on the intensity of evapotranspiration, humidity, sunshine, number of rainy days, wind speed and direction, which are considered as secondary parameters. Based on monthly and annual means of temperature, Pakistan has been divided into six temperature regions i.e. hot, warm, mild, cool, cold and undifferentiated highland (Teble-3). The boundaries have been selected in accordance with the criteria laid down for the worldwide classification of climates. However, in case of warm climates the criteria have been changed slightly, keeping in view the native vegetation and physiography. For seasonal distribution of rainfall the year has been divided into two main seasons i.e. summer and winter, that has further been subdivided into four sub-seasons i.e. winter rainfall, pre-monsoon rainfall, monsoon rainfall, and post monsoon rainfall. The boundaries for the rainfall seasons have been selected on the basis of positive and negative deviation from the annual mean condition. Based on precipitation distribution, the methodology has been devised with five rainfall regions i.e. scanty rainfall or arid, light rainfall or semi-arid, moderate rainfall or sub-humid, heavy rainfall or humid, and very heavy rainfall or wet. The criteria developed for the distribution of precipitation, has also been used for the distribution of number of rainy days. Relative humidity is a significant weather and climatic element, which play a crucial role in the evapotranspiration of moisture from human body, soil, vegetation and streams. As it is very important, therefor, it has been divided into three regions i.e. maximum relative humidity 70%, moderate relative humidity 40%-70%, and minimum relative humidity 40percent. Relative humidity above 70% reduces the rate of evapotranspiration from human body, vegetation cover, water bodies, and soil. On the other hand relative humidity 40% to 70% with high temperature results an appressive heat and cause chill with low temperature, while relative humidity below 40% increases evapotranspiration and cause cracking of human skin and parching of leaves in vegetation (Khan, 1993). For areal climatic division, these three major humidity zones are further condensed into climatic types and sub-types by using class interval of 0% to 5percent. BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 4

Climate types Criteria S.no.

1 Hot climates Mean temperature of hottest month June >32oC.

2 Warm climates Mean temperature of hottest month June 21-32oC.

Mean temperature of warmest month November 10- 3 Mild climates 20oC.

4 Cool climates Mean temperature of coldest month January 0-10oC.

5 Cold climates January mean temperature below freezing.

Mean temperature below freezing throughout the 6 Undifferentiated highland year but June 0-5oC, perpetual snow and ice.

Table-3: Criteria for climatic regions of Pakistan based on temperature.

The change in temperature, pressure, precipitation, relative humidity and evapotranspiration generally, leads to variability of wind speed and direction, that has been categorized into four wind speed regions i.e. wind speed 0knots to 3knots, 4knots-6knots, and 7knots to10knots, and 10knots. These values are selected on the basis of its impact on crops and human activities (Map-3 and 4). There is a slight variation in sunshine statistics at various observatories of Pakistan, therefore, for sunshine distribution of the country, the range of data has been reduced to 0hr/day to1hrs/day, and in this way, Pakistan has been divided into three sunshine regions i.e. maximum sunshine (9hrs/day), moderate sunshine (7-9hr/day), and minimum (7hrs/day). The rate of evapotranspiration plays a significant role in the change of atmospheric moisture, rainfall, and also affects the intensity of temperature, sunshine and pressure pattern. Due to its importance, evapotranspiration of Pakistan has been classified into three regions i.e. below 4mm (0.16inches), 4mm to 6mm or 0.16inches to 0.24inches, and above 6mm (0.24inches). In climatic classification, each type of climate has been described by formula consisting of a combination of letters, each one of which has a precise meaning. Most of the letters have been selected from the worldwide classifications. However, for the relative humidity, new letters have been introduced having specific meaning in the field of climatology (Table-5). For seasonal 1 1 variation of rainfall, more simple formulas have been proposed i.e. /2, /3, of the annual total. For the demarcation of various climatic regions and types, the annual, monthly, and seasonal distribution maps of various weather and climatic elements have been superimposed upon each other’s and a final map has been traced from them. Some of the climatic types cover very small area and having very little difference with the surrounding climates (Table-5). Therefore, to simplify the classification, these small climatic patches have been merged into nearby climatic types especially in mountainous areas. In most areas these boundaries are generally, corrected according to native vegetation, physiography and have been presented on map (Map-2).

Criteria S.no. Climate types

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1 Arid Annual total rainfall 0-10inches or 25cm.

2 Semi-arid Annual total rainfall 10-20inches or 25-50cm.

3 Sub-humid Annual total rainfall 20-40inches or 50-100cm.

4 Humid Annual total rainfall 40-80inches or 100-200cm.

5 Wet Annual total rainfall >80inches or >200cm.

6 Winter rains Winter total is ½ of annual total rainfall.

1 7 Summer rains Summer total is /2 of annual total rainfall.

1 8 Winter dry Winter total is /3 of annual total rainfall.

1 9 Summer dry Summer total is /3 of annual total rainfall.

10 Uniform rains 0-9 months mean rainfall >1cm.

11 Monsoon rains Heaviest rainfall in consecutive three months July- September. (summer rains) 12 Winter rains Heaviest rainfall in consecutive four months December- March. 13 Spring rains (Local Heaviest rainfall in consecutive three months April-June. thunderstorms) 14 Autumn rains. Heaviest rainfall in consecutive three months Mid- September to November. 15 Long summer Mean summer temperature >25oC.

16 Long winter Mean winter temperature >15oC.

17 Hot desert Mean temperature of June >35oC.

18 Cool desert Mean temperature of January >0-10oC.

19 Warm desert Mean temperature of June 21-32oC.

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Table-4: Criteria for macro and micro regions of Pakistan.

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3. Results and Discussion:

Pakistan is located in southwest Asia with lofty Himalayas and Karakorum forming its northern region, while the southern part is bounded by the Arabian sea. The tropic of cancer passes immediately south of the country. Pakistan extends northeast to 0 1 0 southwest from latitude 37 N into 23 /2 N and longitude 60oE to 75oEast (Map-1). The northeastern and northwestern part of the country consists of high mountain ranges like Himalayas, Hindu Kush and Karakorum with highest peaks like, K-2 (8475m), Nanga Parbat (7980m), Rakkaposhi (7665m) and Trichmir (7569meters). It covers an area of 803,944 sq.km, out of which 60% in the northwest farm mountain terrain and tableland and the remaining 40% is the Indus Plain (Kurreshy, 1988).

Seasonal division:

This section covers the temporal climatic divisions, areal climatic divisions and climatic regions. The temporal division is based on the division of the year into various seasons and the description of each season. The areal division is based on classifying the climate of region only and thus dividing Pakistan into areas of similar climatic features.

4.1. The characteristic seasons: The distinct period into which the year may be divided, in terms of duration of daylight and climatic conditions, as a result of changes in duration and intensity of sunshine and rainfall is termed as season (Khan, 1993). According to Dictionary of Geography (1991), season is defined as, “Those periods of the year, which are characterised by special climatic conditions, mainly caused by the inclination of the earth’s Axis to the plane of the Ecliptic and the revolution of the earth about the sun”. In order to study the seasonal variation of weather elements, the year has been divided into two main season’s i.e. summer and winter. The inter-relation of factors affecting climate of Pakistan show that the summer month in coastal areas may not be the summer month inland, and a summer month in plain may not be that of the mountains. Therefore, months of the year having mean temperature of above 22oC, maximum temperature of above 34oC, and minimum temperature of above 10oC are suggested as summer months, otherwise winter (Graph-1). Inspite of this, months having positive deviation from the mean temperature considered as summer months, whereas, months having negative deviation from the mean temperature, have been placed in winter season (Graph-2). Generally, in plain the summer lasts from April to October and winter from November to March. In highland, summer has a span from

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May to September and winter from October to April. These two main seasons are further condensed into four sub-seasons i.e. cold, hot, warm, and monsoon seasons. The cold season of the country is from mid-November to mid-April with all months, mean monthly temperature of below 20oC, rainfall below 6cm (2.4inches), moderate humidity, high pressure, minimum sunshine period, and low evapotranspiration. The hot season varies from mid-April to June with each month, mean monthly temperature of above 30oC, low rainfall, humidity, pressure, maximum sunshine period, and high evapotranspiration. The monsoon season ranges from July to mid- September with all months mean monthly temperature of below 30oC, rainfall above 6cm (2.4inches), moderate humidity, low pressure, high sunshine period, and evapotranspiration. Nonetheless, warm season remains from mid-September to mid-November, with mean monthly temperature of below 25oC, low rainfall, humidity, moderate pressure, sunshine period, and high evapotranspiration. However, November is completely winter month in hilly areas, while April is the summer month in plain. These months are thus divided into two parts and the average of 15days has been added to each season. The four sub-seasons of Pakistan and its time duration are as follow. Cold season: Mid-November to Mid-April. Hot season: Mid-April to June. Warm season: Mid-September to Mid-November. Monsoon season: July to Mid-September.

The average rainfall indicates that it increases with decrease in temperature from December to March, while at the rise of temperature a decrease occurs from March to June (Graph-3 and 4). In July it exceeds 9cm (3.6inches) and then decreases till September and onward upto November (below 3cm or 1.2inches). The annual variation of rainfall and humidity also shows two time positive and negative deviation from the mean condition (Graph-1). From September to November, the whole of Pakistan is covered by anticyclone and reversible monsoon lows. These months, with moderate temperature and low rainfall constitutes as warm season of the country. Generally, the local thunderstorms give low rainfall particularly in NWFP, Mansehra and Malakand divisions, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, while it constitutes as a rainy season in the Northern Areas of the country. Month of the year having mean monthly rainfall below 3cm and temperature above 17oC has been suggested as a dry month, otherwise moist. The characteristics of each season are as follow.

4.1.1. Cold season: The cold season lasts from mid-November to mid-April, which are completely winter months in the hilly areas. It is the season when, because of the prevalence of anticyclone, air subsides over Pakistan and the weather is feeblest. A cross section of the atmosphere along about 78O East meridian shows the southern branch of the jet stream over northern Pakistan and India just south of the Himalayas, with the middle latitude westerly reaching down to the surface, or nearly so, north of about 25O. In no sense is it Siberian anticyclone system as such an inversion is successfully blocked by the mountain rampart of central Asia (Trewartha, 1961). The modest winter rainfall over northern Indo-Pakistan is associated with disturbances, which enter the area in the extreme northwest, after passing through Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan. These disturbances reach their maximum development in winter when the jet stream lies, south of the highland, but they also occur though less frequently, in fall and spring. On the surface synoptic charts, the western disturbances usually first appear in the northwest in the vicinity of the surface polar front (Miller, 1959). A cold continental air from eastern Europe and western Asia breaks through the lower highland and spill out on the Indus lowlands. The front form between the continental polar air and the dry but warmer air of the Pakistani lowlands may not in the beginning be very active weatherwise. If the resulting depression acts to pull in a vigorous inflow of humid BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 9

tropical maritime air mass from the Arabian sea, the convergence is likely to produce extensive light rains. These are mid-latitude disturbances, a good proportion of that are not well-developed cold or warm fronts either at the surface or aloft. The rainfall generated by these western disturbances of the cooler season is usually fairly widespread and light to moderate. It is locally heavy where thunderstorms are associated with the disturbances particularly in hot dry season. Since this fall in the cool season when losses from evaporation are low, is highly effective for the growth of winter crops. On the plain, the total fall for the three winter months is only one to three inches and yet this is of vital importance. Such storms also provide a much larger amount of winter precipitation in the form of snow and ice in the highland, whose water melt in hot season (summer) and furnishes the indispensable irrigation water for the Indo-gengetic plain. These disturbances give high rains over the northwestern parts of Pakistan, which progressively decreases towards southeast and west. This variation, in general, leads to its long trajectory over land areas. The season is usually characterized by cold weather with low mean monthly temperature, moderate rains, high humidity, pressure, low sunshine period, and gentle breeze. In cold season most of the rains are caused by low-pressure depressions called “western disturbances”. These waves travelling from “Mediterranean sea” and enter to Pakistan at the western margin after passing through Iraq, Afghanistan and Iran. These low-pressure waves give 3.83cm (1.5inches) average rainfall in Pakistan. Areas located at the western border of the country record high rains in cold season as compared to other seasons. The highest rainfall from these winds is recorded at Dir (24.22cm or 9.7inches) in March, which is the moistest month of the season. The highest mean monthly total precipitation of the season is 83.5cm or 33.4inches at Dir and lowest is 0.8cm or 0.32inches at Moen-Jo-Darro with highest relative humidity recorded at Ormara and the lowest is at Khuzdar. The lower Indus plain has almost recorded high temperature, while it decreases upto –7.8oC at Astore. Most of the Northern Areas receive rain from these winds as compared to other sources. The rainfall from western depression progressively decreases from the northern mountainous region, towards northwest and southeast due to long trajectory of these lows over continental areas. Most of the highland receives rain in the form of snow, which is a guarantee for the agriculture activities in the hot season of Pakistan. The temperature of the country decreases from southwest toward northeast, but sometime cold waves are caused by heavy snowfall in mountains and decreases temperature after sunset to below freezing point in Balochistan plateau and the lowlands, influencing plants growth and human activities.

4.1.2. Hot season: The season ranges from mid-April to June and is characterized by high temperature and aridity. It is some time called as the hot dry period to distinguish it from the cool dry season of winter and the hot wet season of summer and early fall. From April to June, the anticyclonic subsidence and clear skies, characteristic of the winter months still prevails and this in combination with a much stronger solar radiation sets the weather pattern for the season. Temperatures are high and a heavy, dry haze envelops in the interior, but drought still grips most of the country particularly upper and lower Indus plain. The areal rainfall distribution in hot season is not fundamentally different from that of winter. The upper and lower Indus plain as well as Balochistan where maximum subsidence prevails, are still the driest parts of the country and the Northern Areas with mountainous north are the wettest. The most perceptible areas of rainfall increase, are the northern mountains, and Azad Jammu and Kashmir, while most of the plain have less than two-centimeter rains in these particular months. According to Trewartha (1961), in the far south the added rainfall reflects the creeping northward with the sun of the ITC and the equatorial westerly. The increased rainfall in the north is furnished by the western disturbances. These perturbations are able to produce much BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 10

precipitation in the more humid air of the north, they yield much more abundant rainfall, and some of it is associated with strong convective systems. The hot season, in general, is characterized by violent weather, in the form of thunder squalls in the northern part of the country. In the drier land of Pakistan, the rainfall accompanying this vigorous convective system is low, but occasionally well-developed comulo-nimbous clouds, are generated with strong squall wind, and violent dust storms. In hot season, the mean monthly temperature exceeds 30oC with rare rains, low humidity, pressure, high sunshine duration, evapotranspiration, and wind speed. These are the specific determinants, which cause parching of leaves in plants and evaporation of sweats from human bodies. In hot season, the western depression continue to travel along the northern latitude of Pakistan, which cause thunderstorms (with some rains) over the mountains and dust storms or dust raising winds over the plain and Balochistan plateau. The cold waves are rare in April, but hailstorms are frequent in April and rare in May, which cause wide spread damage to fruit trees in the western and Northern Areas of Pakistan. June is driest month of the season with mean monthly rainfall 2.42cm or 0.96inches, and also the hottest with mean monthly temperature of above 30ocentigrade. The highest mean monthly total precipitation of the season is 35.1cm or 14.04inches at Garhi Dupatta and the lowest is 0.1cm (0.04inches) at Moen-Jo-Darro. The highest mean monthly humidity is recorded at Ormara and the lowest is at Chilas and Dalbandin. The highest mean monthly temperature of the season is recorded at Sibi and the lowest is at Astore. In hot season, the Northern Areas of the country receive rainfall above 10cm or 4inches, which decreases toward south. This high temperature in the southern part of Pakistan produces a trough of low pressure, which attracts monsoon depression in the hot moist season. The variation in temperature, generally, shows the same pattern as in cold season. As the hot season progresses, the belt of highest day temperature makes over Pakistan from south to north. Moreover, in this season the average rainfall of Pakistan is 2.94cm or 0.99inches, which is insufficient for vegetation growth and human activities.

4.1.3. Monsoon season: According to Dictionary of Geography (1991), the term monsoon is derived from Arabic word “mausim” which literally means “season”. Originally, it was applied to the regular winds of the Arabian sea, blowing for six months from the northeast and for the remaining six months from the southwest. Now generally, the term is applied to those and some other winds that blow with considerable regularity in different seasons of the year, due to the seasonal reversal of pressure over land masses and their neighboring oceans. In the typical area of the Indian sub-continent and southeast Asia, it is the seasonal inflowing moist winds that bring rains, hence the monsoon season considered as synonymous with the rainy season, and the term monsoon is applied to the rain without reference to the winds. The monsoon season of Pakistan ranges from July to mid- September, while in some areas it continues upto October. The deflected monsoon currents, generally, travel westwards along the foothills of Himalayas and reaches Pakistan in July and are well established by the middle of that month (Khan, 1993). The Arabian sea branch of monsoon reaches to Sindh-Makran coast by the end of June. However, it is of low vertical extant and generally, produces stratus clouds in the coastal areas. The monsoon currents remain steady till it begins retreating towards the beginning of September. The second monsoon current enters Pakistan at upper Indus plain and gives more rains in Punjab, upper Sindh and northeastern Balochistan. The third branch of the monsoon lows arrives at Kashmir vale and the northern mountainous region of the country. Due to mountains trigger, and high moisture index, these areas record high rains from these lows as compared to other regions of Pakistan. The rainfall from these winds generally, decreases from northeast to southwest. This variation in rainfall intensity from monsoon, is due to its long trajectory decreasing the moisture index of these depressions as they travel over continental areas. These winds are the only source, saving the BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 11

lower Indus plain of Pakistan from aridity. In monsoon season, the mean monthly temperature of Pakistan drops to below 30oC with high rainfall 3cm to 9cm or 1.2inches to 3.6inches, humidity, low pressure, maximum sunshine period, high evapotranspiration, and wind speed. These winds give torrential rains with showers and cause damage to residential areas, crops and vegetables. It gives above 7cm or 2.8inches rain in Pakistan, which is higher as compared to the other seasons. The maximum rainfall from these winds has been recorded at Balakot in July and being a moistest month of the season with mean monthly rainfall of above 9cm or 3.6inches. However, in some areas especially in the mountainous north, August is the moistest month of the season. The highest mean monthly total precipitation of the season is recorded at Murree and lowest is at Nokkundi, with highest mean monthly humidity at Jiwani and lowest at Chilas. The lower Indus plain as well as Balochistan has recorded high temperatures, while the lowest is at Murree and the adjoining areas of Malakand and Mansehra divisions. The rainfall of Pakistan, in monsoon season, generally, decreases from northeast to southwest. In Pakistan, the transition from the relatively dry and weatherless spring to the cloudy, rainy season of summer, with its numerous perturbations, is abrupt and is usually associated with strongly disturbed weather. They so-called monsoon rains begin over Burma in May or even late April (Trewartha, 1961), but in Pakistan, they arrive from 15th June in coastal areas, and the first week of July in mountainous north, and are well-established upto the mid-July in the whole country. Usually, with the advance of the monsoon currents toward north over India and Pakistan, is accompanied by turbulent weather in the form of thunderstorms, but its frequency decreases after the summer circulation is established. The monsoon begins to retreat from northern Pakistan in late August and the withdrawal continues southward through September and October. The later arrival of monsoon currents in Pakistan may results from the fact that during the winter and spring, there is an orographically determined upper trough, oriented northsouth at about 85oE, over the western Bay of Bangal. It acts to accelerate the southwesterly monsoon flow over Burma located east of this trough, while at the same time retarding it over Indo-Pakistan to the west (Yin, 1949). As the sub-continent is heated intensively in April and May, the zonal westerlies over northern India and Pakistan begin to move northward and it changes its direction under the influence of the mountain ranges, towards southwest. As a result, the jet stream, which had been south of the highland at about 30oN during winter and spring, tends to disappear and then reappear alternately south of the mountains. Disappearance become more frequent as the season advances and each disappearance is associated with a northward surge of the summer monsoon. Finally, in late May or early June, the jet disappears completely over northern Pakistan and takes up a position at about 40oN to the north of Himalayas and Tibet. Simultaneously, there occurs a shift of the low latitude trough and ridge positions, and the upper trough which previously was located at about 85oE quickly moves westward some 10o and take up a position over western Indo-Pakistan sub-continent at approximately 75oEast. With the disappearance of the jet over northern India and a westward shift of the upper trough, the equatorial westerly, or summer monsoon, surges northward over India accompanied by unsettled weather. The heating of the sub-continent and the development of a surface pressure trough are unable to produce a northward advance of the ITC until large scale dynamic features of the circulation aloft become favorable (Trewartha, 1961). When the jet stream reappears south of the Himalayas, again in fall, the summer monsoon again retreat southward and is called reversible monsoon.

4.1.4. Warm season: The season varies from mid-September to mid-November and is characterized by pleasant weather with moderate temperature and low rainfall. As the thermal trough over northern Pakistan weakens, paralleling a decline in insolation, and the flow of southwesterly equatorial air across Indo-Pakistan sub-continent and up-into the Bay of Bangal, likewise weakens and the ITC, as well as the paths of the monsoon depressions, retreat slowly southward and rainfall declines in BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 12

the north (Miller, 1959). With this retreat of the equatorial westerly, a greater intrusion of the north Pacific trades into the Bay of Bangal and over Indo-Pakistan. By the late fall, the trough of low pressure, separating the easterly and westerly air currents becomes established over the southern part of the Bay of Bangal and adjacent southern Indo-Pakistan sub-continent. Along the discontinuity between the equatorial westerly and the zonal easterly, various kinds of perturbations develop ranging all the way from weak monsoon depressions to hurricanes. The depressions follow less well definite tracks than in summer, but in general, their progress is westward, so that their rainfall effects are concentrated in coastal region of Pakistan, which lies in close juxta-position to the earth’s most active region of cool season tropical cyclogenesis, located in the southwestern part of the Bay of Bangal. With in Pakistan and India, sever hurricane storms are more numerous in this season particularly in the coastal region of Pakistan and Bay of Bangal. Some of these storms, in weakened form, appear to have the western north of Arabian sea regenerating over coastal areas of Indo-Pakistan. During the fall months, the dynamic features of the circulation aloft, including jet stream and the orographically imposed troughs and ridges, begin to approach their cool season positions, with the reappearance, south of the mountainous north of Indo-Pakistan sub-continent in October or November of the middle latitude westerly and the jet stream, and the re- establishment of the Polar front in the extreme northwest of Pakistan. The western disturbances once more become an important control of weather in northern most India and Pakistan (Trewartha, 1961). In warm season, the temperature of the country falls to below 30oC with low rainfall, humidity, moderate pressure, sunshine, high evapotranspiration, and gentle breeze. In these months the monsoon lows give way to those of winter currents (western depression) and most of the rains are caused by thunderstorms, which develop due to local low pressure, especially in mountainous areas. The retreat of monsoon from north Arabian sea in marked by disappearance of the stratus clouds with a gradual increase in daytime temperature over Sindh-Makran coast (Khan, 1993). The highest mean monthly total precipitation of the season is recorded at Sialkot, while the lowest is at Nokkundi with highest relative humidity at Ormara and the lowest is at Chilas. The highest temperature of the season marked at Lasbela with lowest at Astore. In warm season the rainfall of Pakistan decreases from northeast to south, while the temperature decreases from south toward north. 4. Climatic classification of Pakistan:

Pakistan has been divided into climatic divisions, based on the study of the weather and climatic elements discussed earlier. Areas with similar climatic characteristics have been shown on the map, for which different symbols have been devised. To develop a more satisfactory system of climate classification, maps showing the distribuion of weather and climatic elements have been superimposed on each other demarcating the regions of temperature, precipitation, and relative humidity etc, and in this way a map of climatic distribution of Pakistan has been prepared. The variation graphs have been calculated for the available met-observatories and thus Pakistan has been divided into five macro, 18 meso, and 46 micro regions. The results and discussions are given in conclusion, and highlight on map-1and 2. On the classification map, the first symbol shows macro-region, the second stand for sub-type, and the third one for micro region. The various climatic types of Pakistan highlighted on the classification maps are as follow. Abbreviation Stands for Abbreviation Stands for Relative humidity A Arid. z 30-35%.

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Relative humidity B Semi-arid. z` 35-40%. Relative humidity C Sub-humid. u 70-75%. Relative humidity D Humid. u` 75-80%. Undifferentiated Relative humidity E v highland. 60-65%. Winter dry and summer Relative humidity w v` rainfall. 65-70%. Summer dry and winter Relative humidity s y rainfall. 40-60%. Uniform rain (summer U i D4-Uwv` and winter). Rainfall from local t ii D4-Uwv thunders-rms (spring). s` Short summers. iii D3-Usx` w` Short winters. iv D2-Ms`Cw

C Cool v D3-Usv C* Cold vi D4-Usx H Hot vii D1-Usv W Warm viii C2-Uwv M Mild ix C3-Ws`Cw Relative humidity 50- x xi C2-Usy` 55%. Relative humidity 55- x` xii C2-Uwx 60%. Relative humidity 40- y xiii Usx` 45%. Relative humidity 45- y` xiv C1-Hs`C/C*W 50%. Us Uniform rains with Uniform rains with winter summer rainfall. uw rainfall. A1. HsMw` A2. HsCw` A3. HsWw` A4. WsMW` A5. Ws`Cw A6. Ws`C*w A7. HsCw` B1. HsMw` B2. WS`C/C*w B3. WS`Cw B4. HsMw` C1. Hs`C/C*w C2. HsMw` C3. Ws`Cw D1. HsMw` D2. Ms`Cw

BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 14

D3. HsCw` D4. Ms`Cw Table 5: List of abbreviation to map.

5.1. A: Arid climates:

This climatic type is characterized by low rainfall and covers a vast region in the southern as well as northern parts of the country, where the annual total rainfall is between 0inches and 10inches. The region is further divided into the following sub-types. A.1. Hot long summer and mild short winters (HsMw`): The area is designated by hot and arid climates with mean temperature of the hottest month June, is above 32oC and warmest month November is 10oC to 21oC with average summer temperature more than 25oCelsius. This climatic type is divided into the following micro-regions. A.1.1. Winter dry, summer rainfall with average day humidity of 55 to 60percent (wx`): This region consists of Hyderabad, Mirpur Khas and parts of Dadu district. The annual total rainfall of the area is 5inches to 10inches with summer concentration, and annual day relative humidity of 55% to 60percent. The mean monthly evapotranspiration is 7.1mm or 0.28inches at Hyderabad with annual sunshine of 8.2hr/day. The sub-region has long, hot and moist summers and short, mild and dry winters. The mean monthly summer temperature exceeds 25oC and the winter temperature is less than 15oCelsious. June with mean temperature of above 32oC is the hottest month of the region and January with mean temperature of less than 20oC is the coldest month. The mean monthly temperature of the area varies between 25oC and 30oC, with 35oC to 40oC maxima, and 10oC to 15oC minima. The mean daily range is above 10oC, with 30 to 35oC daily maximum, and 20oC to 25oC daily minimum temperature. The region is characterized by sever summers and moderate winters. The highest maximum temperature at Hyderabad is 50oC recorded in June, while the lowest minimum temperature is 1oC recorded in January. This sub-region has 8.9 number of rainy days, while the average wind speed is 5.1knots. High loam’s and clayey soil characterizes the zone with some peidment plain near the foothill of Kirthar mountains. High watertable has caused waterlogging and salinization problems, depressing crop growth or make land unproductive for agriculture. However, areas having well- developed canal system and less salinization is characterized by intensive agriculture. Agriculture is main activity in this zone, but there are also areas of rough grazing, riverine forest and tracts of flooded backswamps. Wood resources come from riverine and thorn forests and trees of farmlands, much of which are used for firewood. A.1.2. Winter dry summer rainfall with relative humidity of 60 to 65percent (wv): The sub-region includes Badin and northeastern part of Thata. June is the hottest month with mean monthly temperature of above 32oC, while January is the coldest month with mean temperature less than 20oCelsius. The summers are hot, long and moist, while the winters are short, mild and dry. The area receives much of rainfall from monsoon lows particularly from Arabian sea branch. The annual total rainfall of the area is 5inches to 10inches with summer concentration, and average day relative humidity is 55% to 60percent. The mean temperature of the region is 25oC to 30oC, with 35oC to 40oC maxima, and 15oC to 20oC minima. The mean daily range of temperature varies between 10oC and 15oC, with 30oC to 35oC daily maximum, and 15oC to 20oC daily minimum temperature. The extreme maximum temperature of the sub-region is 49.4oC recorded in June and the lowest minimum is -2oC recorded in January. The annual evapotranspiration is 7mm or 0.28inches with annual sunshine of 8.2hr/day. The number of rainy days is 9.2 with average wind speed of 6.7knots. The region is characterized by sandy clayey soil, which is not suitable for agriculture and therefore, the area has very little agriculture activities excluding those parts where water is easily BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 15

available for irrigation. The waterlogging and salinization are the dominant factor of low agriculture production of the region. Vegetation resembles that of arid desert, with the addition of thorn scrubs and light scrub forests. The land is mostly used for grazing of cattle’s, sheep, and goats. Moreover, the groundwater is acidic and is not suitable for drinking as well as vegetation growth. A.1.3. Uniform rains with summer concentration and relative humidity of 55 to 60percent (Usx`): Thal and D.I.Khan districts belong to this sub-region, where the mean temperature of coldest month i.e. January is above 10oC and hottest month of June exceeds 32oCelsius. The area receives both summer and winter rains but the contribution of summer rains particularly from monsoon lows is high as compared to winter rainfall. The annual total rainfall of the region is 5inches to 10inches with average day relative humidity of 55% to 60percent. The evapotranspiration of the region is 4.3mm or 0.17inches with annual sunshine of 8.4hr/day, which makes the summer of the region hottest as compared to the adjoining climatic regions. The mean temperature of the sub-region particularly at D.I.Khan is 20oC to 25oC, with 36.7oC maxima, and 13oC minima. The area has high range of temperature both in summer as well as in winter seasons. The annual range of temperature is 10oC to 15oC, with 30oC to 35oC as the mean daily maximum, and 15oC to 20oC as the daily minimum temperature. The extreme maximum temperature of the region is 50oC, recorded in May, hottest month of the region, while the lowest minimum temperature is -3oC, recorded in January. The number of rainy days is 18.2 with average wind speed of 2knots. The area is characterized by low agriculture practices due to non-availability of water and poor soil. In some areas of D.I.Khan, soil is fertile and having good agriculture, while most of the Thal desert has sandy soil with some loams. The summer’s “loo” (hot wind) is the important characteristic of the region, which not only increases the temperature of the region but also, affects plant growth, and its production, due to high evapotranspiration. The area has sub-tropical thorn forests with some irrigated plantation near canal banks and is used in general, as a grazing land for livestock. A.1.4. Summer dry winter rainfall with average relative humidity of 45 to 50percent (sy`): Punjgur and Turbat (Balochistan) are included in this sub-region, where the summers are long and dry, while the winters are short and moist. The annual total rainfall is less than 5inches with winter concentration particularly from western disturbances. The area has sever summers and mild winters. The mean temperature varies between 20oC and 25oC, with 30oC to 35oC maxima, and 5oC to 10oC minima. The mean daily range exceeds 15oC, with 25oC to 30oC daily maximum, and 10oC to 15oC minimum temperature. The ever-recorded maximum temperature of the region is 45oC, recorded in June, and is the hottest month, while the lowest minimum temperature is –7.8oC, recorded in December, and is the coldest month of the year. The number of rainy days of the area is 10.2, while the wind speed is 4.5knots with average day relative humidity of 45% to 50percent. Hot arid desert covers the area in the border with Iran and areas near the Makran coast. The soil of the area is sandy with sand dunes, badly eroded by running water. Vegetation is closely related to soil moisture, with grass along “nullah” (seasonal rivers), and on piedmont plain, associated with small trees and shrubs. The main species are pistacia spp and quercus ilex with evergreen oaks occurs above 1200meters. Woodlands here provide fuelwood, nuts, fruits and brows for camels. Wetter areas have relatively good grazing for livestock. The land is used mainly for grazing. Pockets of cultivation are fed by water from karez system or spate irrigation along rivers. Vegetation is extremely variable, from completely barren ground to medium density shrub and tree cover. Any well-wetter land is cultivated and all the vegetation are grazed, browsed or cut for domestic requirements, particularly near urban centers. A.2. Hot long summer and cool short winters (HsCw`): BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 16

The climatic region is generally, characterized by warm desert, where the June temperature exceeds 32oC, while the mean January temperature is between 0oC and 10oC with mean summer temperature of above 25oCelsius. It is further divided into the following sub- regions. A.2.1. Summer dry and winter rainfall with average day relative humidity of 30 to 35percent (sz): Parts of Chaghi and Kharan districts (Nokkundi) belongs to this region, where the annual total rainfall is less than 5inches. The lowest rainfall of Pakistan i.e. 1.4inches has been recorded in this region and the average day relative humidity varies between 30% and 35percent. The area receives more rains in winter season, while the summer season is dry, with two dry spells in a year, first from mid-April to June, while the second is from mid-September to mid-December. The summers are long and hot, while the winters are moist and cool. The annual evapotranspiration is 5.4mm or 0.22inches with mean sunshine duration of 8.5hr/day. The mean temperature of the region is 20oC to 25oC, with 35oC to 40oC maxima, and 10oC to 15oC minima. The mean daily range is above 15oC with mean daily maximum temperature of 30oC to 35oC and with a daily minimum above 15oCelsius. The number of rainy days of the sub-region is 4 with annual wind speed of 7.6knots. The ever-recorded maximum temperature exceeds 45oC in June, while the lowest minimum temperature is less than -10oC in December, due to cold Siberian currents. The soil of the region is sandy with arid piedmont plain and barren Chaghi hills. It constitutes as the western Balochistan rangelands. The land is used in general, for grazing but some patches of cultivated land are also located in the kareze feeding areas. The land is badly eroded by geomorphic agents due to sparse vegetation. Vegetation varies from barren ground and mountains to medium density scrubs and trees, with acasia and Jajuba the main species. The forests are mostly used for domestic purposes and browsed for camels. A.2.2. Summer dry winter rainfall with average day relative humidity of 35 to 40percent (sz`): Parts of Kharan and Chaghi districts (Dalbandin) are the specific areas of the region. The summers are long and dry, while the winters are short and moist. The area receives most of the rains in winter from western disturbances with annual total rainfall below 5inches (3.2inches at Dalbandin). The evapotranspiration of the area is 5.1mm or 0.2inches with annual sunshine duration of 8.6hr/day and the average day relative humidity of 35% to 40percent. The mean monthly temperature of the area is 20oC to 25oC, with mean maximum temperature of 35oC to 40oC, and minimum temperature of 5oC to 10oCelsius. The annual daily range varies between 15oC and 20oC with mean daily maxima of 30oC to 35oC, and mean daily minima of 10oC to 20oCelsius. The highest maximum temperature of the area is above 50oC, recorded in June, and the lowest is below to10oC, recorded in December, due Siberian cold winds. The number of rainy days of the area is 8.7, which is higher as compared to A.2.1. sub-region, and the average wind speed is 3.2knots. The physiography and soil of the land has the same pattern as given in A.2.1. sub-region. However, the area is badly eroded and having barren mountains, particularly the Chaghi hills. Most of the areas near Dalbandin are piedmont plain, while towards south, area is sand and sandy dunes cover a vast area with scrubs and bushes. The land is mostly used for grazing and browsed for camels. Due to sandy soil, agriculture practices are confined to isolated patches in the area. The barren Chaghi hills increase the daytime temperature, while decrease the nighttime temperature of the region due to high absorption, deflection, reflection, and releasing of solar energy. A.3. Hot long summer and short warm winters (HsWw`): The region is hot desert, where mean temperature of the hottest month, June is above 35oC, and that of coldest month January is between 21oC and 32oCelsius. The mean summer temperature of the area exceeds 25oCelsius. It is further divided into the following sub climatic regions. BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 17

A.3.1. Winter dry and summer rainfall, with average day relative humidity of 55 to 60percent (wx`): Bahawalpur, Bahawalnagar, Mianwali, and Multan districts are included in this region. The area is characterized by hot long moist summer and short warm dry winter. The annual total rainfall varies between 5inches and 10inches with average day relative humidity of 55% to 60percent. The mean evapotranspiration of the region is 5.5mm or 0.22inches, with annual sunshine of 8hr/day to 10hr/day. The number of rainy days is 10 to 15, while the wind speed is 2knots to 4knots. The mean monthly temperature ranges between 25oC and 30oC, with 35oC to 40oC maxima, and 10oC to 20oC minima. The mean daily range of temperature is 10oC to 15oC, with 30oC to 35oC daily maximum, and 15oC to 20oC daily minimum. The extreme maximum temperature of the region varies between 45oC and 51oC, recorded in May and June, while the lowest minimum temperature is 0oC to -5oC, recorded in January. May and June are the hottest months, whereas January is the coldest month of the region. It is the extension of the Rajistan desert, but due to well-developed canal system, intensive agriculture is practised in parts of the region. The area has sandy soil, but alluvial soil has also developed near the banks of Indus and its tributaries. The eastern part of the region, has sandy loam’s with terraces of the “Hakra River” (India), sand ridges, intertodune valleys and saline lakes and flats. Natural vegetation comprises xerophytic trees, shrubs and grasses but some irrigated plantation have also been grown along the river/canals banks. The pressure on these limited tracts of shrubs vegetation from fuel woodcutters is intense. Land otherwise, is used only for livestock production, hunting and agriculture. Due to rapid deforestation, temperature of the region increases with passage of time and the area continuously going towards sever aridity. A.3.2. Winter dry and summer rainfall with relative humidity 40-45percent (wy): Kach-Sibi areas fall in this region. It has hot long moist summers and warm short dry winters. The mean annual total rainfall of the area varies between 5inches and 10inches, with average day relative humidity of 40% to 45percent. The mean annual evapotranspiration of the region is 4mm or 0.16inches, with mean sunshine duration of 8.2hr/day, number of rainy days 12.1, and wind speed of 2.9knots. The mean temperature of the area is 25oC to 30oC, with 30oC to 35oC, maxima and 10oC to 15oC minima. The mean daily range of temperature varies between 15oC and 20oC, with 35oC to 40oC daily maximum, and 15oC to 20oC daily minimum. In Sibi, more than 50oC maximum temperature has been recorded for three times in June, and is the hottest region of the country. The lowest minimum temperature of the area is –3.3oC, recorded in January, and it is the coldest month of the region. Aridity prevails the whole region, with less fertile sandy soil. Kachi plain is a desert, with no vegetation. However, in the irrigated areas, the natural vegetation in general is xerophytes with shrubs and grasslands, with medium size trees. The area is mostly used for grazing, but where there is karezes, there are some agriculture patches of land. A.3.3. Winter dry and summer rainfall with relative humidity of 50 to 55percent (wx): The region consists of Khanpur and the upper irrigated Sindh. The annual total rainfall of the region is less than five inches with annual day relative humidity of 55% to 60percent. The summers are long hot and moist, while the winters are warm short and dry. The annual evapotranspiration is 6.7mm or 0.27inches (Jaccobabad) and sunshine is 8.7hr/day. The number of rainy days is 5 to 10, and with a wind speed of 2knots to 4knots. The mean monthly temperature varies between 25oC and 30oC, with 35oC to 40oC maxima, and 10oC to 20oC minima. The mean daily range is 10oC to 15oC, with 30oC to 35oC daily maximum, and 15oC to 20oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the region is 45oC to 52oC recorded in May and June, while the lowest minimum temperature is 0oC to -5oC, recorded in January and December.

BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 18

The soil of the region used to be subjected to annual flooding before the river embankments were constructed, and because of this, the soils are rich loamy and clayeys. High watertables have caused waterlogging and salinization problems and the land are un-productive for agriculture growth. Agriculture is the main activity in this zone, but there are also areas of rough grazing, riverain forest and tracts of flooded backswamps. Wood resources come from riverain forests and trees on farmlands, much of which is used for firewood or send to Balochistan as a mining timber. A.3.4. Winter dry, summer rainfall with average day relative humidity of 60 to 65percent (wv): The region consists of Nawabshah and Padidan in central Sindh. The total rainfall of the region varies from 5inches to 10inches with summer concentration, while the winters are short and dry. The average day relative humidity varies from 60% to 65%, with evapotranspiration of 6.9mm or 0.28inches, and sunshine of 8.8hr/day. The mean monthly temperature varies between 25oC and 30oC, with 35oC to 40oC maxima, and 10oC to 15oC minima. The mean daily range of temperature is 15oC to 20oC, with 35oC to 40oC daily maximum, and 15oC to 20oC daily minimum temperature. The maximum temperature exceeds 50oC in June, while in January, it falls to below freezing. The number of rainy days is 5 to 10 per year, with average wind speed of 0knots to 5knots. The soil, natural vegetation as well as physical relief of this climatic zone is the same as given in A.3.3. A.3.5. Winter dry and summer rainfall with relative humidity of 45 to 50percent (wy`): Thar desert in Sindh and Cholistan in Punjab constitute in this micro-region. It has long hot moist summers and short warm dry winters. The annual total rainfall of the area varies from 5inches to 10inches but in Cholistan, it is less than 5inches. The average day relative humidity of the region is 45% to 50%, with annual evapotranspiration of above 5mm or 0.2inches, and sunshine duration of more than 8hr/day. The mean monthly temperature varies between 25oC and 30oC, with 35oC to 40oC maximum, and 10oC to 15oC minimum temperature. The mean daily range is 15oC to 20oC, with 30oC to 35oC daily maximum, and 15oC to 20oC daily minimum temperature. The extreme maximum temperature of the region is above 50oC, recorded in June, and the lowest minimum temperature is 0oC to 5oC, in January. Arid deserts, cover the eastern part of Sindh and lower Punjab. This major landforms of the region are series of parallels linear sand dunes “bets” oriented northwest to southeast. Valleys between these dunes cover about 30% of the area. There are also salt lakes fed by water. Natural vegetation is of two types, centchrus-panicum dune type and eleusine-centchrus inter dune type. Livestock raring is the mainstay of the region, with some secondary dry land farming in inter-dune valleys. Cholistan has sandy soil, and is the extension of Great Indian Desert, that includes terraces of Hakra river, sand ridges, inter-dunes valleys and saline lakes and flats. Natural vegetation is xerophytic trees, shrubs and grasslands. The region in general, is used for hunting and grazing, with some patches of rain feed agriculture. A.4. Warm long summers and mild short winters (WsMw`): This sub climatic type is characterized by mean temperature of the hottest month June is 21oC to 32oC, and warmest month November is 10oC to 21oC, with mean summer temperature of above 25oCelsius. It is further divided into the following sub-types. A.4.1. Winter dry and summer rainfall with relative humidity of 55 to 60percent (wx`): Marine continental climates with annual total rainfall of 5inches to 10inches and average day relative humidity of 55% to 60percent. It includes Lasbela and Dadu. This sub-type is characterized by short warm dry winters and long hot moist summers. The annual evapotranspiration of the area is 4.4mm or 0.18inches, with sunshine duration of 8.1hr/day, number of rainy days 14.5 per year, and average wind speed of 3knots. The mean monthly temperature varies between 25oC and 30oC, with 35oC to 40oC maxima, and 10oC to 15oC BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 19

minima. The mean daily range is 10oC to 15oC, with 30oC to 35oC daily maximum, and 15oC to 20oC daily minimum temperature. The ever-recorded maximum temperature of the area is 51oC at Lasbela, recorded in May, the hottest month of the region, while the lowest minimum temperature is below freezing recorded in January. Vegetation of the region is closely related to soil moisture, with grasses along streams and seasonal rivers. Woodlands here provide fuel wood, nuts and fruits and brows for camels. Wetter areas have relatively good grazing patches for livestock. The land is mainly used for grazing. Pockets of cultivation are fed by water from karez systems or from spate irrigation along streams and seasonal rivers. Vegetation is extremely variable, from completely barren ground to medium-density shrubs and tree cover. Any well-wetter land is cultivated while the vegetation is grazed, browsed or cut for domestic purposes, particularly near Karachi and Dadu. A.4.2. Uniform rains with winter concentration and relative humidity of 65- 70percent (Uwv`): Karachi west belongs to this region, where the mean annual total rainfall is 5inches to 10inches, with average day relative humidity of 65% to 70percent. The area receives both summer and winter rains but the contribution of winter rains is more than summer season. It has long warm summer and short mild winters with sea and land breezes throughout the year. June is the hottest month, with maximum temperature of above 32oC, and January is the coldest month, with minimum temperature of less than 5oCelsius. The mean evapotranspiration of the area is less than 4mm or 0.16inches, with sunshine duration of more than 8hr/day, number of rainy days 5 to 10 per year, and wind speed of 6.6knots. The mean monthly temperature of the region is 25oC to 30oC, with 35oC to 40oC maximum, and 15oC to 20oC minimum temperature. The mean daily range varies between 10oC and 15oC with 30oC to 35oC daily maximum, and 20oC to 25oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the region is 45oC, recorded in June, and the lowest is 0oC, recorded in January. The physiography, soil and natural vegetation are the same as given in A.4.5. sub-type A.4.3. Summer dry and winter rainfall with average relative humidity of 70 to 75percent (su): Marine coastal climates with annual total rainfall of less than 5inches and with average day relative humidity of 60% to 75percent. Pasni and parts of Jiwani belong to this region. It has warm long summers and mild short winters with winter rainfalls but summers are also not dry. The annual evapotranspiration is above 4mm or 0.16inches with annual sunshine duration of 8.3hr/day, number of rainy days as 6.5 per year, and wind speed of 6.9knots. The mean monthly temperature varies between 25oC and 30oC, with 35oC to 40oC maxima, and 15oC to 20oC minima temperature. The annual daily range of temperature is 10oC to 15oC, with 30oC to 35oC daily maximum, and 20oC to 25oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the area is 47oC, recorded in June, and is the hottest month of the year, whereas the lowest minimum is 2oC, recorded in December, and is the coldest month of the region. The region is also characterized by land and sea breezes with saline sandy soil, sparsely covered by scrub trees particularly of bela forest (medium size trees). Due to low soil fertility, agriculture is not very important and most of the area is used for grazing and woodlands. A.4.4. Summer dry and winter rainfall with relative humidity of 75 to 80percent (su`): The region consists of Ormara and Jiwani with warm long dry summers and short mild moist winters. Sometime, Ormara receives both summer and winter rains, while the intensity of winter rains is high at Jiwani as compared to summer. The annual total rainfall of the area varies between 5inches and 10inches, with mean evapotranspiration of less than 5mm or 0.2inches, and sunshine duration of 9hr/day. The average day humidity is 75% to 80%, with number of rainy days between 5 and 10 per year, and wind speed of 5knots to 8knots. The mean monthly temperature of the area varies between 25oC and 30oC, with 30oC to 40oC maxima, and 15oC to 20oC minima. The mean daily range of temperature is 5oC to 10oC, with 30oC to 35oC daily BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 20

maximum, and 20oC to 25oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the region is 48oC, recorded in June, and the lowest minimum temperature is 0oC to 5oC, recorded in January. June is the hottest month of the area, while January is the coldest month. The general characteristics of the region particularly of soil and vegetation are the same as stated in A.4.3. sub-region. A.4.5. Uniform rains with summer concentration with relative humidity of 65 to 70percent (Usv`): Marine coastal, Indus delta (Thata) and eastern Karachi are included in this region. Both summer and winter rains are received in the area but the contribution of summer rains is higher as compared to winter. The annual total rainfall of the area varies from 5inches to 10inches with annual evapotranspiration of 4.9mm or 0.2inches, and sunshine duration of 8.1hr/day. The average day relative humidity varies from 60% to 65%, with number of rainy days less than 10 per year, and wind speed of 6.6knots. The mean monthly temperature of the area is 25oC to 30oC, with 35oC to 40oC maxima, and 15oC to 20oC minima. The mean daily range of the area varies from 10oC to 15oC, with 30oC to 35oC daily maximum, and 20oC to 25oC daily minimum temperature. In May, the maximum temperature reaches to 48oC, and falls to 0oC till January. The Indus delta has its apex some distance northeast of Thata, where the distributaries fanout to form the deltaic plain near Thata. Two of the large distributaries are Ochito and the Gungro. Many of the channels perform the dual function of distributaries and estuaries. The channel beds and their levees are higher than the adjacent lands, and the shallow troughs between them are often filled with water, resulting in swamps. The tidal delta is sub-merged at high tide, and has mangrove swamps and tamarisk groves in its western section. The eastern section is Run of Kutch, a saline marshy land. The coast is low except between Karachi and Cap Monz, where the Pab hills approach the shore. The Karachi plain has a thin mantle of soil over weathered bedrock. A few low hills rise to above 15meters. Shallow depressions are known as dhand. One of these, Heleji Dhand, is used as water reservoir for Karachi city. The vegetation of the region is mostly bela, with some irrigated plantation on Indus banks and roadsides. The area is characterized by sea and land breeze with poor sandy soil, due to which very rare cultivation is practised in the area. The forests in general, are used for grazing and domestic purposes. A.5. Warm short summers and cool long winters (Ws`Cw): The region includes areas having mean temperature of the hottest month June, is between 21oC and 32oC, and mean temperature of the coldest month January as 0oC to 10oC, with mean winter temperature of above/equal to 15oCelsius. The region has further been divided into the following sub-types. A.5.1. Summer dry and winter rains, with relative humidity of 40 to 45percent (sy): The region includes Kalat in the south, Chaman and Loralai in the north. These areas have short warm dry summers and cool long moist winters. The mean annual total rainfall of the area varies between 5inches and 10inches, with average day humidity of 40% to 45percent. The annual evapotranspiration of the sub-region is 5mm or 0.2inches, with sunshine duration of 8.7hr/day, number of rainy days as 15 to 20 per year, and wind speed of 3knots. The mean temperature of the area varies between 15oC and 20oC, with 25oC to 30oC maxima, and 0oC to 5oC minima. The mean daily range is 15oC to 20oC, with 20oC to 25oC daily maximum, and 5oC to 10oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature recorded at Kalat is 38oC, in June, while the lowest is 0oC to -18oC, recorded in January. The region is characterized by extensive woodlands of Juniperus and Pinus gerardiana (chalghoza) etc, with many shrubs including a well-known medicinal plant e.g. ephedra nebrodensis. Excessive timber and fuel woodcutting has completely degraded these woodlands, leaving many former forest areas as shrubby and grassy steppes. The relatively higher productivity of forest in these areas has encouraged denser populations and consequently greater human exploitation of scrub and woodlands has declined the stocks of wood. The soils in BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 21

general, are regosols and lithosols with some fertile alluvial soils in the valleys. Terrace agriculture is practised in the valleys, otherwise the area is used for grazing. The topography of the region is mostly rough with steep slopes and narrow valleys, intensively eroded by running water. A.5.2. Summer dry and winter rainfall with relative humidity of 30 to 35percent (sz): Noshki and its surrounding in the Chaghi district falls in this sub-type, where the annual total rainfall is between 0inches and 5inches, with average day humidity of 30% to 35percent. This low relative humidity of the region causes high evapotranspiration from plants as well as human skin. The summers are in general, hot long and dry, while the winters are mild cool and moist. The cold Siberian winds in winters decrease the temperature of the area upto freezing. The mean annual evapotranspiration is less than 5mm or 0.2inches with sunshine duration of 8hr/day. The mean temperature of the region is 20oC to 25oC, with 30oC to 35oC maxima, and 5oC to 10oC minima. The mean daily range is between 15oC and 20oC, with 25oC to 30oC daily maximum, and 15oC to 20oC daily minimum temperature. The soils consist of shingles, pebbles, sands (regosols), and are very poor for cultivation. However, some agriculture patches are located in kareze feeding areas. The forests are mostly scrubs with grasslands, and also having barren lands and mountains. A.5.3. Uniform rains with summer concentration and relative humidity of 35 to 40% (Usz`): The climatic region includes Khuzdar, which receives both summer and winter rains with summer concentration. The summers are long and warm while the winters are cool and short. The annual total rainfall of the region is 5inches to 10inches, with average day relative humidity of 35% to 40percent. The annual evapotranspiration is less than 5mm or 0.2inches with mean sunshine duration of less than 8hr/day. The number of rainy days is 19.3 per year, with wind speed of 3knots. The mean temperature of the region is 20oC to 25oC, with 30oC to 35oC maxima, and 5oC to 10oC minima. The daily range of temperature is 10oC to 15oC, with 25oC to 30oC daily maximum, and 10oC to 15oC daily minimum temperature. The extreme maximum temperature of the area is 43oC, recorded in July, and is the hottest month of the year, whereas the lowest minimum temperature is –5 to -10oC, recorded in January, and is the coldest month of the year. The region is characterized by steep slopes having some grasslands and sparse shrubs but are mainly barren. The main of the land is grazing, with pockets of cultivation fed by tubewells irrigation. Farmers grow mainly fruits such as apples, apricots, grapes, peaches and plums. The vegetation is mainly used for domestic purposes and livestock. Due to rough topography, some patches of terrace agriculture are at the tubewells feed areas. A.6. Warm short summers and cold long winters (Ws`C*w): In this region the mean temperature of the hottest month, June is between 21oC and 32oC, with the coldest month January having temperature below freezing, and the mean winter temperature of above 15oCelsius. It is further divided into the following sub-climatic types. A.6.1. Winter dry and summer rainfall particularly from local thunderstorms with relative humidity of 40 to 45% (wty): The region consists of Gupis in the Northern Areas, where the annual total rainfall is less than 5inches with cold long dry winters and short moist summers. In winters low precipitation mostly in the form of snow and ice is received, whereas the summer rains are high, particularly from the local thunderstorms. The winters are very cold, while the summers are warm. The evapotranspiration of the region is 2.8mm or 0.11inches, with annual sunshine of 6.6hr/day, while the average day relative humidity of 40% to 45percent. The mountain slopes are mostly covered by snow particularly in Ashkomen valley, while the ground and lower mountain slopes are barren. The physiography is generally, rough with sparse vegetation and cultivation. The mean temperature of the region is 10oC to 15oC, with 20oC to 25oC maxima, and 5oC to 10oC minima. The daily range of temperature is between 10oC and 15oC, with 15oC to 20oC daily maximum, and BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 22

5oC to 10oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the region is 41.1oC, recorded in July, and is the hottest month of the area, while the lowest minimum temperature is –10 to -15oC, recorded in January, and is the coldest month of the year. The number of rainy days of the region is 13.8, while the wind speed is 2.6knots. The zone is characterized in general, by glacier feed areas, deep narrow valleys, fans and terraces. Upper mountain slopes have poor soils, but valley bottoms have deep, clay-rich soils overlying the colluvium on lower slopes, fans and terraces. Crops can be cultivated on those fertile fans and terraces, irrigated by the streams. Slopes rely on rainfall to produce maize, wheat and orchards. Energy demands are high because of the cold winters. The forests are in general, orchards with medium size trees, which are mostly used for domestic purposes. A.6.2. Summer dry and winter rainfall with relative humidity of 50 to 55% (sx): The region consists of Skardu Ladakh in Occupied Kashmir, and the adjoining areas of China (Tibatian Plateau). The annual total precipitation varies from 5inches to 10inches, particularly in the form of snow and ice in winter season. However, the summers are not dry and the region receives more than 1cm or 0.18inches rainfall in April and May from local thunderstorms. The annual evapotranspiration is 4.4mm or 0.18inches, with annual sunshine of 6.8hr/day, while the average day relative humidity is between 50% and 55percent. The mean temperature varies from 10oC to 15oC, with 20oC to 25oC maxima, and 0oC minima. The mean daily range of temperature is between 15oC and 20oC, with 15oC to 20oC daily maximum, and 5oC to 10oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the region is 41oC, recorded in August, and the lowest minimum is –20 to -25oC, recorded in January. The mean temperature in January as well as December reaches to below the freezing point. Solar energy is needed for the plant protection particularly in winter season. The number of rainy days of the region is 21.5 per year, with wind speed of 1.1 knots. The area is characterized by barren mountains and glaciers. The soils are poor at higher mountain slopes and are fertile near foothills. The agriculture is practised only on terraces in well- watered areas. The mountains are in general, barren due to glaciation, however, some deciduous forest have grown at the foothills and riverbanks. A.7. Hot long summers and cool short winters (HsCw`): The region is characterized by hot climates, with June temperature of above 32oC, and with January temperature between 0oC and 10oC, while the mean summer temperature exceeds 25oCelsius. The climatic zone is further divided into the following sub-types. A.7.1. Winter dry and summer rainfall particularly from local thunderstorms with relative humidity of 40 to 60percent (wtY): Gilgit district and Bunji, located close to Hunza and Indus rivers, fall in this region. The annual total rainfall of the area varies from 5inches to 10inches. This sub-type receives both summer and winter rains with summer concentration particularly from local thunderstorms. The evapotranspiration of the area is 2.7mm or 0.11inches (Gilgit), with annual sunshine of 6.5hr/day, and average day humidity of 40% to 60percent. The summers are hot and moist, while the winters are cool and dry. The mean temperature of the region varies between 15oC and 20oC, with 25oC to 30oC maxima, and 0oC to 10oC minima. The mean daily range is 10oC to 15oC, with 20oC to 25oC daily maximum, and 5oC to15oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the region is 45oC to 50oC, recorded in July and August, while the extreme minimum temperature is –5oC to -15oC, recorded in December and January. The number of rainy days varies between 14 and 20 per year, with annual wind speed of 0knots to 3 knots. The region consists of major valleys and high permanent snow capped mountains. Snowfall received is between 2meters and 6meters per year. Vegetation at 3,800m to 4000m, is alpine scrub of small deciduous and evergreen forests. Between 3,500m to 3,800m, vegetation is mixed coniferous forests. High alpine scrub is important for summer grazing, but livestock also enter the forests and large tracts of forests have been cleared. Rainfed cultivation from the valleys and lower slopes is expanded upwards, when fertile land is no more available in the BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 23

valleys. The soil at foothills is usually fertile but due to lack of water, agriculture is confined to well wetter areas. A.7.2. Uniform rains with summer concentration from local thunderstorms and relative humidity of 35 to 40percent (Ustz`): Chilas in Northern Areas and parts of Kohistan district are included in this region, where the annual total rainfall varies between 5inches and 10inches. Rainfall is received both in summers and winters, with summer concentration especially from local thunderstorms. Physiography is rough with high barren mountains, and glacial topography. The evapotranspiration of the region is 3.3mm or 0.13inches, with annual sunshine of 6.5hr/day, and average day relative humidity of 35% to 40percent. The mean temperature of the region is between 20oC and 25oC, with 30oC and 35oC maxima, and 5oC and 10oC minima. The mean daily range varies between 10oC and 15oC, with 25oC to 30oC daily maximum, and 10oC to 15oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the region is 48.1oC, in August, and the lowest minimum is –4.4oC, recorded in January. The number of rainy days is 17.3 per year, with average wind speed of one knot. The upper mountain slopes have poor soils but the valleys bottom have deep clayey rich soils overlying the colluvium on lower slopes, fans and terraces. Crops can be cultivated on these fertile fans and terraces, obviously irrigated by the streams. Slopes rely on rainfall to produce maize, wheat, and orchards of walnuts, apricots and plums. The forests are usually deciduous with most of the barren mountains and lands. Agriculture is mostly confined to rainfed areas.

5.2. B. Semi-arid climates:

The region includes area of upper and lower NWFP, upper Punjab, part of Balochistan, and Northern Areas. These areas receive annual rainfall of 10 to 20inches. The climatic region is further divided into the following sub-types. B.1. Hot long summers and mild short winters (HsMw`): In This region the mean temperature of the hottest month i.e. June is above 32oC, and that of November is between 10oC and 21oC, with mean summer temperature of more than 25oCelsius. It is further divided into the following micro-regions. B.1.1. Winter dry summer rainfall with relative humidity of 55 to 60percent (wx`): This sub-type consists of Faisalabad and Sahiwal districts, where the annual total rainfall varies from 10inches to 15inches with relative humidity of 55% to 60percent. The area receives most of the rainfall in summer season particularly from monsoon lows but the winters are not dry. The summers are hot and are characterized by “loo” in June and July. The annual evapotranspiration of the region is less than 5mm or 0.2inches, with average sunshine duration of 7.8hr/day. The mean monthly temperature of the area varies between 20oC and 25oC, with 35oC and 40oC maxima, and 10oC and 15oC minima. The mean daily range exceeds 10oC, with 30oC to 35oC daily maximum, and 15oC to 20oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the region, recorded in the past sixty years is 48oC in May and June, while the lowest minimum temperature is -5oC, recorded in January. The mean number of rainy days is 15 to 25 per year, with average wind speed of 0knots to 3knots. The region in the “Rachna doab” (old flood plain) has deep, sandy and clayey loamy soils. Land is under high productive arable agriculture fed by well-developed canal system. The vegetation is in general, sub-tropical thorn with farm trees, irrigated plantation and riverain forests, which mostly used for domestic purposes. B.1.2. Uniform rains with summer concentration and relative humidity of 55 to 60percent (Usx`): The region consists of Khushab and Sargodha, where the annual total rainfall varies between 15inches and 20inches. The area receives both summer and winter rains with summer BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 24

concentration, while the average day relative humidity is between 55% and 60percent. The annual evapotranspiration is 5.1mm or 0.2inches (Sargodha) with mean sunshine duration of 8.4hr/day. The mean monthly temperature of the region varies between 20oC and 25oC, with highest maximum temperature of 40oC to 55oC, in June and July, while the lowest minimum temperature is 0oC to -15oC, recorded in January and February. The Physiography, soil and natural vegetation are the same as stated in B.1.1. B.1.3. Uniform rains with winter concentration and relative humidity of 50 to 55percent (Uwx): Bannu and Karak belong to this sub-type. The region receives both summer and winter rains but the contribution of winter rains is higher as compared to summer season. The annual total rainfall of the area varies between 10inches and 15inches, with average day relative humidity of 50% to 55percent. The annual evapotranspiration of the region is less than 5mm or 0.2inches, with sunshine duration of 8.4hr/day, with total number of rainy days 20 to 25 per year, and wind speed of 0knots to 3knots. The mean temperature of the region is 20oC to 25oC, with 30oC to 35oC maxima, and 10oC to 15oC minima. The mean daily range exceeds 10oC, with 25oC to 30oC daily maximum, and 15oC to 20oC daily minimum temperature. In June, the maximum temperature of the area exceeds 45oC and is the hottest month of the region, while in January and February, it decreases to below freezing point and both are the coldest months of the year. The soil is generally, fertile but some saline and poor soils have also developed at mountain slopes particularly in Karak district. Physiographically, the region is made of narrow deep valleys and piedmont plain. Intensive agriculture practises in well irrigated areas but most of the Karak district is rainfed with sub-tropical thorn forests, mostly used for grazing and domestic purposes. B.1.4. Uniform rains with winter concentration and relative humidity of 45 to 50percent (Uwy`): The region is composed of Peshawar vale, where the annual total rainfall varies between 10inches and 15inches. The area is characterized by both summer and winter rains but the contribution of winter rains particularly from western depressions is higher as compared to summer season. The region has long hot summers and short mild winters. The mean evapotranspiration of the region is 4.5mm or 0.18inches with annual sunshine duration of 7.9hr/day, and average day relative humidity of 45% to 50percent. The number of rainy days is between 25 and 30 per year, with wind speed of 0knots to 3knots. The mean temperature of the region varies from 20oC to 25oC, with 30oC to 35oC maxima, and 10oC to 15oC minima. The mean daily range exceeds 10oC, with 25oC to 30oC daily maximum, and 15oC to 20oC daily minimum temperature. In May and June, the daily temperature reaches upto 50oC, and both are the hottest months of the year, while in January, it is reduce to –3.9oC and is the coldest month of the region. The soil is mostly alluvial with piedmont plain at the foothills. The soil on hillslopess in general, is very poor. Intensive agriculture is carriedout in well-irrigated areas of Charsadda, Mardan, Swabi, and Peshawar districts. Some areas located near foothills have rainfed agriculture. The forests are mostly sub-tropical thorn with farm trees and irrigated plantation, used as fuel wood. B.2. Warm short summers and cool/cold long winters (Ws`C/C*w): In this region the mean monthly temperature of the hottest month, June is 21oC to 32oC, and that of January is 0oC to 10oC or below the freezing point, with average winter temperature of above 15oCesius. It is further sub-divided into the following micro-regions. B.2.1. Uniform rains with summer concentration from local thunderstorms and relative humidity of 50 to 55percent (Ustx): The region consists of Astore and parts of Mansehra district. It receives both summer and winter rains particularly from local thunderstorms. The winter precipitation is mostly in the form of snow and ice, keeping the temperature of the area low throughout the year. The mean annual BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 25

total rainfall of the region is 15inches to 20inches with average day relative humidity of 50% to 55percent. The annual evapotranspiration is 2.5mm or 0.1inches, with sunshine duration of 6hr/day, and with a total number of rainy days as 43.1 per year, and wind speed of 2.2knots. The mean temperature varies between 5oC and 10oC, with 20oC to 25oC maxima, and to1oC minima. The mean daily range of temperature exceeds 10oC, with 10oC to 15oC daily maximum, and 0oC to 5oC daily minimum temperature. In August, the maximum temperature of the area exceeds 35oC and constitutes as the hottest month of the region, while in January and February, it is reduced to -21oC and are the coldest months of the year. This zone covers major part of valleys and high permanent snow capped mountains. The region receives two to six meters snowfall every year. The natural vegetation is mostly coniferous and evergreen forests at hilltops and sub- tropical deciduous forests at the foothills with some farmlands. Agriculture practices in spring irrigated areas and with some rainfed agriculture lands. B.2.2. Summer dry and winter rainfall with relative humidity of 50 to 55percent (sx): Chitral, parts of Dassu (Kohistan district), and Gupis fall in this sub-climatic type. The summers are hot, short and dry, while the winters are long, cool and moist. The hillslopes of the north western Chitral receive most of the winter precipitation in the form of snow and ice, while the rest of the region has it in the form of rains. The mean annual total rainfall of the region varies from 15inches to 20inches with average day relative humidity of 50% to 55percent. The annual evapotranspiration from plants and water bodies is less than 5mm or 0.2mm, with sunshine duration of 6hr/day. The mean temperature varies from 15oC to 20oC, with 25oC to 30oC maxima, and 0oC to 5oC minima. The mean daily range is 10oC to 15oC, with 20oC to 25oC daily maximum, and 5oC to 10oC daily minimum tempertature. June is the hottest month of the area with highest maximum temperature of above 40oC, while January with lowest minimum temperature of – 16.1oC constitutes as the coldest month of the region. The number of rainy days of the region is 37.3 per year with annual wind speed of 6knots. The region consists of vast narrow valleys with poor soil at hillslopess and rich clayey loamy soils in the valleys. The physiography of the area is generally, rough with barren land and high Hindukosh and Hindu Raj mountains but in some in parts at high altitude are covered by coniferous and deciduous forests. In plain, most of the forests are irrigated with farm trees, which are used mostly for domestic purposes. Intensive terrace agriculture practices are carried out in well-developed irrigated areas, while at the foothills, agriculture is mostly rainfed. B.3. Warm short summer and cool long winters (Ws`Cw): In this region the mean monthly temperature of the hottest month June, varies between 21oC and 32oC, with mean temperature of the coldest months January as 0oC to 10oC, and winter temperature of above 15oCelsius. It is further categorized into the following sub-regions. B.3.1. Uniform rains with winter concentration and relative humidity of 45 to 50percent (Uwy`): Zhob and parts of Muslimbagh districts are included in this region, where the annual rainfall varies between 10inches and15inches, with average day relative humidity of 45% to 50percent. The area has warm short summers and cool long winters. It receives both summer and winter rains but the contribution of winter rains particularly from local thunderstorms is higher as compared to summer season. The physiography is rough and mountainous with less fertile soil on hillslopess and fertile soil in the valleys. The vegetation is usually scrub with some deciduous and coniferous forests on hilltops and grasses at the foothills. Agriculture is mostly practiced by tubewells water, while there are rainfed patches and irrigated land along the Zhob river. The forests are mostly used for domestic purposes and grazing by the livestock. The annual evapotranspiration of the area is 3.2mm or 0.13inches, with sunshine duration of 8.4hr/day, with number of rainy days 28.2 per year, and wind speed of 3knots. The mean monthly temperature varies between 15oC and 20oC, with 30oC to 35oC maximum, and 5oC to 8oC minimum temperature. The mean daily range is above 10oC, with daily maximum temperature of 25oC to BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 26

30oC, and daily minimum temperature of 10oC to 15oCelsius. The highest temperature of the area is 42.8oC, recorded in June, and is the hottest month of the year, while in January, it falls to – 8.9oC, and constitutes as the coldest month of the region. B.3.2. Uniform rains with summer concentration and relative humidity of 45 to 50percent (Usy`): Barkhan and the adjoining areas of Balochistan fall in this region, where the annual total rainfall is 15inches to 20inches and mean average day humidity of 45% to 50percent. The area has both summer and winter rains with summer concentration particularly from monsoon lows. It has warm short summers and long cool winters. The annual evapotranspiration is less than 5mm or 0.2inches, with annual sunshine duration of above 7hr/day, number of rainy days 38.2 per year, and wind speed of 3.8knots. The mean temperature of the region is between 20oC and 25oC, with 30oC to 35oC maxima, and 10oC to 15oC minima. The mean daily range of temperature exceeds 10oC, with 25oC to 30oC daily maximum, and 15oC to 20oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the region is 44.6oC, recorded in June, and the lowest minimum temperature varies between –5 to -10oC, recorded in December. June constitutes as the hottest month, while December is the coldest month of the area. Vegetation mainly depends on soil moisture. Grasslands along seasonal rivers are also associated with small trees and shrubs. Most of the woodlands provide fuel wood, nuts, fruits and brows for camels. Wetter areas have relatively good grazing land for livestock. The land is used mainly for grazing, but some cultivated patches fed by water from kareze or spate irrigation along seasonal rivers are also located in the area. Vegetation varies from complete barren ground to medium density shrub and trees cover. Any well water land is cultivated and all vegetation is grazed, browsed or cut for domestic purposes. B.3.3. Summer dry and winters rainfall with relative humidity of 50 to 55percent (sx): The region consists of Quetta and the adjoining areas of Afghanistan. The mean annual total rainfall of the area is 10inches to 15inches with winter concentration, but the summers are not dry. The region is characterized by warm short summer and long cool moist winter. The annual evapotranspiration is 5mm or 0.2inches, with sunshine duration of 9.2hr/day, number of rainy days 23.1 per year, and wind speed of 3.8knots. The mean temperature exceeds 15oC, with 30oC to 35oC maxima, and 0oC to 5oC minima. The mean daily range is 15oC to 20oC, with 20oC to 25oC daily maximum, and 5oC to 10oC daily minimum temperature. Due to cold Siberian currents, the winter temperature of the region decreases to below freezing point i.e. -18oC, in January, while in June, it exceeds 40oCelsius. June is the hottest month whereas, January is the coldest month of the year. The region is characterized by woodlands with shrubs and grasslands. Excessive timber and fuel wood cutting has damaged the woodlands, leaving many former forest areas as shrubs and grass steppes. The relatively high productivity of land in this zone has encouraged dense population and consequently greater human exploitation of scrubs and woodlands. The soil in plain is clayey loamy but due to non-availability of water, it is mostly grazed. Some karezes and seasonal rivers fed agriculture land, located in plain areas of the region. B.3.4. Uniform rains with winter concentration and relative humidity of 50 to 55percent (Uwx): North and South Waziristan Agency fall in this sub-type. The annual total rainfall of the area is 10inches to 15inches, with average day relative humidity of 50% to 55percent. The area receives both summer and winter rains but the contribution of winter rains is higher than summer season. The annual evapotranspiration of the region is less than 5mm or 0.2inches, with annual sunshine of 8hr/day, and number of rainy days as 25 to 30 per year, and wind speed of 0knots to 5knots. The mean monthly temperature of the region varies from 15oC to 20oC, with 30oC to 35oC maxima, and 5oC to 10oC minima. The mean daily range of the area is 10oC to 15oC with daily maximum of 25oC to 30oC, and daily minimum temperature of 10oC to 15oC. June is the hottest BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 27

month of the area when mean daily temperature exceeds 45oC, while January is the coldest month with mean daily minimum temperature below the freezing point, due to Siberian cold air waves. The soil of the region is variable, being a poor soil on hillslopess and rich clayey loams in valleys. The vegetation is mostly depend on soil moisture, with grasses along rivers and piedmont plain. Livestock and the cultivation of the land, in wetter areas, particularly in Wana are the main occupation. At Miranshah, there are patches of alpine scrubs of small deciduous species, high altitude, while some riverain and farmlands are located in plain areas. The soil in valleys is very fertile with intensive irrigated cultivation, but some areas are also fed on seasonal rains.

5.3. C. Sub-humid climates:

The region covers a vast area of northern NWFP, upper Punjab, and parts of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, where the annual total rainfall is between 20inches to 40inches. This climatic type is further divided into the following sub-regions. C.1. Hot short summer and cool/cold long winters (Hs`C/C*w): Drosh and the surrounding valleys belong to this climatic region, where the annual total rainfall is 20inches to 25inches, with average day relative humidity of 40% to 45percent. The temperature of the hottest month June exceeds 32oC, while that of January is 0oC to 10oC or below the freezing point, with mean winter temperature of above 15oCelsius. The region receives heaviest rains and snowfall in winters from western disturbances but April and May, which is summer months are also the rainiest. The mountains receive snowfall, while in the valleys rainfall is received. The annual evapotranspiration of the area is less than 5mm or 0.2inches or with sunshine duration of 7hr/day, number of rainy days 52.3 per year, and wind speed of 3.1knots. The mean temperature varies between 15oC and 20oC, with 20oC to 25oC maxima, and 10oC to 15oC minima. The mean daily range exceeds 10oC, with 20oC to 25oC daily maximum, and 10oC to 15oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the area is 47.3oC, recorded in June, and the lowest minimum temperature is -9oC, recorded in January. The region consists of deep narrow valleys with poor soil over hillslopes and rich clayey loamy soil in valleys. Vegetation at high altitude is alpine scrub, with some deciduous and coniferous forests. Forests cover a considerable area of the mountain slopes in this region, but due to cutting, and exploitation, the future of forest is uncertain. The region is generally, characterized by intensive terrace agriculture particularly in watter lands, however, some rainfed areas are also located at the foothills. C.2. Hot long summers and mild short winters (HsMw`): In this climatic region, the mean temperature of the hottest month, June is above 32oC, with mean temperature of the warmest month, November between 10oC and 21oC, and summer temperature remains above 25oCelsius. It is further classified into the sub-types. C.2.1. Uniform rains with summer concentration and relative humidity of 60 to 65percent (Usv): The region consists of Lahore and Gujranwala districts, where the annual total rainfall is 20inches to 25inches, with average day relative humidity of 60% to 65percent. The area receives both summer and winter rains but the contribution of summer rains from monsoon lows is higher as compared to winter season. June is the hottest month, whereas January is the coldest month of the region. The annual evapotranspiration is 4.4mm or 0.18inches, with sunshine duration of 8.4hr/day, number of rainy days as 31.4 per year, and wind speed of 1.6knots. The mean temperature of the region varies between 20oC and 25oC, with 35oC to 40oC maxima, and 10oC to 15oC minima. The mean daily range exceeds 10oC, with 30oC to 35oC daily maximum, and 15oC to 20oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the area is 48oC, recorded in May, and lowest minimum is -2oC, recorded in January.

BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 28

This sub-type is located on both sides of Ravi river, with Ravi flood plain, and the “doabs” between Sutluj and Chanab rivers. These old flood plain lie 5meters above the recent flood plain, while remnant hills also reaches to a height of 50m to 120meters. Soil is mainly deep, sandy and clayey loam, but some saline soil has also developed along the riversides. Salinization and waterlodging are the main problems of the region. Land is under high productive arable agriculture, fed by canal irrigation. Most of the wood produced in this area is of the farm trees, irrigated plantation and thorn forests, which is mostly used as a fuel wood. C.2.2. Uniform rains with summer concentration and relative humidity of 65 to 70percent (Usv`): Sialkot, Jehlum, and Gujrat districts of Pakistan, and Jammu district of the Ocuupied Kashmir are included in the region. The annual total rainfall of the area ranges between 35inches and 40inches, with average day relative humidity of 65% to 70percent. The area receives both summer and winter rains but the summer rains from monsoon lows are higher as compared to winter season. June is the hottest month of the region, while January is the coldest, in which the temperature reaches to below freezing point. The annual evapotranspiration of the region is less than 5mm or 0.2inches, with sunshine duration of 8hr/day, number of rainy day as 45 to 50 per year, and wind speed of 0knots to 2knots. The mean temperature of the region varies between 20oC to 25oC, with 30oC to 35oC maxima, and 10oC to 15oC minima. The mean daily range of temperature is 10oC to 15oC, with more than 30oC daily maximum, and 15oC to 20oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the region is 45oC to 50oC, recorded in May and June, while the lowest minimum temperature is 0oC to -5oC, recorded in December and January. Both Jehlum and Chanab rivers flow through this climatic region, while the physiography, soil and characteristic vegetation is the same as given in C.2.1. sub-type C.2.3. Uniform rains with summer concentration and relative humidity of 45 to 50percent (Usy`): The region comprising of Kohat and Hangu districts, receives both summer and winter rains with summer concentration. The annual total rainfall of the region ranges between 20inches and 25inches, with average day relative humidity of 45% to 50percent. The annual evapotranspiration is less than 5mm or 0.2inches, with sunshine duration of below 8hr/day, number of rainy days as 41.8 per year, and wind speed of 4.4knots. June is the hottest month of the region, in which the maximum temperature exceeds 35oC, while January is the coldest month, when the minimum temperature falls to below freezing point. The mean temperature of the area varies between 15oC and 20oC, with 30oC to 35oC maxima, and 10oC to 15oC minima. The mean daily range exceeds 10oC, with 25oC to 30oC daily maximum, and 15oC to 20oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the region is 47oC, recorded in June, while the lowest minimum is 1oC, recorded in January. The soil is rich in clayey loamy and suitable for agriculture but poor soil have also developed over hillslopes and foothills. The well-irrigated areas of the region are characterized by intensive agriculture but some rainfed agriculture land is also located mostly in Hangu and in parts of Kohat district. The vegetation is in general, sub-tropical thorn with some farm trees and grasslands, which are mostly used for grazing as well as domestic purpose. C.2.4. Uniform rains with winter concentration and relative humidity of 60 to 65percent (Uwv): The region consists of parts of Lower Dir valley, Malakand Agency, and receives both summer and winter rains but the contribution of winter rains particularly from western disturbances is more than the summer season. The annual total rainfall varies between 25inches and 30inches, with average day humidity of 60% to 65percent. The mean evapotranspiration of the region is less than 5mm or 0.2inches, with sunshine duration of 7hr/day, number of rainy days as 43.9 per year, and wind speed of 3.7knots. June is the hottest month of the region in which the maximum temperature exceeds 32oC, whereas January is the coldest month, when the minimum temperature of the area is reduced to below the freezing point. The mean temperature of the BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 29

region varies from 20oC to 25oC, with 30oC to 35oC maxima, and 5oC to 10oC minima. The mean daily range of temperature exceeds 10oC, with 25oC to 30oC daily maximum, and 10oC to 15oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the region is 45oC, recorded in June, while the lowest minimum temperature is -9oC, recorded in January. The region is characterized by valleys with barren mountains. The soils in valleys are fertile, while it is poor on the piedmont plain at the foothills and over the hillslopes. The vegetation is mostly deciduous with coniferous scrubs over mountains. The area is characterized by intensive terrace agriculture in well-irrigated areas, but some rainfed areas are also located in the piedmont plain particularly in lower Dir and Malakand Agency. C.2.5. Uniform rains with winter concentration and relative humidity of 50 to 55percent (Uwx): Cherat, and parts of Kohat district are in this region, where the annual total rainfall varies between 25inches and 30inches, with average day relative humidity of 50% to 55percent. The summers are hot and long, while the winters are mild and short. The region receives both summer and winter rains with winter concentration. The physiography of the area in general, is rough with narrow valleys and barren mountains. Sub-tropical deciduous forests and farmlands trees have been grown in parts of the region. The soil is in general, poor with sand and gravels at the foothills, but fertile soils are also developed in parts of the valleys. The agriculture is rainfed with some spring-irrigated lands. The evapotranspiration of the region is less than 5mm or 0.2inches, with sunshine duration of 8hr/day. The mean temperature of the region varies between 15oC and 20oC, with 25oC to 30oC maxima, and 5oC to 10oC minima. The mean daily range of temperature exceeds 5oC, with 20oC to 25oC daily maximum, and 10oC to 15oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature is 42oC, recorded in June, and is the hottest month of the region, while the lowest minimum temperature is -7oC, recorded in January, and is the coldest month of the year. The mean number of rainy days of the area is 43.4 with average wind speed of 1.4knots. C.2.6. Uniform rains with summer concentration and relative humidity of 55 to 60percent (Usx`): Potwar plateau is a distinict climatic region, having summer and winter rains, but the contribution of summer rains is higher as compared to winter. The annual total rainfall of the area varies between 35inches and 40inches, with average day relative humidity of 55% to 60percent. The annual evapotranspiration of the region is more than 5mm or 0.2inches, with sunshine duration of 8hr/day. The topography of the land is in general rough, and is characterized by intensive agriculture. The forests are sub-tropical thorn with irrigated and farmtrees. The soil of Rawalpindi district is fertile, while in the rest of Potwar plateau, shallow residual and eroded loess soils have been developed. In some places these soils are massive, susceptible to erosion, and strongly gullied, producing a dissected landscape and badland topography. Lime contents is high, with low organic content, but with plenty of water, these soils are relatively productive. The region has hot long summers and short mild winters. The mean temperature of the region varies between 20oC and 25oC, with 25oC to 30oC maximum, and 10oC to 15oC minimum temperature, with mean daily range of above 15oC. C.3. Warm short summers and cool long winters (Ws`Cw): The region consists of the upper Kurrum valley (Parachinar), where the mean temperature of June, the hottest month is 21oC to 32oC, and of the coldest month January is 0oC to 10oC, with mean winter temperature of above 15oCelsius. The area receives both summer and winter rains with winter concentration, from western disturbances. June is the hottest month of the region, when the maximum temperature exceeds 32oC, while January is the coldest month when minimum temperature of the area is reduced to below freezing point. The annual total rainfall of the region is 30inches to 35inches, with average day relative humidity of 50% to 55percent. The evapotranspiration of the area is 3.2mm or 0.13inches, with sunshine duration of 8hr/day, number BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 30

of rainy days 64.3 per year, and wind speed of 2.7knots. The mean monthly temperature of the region is 15oC to 20oC, with 25oC to 30oC maxima, and 0oC to 5oC minima. The mean daily range of temperature varies between 10oC and 15oC, with 20oC to 25oC daily maximum, and 5oC to 10oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the area is 39oC, recorded in June, and the lowest minimum is -15oC, recorded in December. The region has rough topography with highest snow covering mountains peaks. Vegetation at higher altitudes is mostly alpine scrub with some mixed coniferous forest and farm trees. The soil is generally, poor and very little agriculture practices are carried out in the region. However, some irrigated lands is characterized by intensive terrace agriculture but most of the area is rainfed particularly at the foothills.

5.4. D. Humid climates:

The region covers the extreme north of the Punjab, parts of Malakand division in NWFP and Azad Jammu and Kashmir. The annual total rainfall of the area varies between 40inches and 80inches. It is sub-divided into the following sub-types. D.1. Hot long summer and mild short winters (HsMw`): The region covers areas having mean temperature of the hottest month June i.e. above 32oC, while the temperaure of November, the warmest month, as 10oC to 21oC, with mean summer temperature of above 25oCelcius. The sub-regions of the climatic type are as follow. D.1.1. Uniform rains with summer concentration and relative humidity of 60 to 65percent (Usv): Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan, and the surrounding areas are included in this region. It receives both summer and winter rains, with summer concentration. The summers are hot and long, while the winters are mild. June is the hottest month of the region, when the maximum temperature exceeds 32oC, whereas January is the coldest month, when the minimum temperature falls to freezing point. The annual total rainfall varies between 45inches and 50inches, with average day relative humidity of 60% to 65percent. The mean evapotranspiration of the area is less than 5mm or 0.2inches, with sunshine duration of 8.3hr/day, number of rainy days 57 per year, and wind speed of 1.8knots. The mean temperature of the region is 20oC to 25oC, with 30oC to 35oC maxima, and 5oC to 10oC minima. The mean daily range of temperature is 10oC to 15oC, with 25oC to 30oC daily maximum, and 10oC to 15oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the area recorded in the past sixty years is 46oC in June, and the lowest minimum is -4oC in January. The soil at the foothills and mountain slopes is less fertile, while the fertility increases towards Rawalpindi. Due to non-availability of water, some rainfed agriculture practices are also carriedout in the western part of the region. The natural vegetation is generally, sub-tropical deciduous forests with thorn and some conifers scrub over hillslopes but most of the lowland forests have been cut for the residential areas. D.1.2. Uniform rains with summer concentration and relative humidity of 55 to 60percent (Usx`): The region consists of Kotli, Punch and Islamabad (Anantnag) in Occupied Kashmir. The area receives both summer and winter rains but the contribution of summer rains from monsoon lows is higher as compared to winter rainfall. The summers of the region are hot and long, while the winters are short with moderate temperature. The annual total rainfall of this sub-climatic type varies between 50inches and 55inches, with average day relative humidity of 55% to 60percent. The mean evapotranspiration is less than 5mm or 0.2inches, with sunshine duration of 8hr/day, number of rainy days as 71.9 per year, and wind speed of 2.3knots. June, with maximum temperature of above 32oC is the hottest month of the region, while January with minimum temperature of below freezing point is the coldest month. The mean monthly temperature of the region varies between 20oC and 25oC, with 30oC to 35oC maxima, and 10oC to 15oC minima. The BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 31

mean daily range of temperature exceeds 10oC, with 25oC to 30oC daily maximum, and 15oC to 20oC daily minimum temperature. The ever-recorded maximum temperature of the region is 46oC, in June, while the lowest minimum is –2.8oC, in January and February. The region in general, is characterized by rough topography with piedmont plain at the foothills and fertile soil in the valleys. Most of the agriculture is practises on terraces and fed by seasonal rains with some well-irrigated areas in the valleys. The natural vegetation is sub-tropical deciduous forest with evergreen coniferous scrubs over hillslopes in the southwestern part of the region. However, due to deforestation, parts of the mountains become completely barren, which not only affected the temperature of the area but also increases the soil erosion due to high run- off. D.2. Warm short summer and cool long winters (Ms`Cw): Murree and the adjoining areas of NWFP are included in this region, where the mean monthly temperature of the warmest month, November is 10oC to 21oC, and that of the coldest month, January temperature is 0oC to 10oC, with mean winter temperature of above 15oCelsius. The region has long, cool snowy winters and short mild summers. The area receives both summer and winter rains but the contribution of summer rains from monsoon lows is higher as compared to winter rains. The annual total rainfall of the region is 65inches to 70inches, with average day relative humidity of 50% to 55percent. The mean evapotranspiration of the area is less than 5mm or 0.2inches, with annual sunshine duration of 6hr/day to 8hr/day, with 91.4 number of rainy days per year, and wind speed of 5.6knots. June is the hottest month of the region, with maximum temperature of above 32oC, while January is coldest, with minimum temperature of less than the freezing point. The mean temperature is 10oC to 15oC, with 20oC to 25oC maximum, and 0oC to 5oC minimum temperature. The mean daily range of the area varies between 5oC and 10oC, with 15oC to 20oC daily maximum, and 5oC to 10oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the region is 33oC, recorded in June, with lowest minimum temperature of –12oC, recorded in January and February. The region is mountainous with rainfed terraced agriculture. The soil is poor over hillslopess with little fertility in the valleys. Due to low sunshine the crop size and production is very poor. The natural vegetation in general, is evergreen coniferous forests with some deciduous at the foothills particularly near Margla hills. D.3. Hot long summers and cool short winters (HsCw`): The region includes areas having mean temperature of the hottest month, June as above 32oC, and that of the coldest month, January as 0oC to 10oC, with mean summer temperature of above 25oCelsius. It is further categorized into the following sub-types. D.3.1. Uniform rains with summer concentration and relative humidity of 60 to 65percent (Usv): The region consists of Muzzafarabad, Garhi Dupatta in Azad Jammu and Kashmir, and parts of Uri and Baramula districts in Occupied Kashmir. The area has long hot summers and cool short winters with uniform rains in both seasons but the contribution of summer rains is higher as compared to winter season. The annual total rainfall of the region varies between 60inches to 65inches, with average day relative humidity of 60% to 65percent. The mean evapotranspiration of the region is less than 5mm or 0.2inches, with sunshine duration of 7hr/day, number of rainy days 80 to 90 per year, and wind speed of below 4knots. June is the hottest month of the region, with maximum temperature of above 32oC, and January is the coldest, with minimum temperature of below the freezing point. The mean monthly temperature is 15oC to 20oC, with 30oC to 35oC maxima, and 5oC to 10oC minima. The mean daily range varies between 10oC and 15oC, with 25oC to 30oC daily maximum, and above 10oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the region is 45oC to 50oC, recorded in May and June, while the lowest is 0oC to -10oC, recorded in January. The area has rough topography with narrow valleys. The soil is poor at hillslopes with rich loam in lower valleys. The agriculture in general, is practised on terraces, with the help of BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 32

irregation as well as rainfall. The forests mostly depend on soil moisture and vary from evergreen coniferous forests over hillslopes to sub-tropical deciduous forests in plain, but due to deforestation, mountains are becoming completely barren which intensifing not only the surface erosion but also the surface temperature of the region. D.3.2. Uniform rains with summer concentration and relative humidity of 55 to 60percent (Usx`): The upper Mansehra district falls in this climatic region, where the annual total rainfall is 65inches to 70inches with average day humidity of 55% to 60percent. The region receives both summer and winter rains with summer maxima. Most of the winter rains fall in the form of snow and ice. The summer season of the region is hot with cool long winters. June is the hottest month with maximum temperature of above 32oC, and January is the coldest month of the area with minimum temperature of less than the freezing point. The mean evapotranspiration of the region is below 5mm or 0.2inches, with annual sunshine duration of 7hr/day, number of rainy days 87.2 per year, and wind speed of 1.4knots. The mean temperature of the area is 15oC to 20oC, with 30oC to 35oC maxima, and 5oC to 10oC minima. The mean daily range of temperature varies between 10oC to 15oC, with 20oC to 25oC daily maximum, and 10oC to 15oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the area is 43.3oC, recorded in May, and the lowest is -3oC, recorded in January. The region is mountainous, with evergreen coniferous forests on the hillslopes and irrigated forests in the valleys, however, due to deforestation, parts of the mountains are barren in the area. Agriculture is mostly practised on terraces and fed by rains with spring irrigation in the valleys. D.4. Mild short summer and cool long winters (Ms`Cw): Areas that have recorded mean temperature of the warmest month, as November between 10oC and 21oC, with coldest month of January having temperature between 0oC to 10oC, with a mean winter temperature of above 15oC, are included in this region. It is further divided into the following sub-types. D.4.1. Uniform rains with summer concentration and relative humidity of 55 to 60percel (Usx`): Abbottabad, Hazara and parts of the Batagram district are included in this region. The mean annual rainfall of the area varies between 50inches to 55inches. The region receives both summer as well as winter rains, with summer concentration. However, most of the winter rains is in the form of snow and ice. The summers are short with moderate temperature and the winters are long and cool. June is the hottest month, with maximum temperature of above 32oC, whereas, January is the coldest month of the area with minimum temperature below the freezing point. The annual evapotranspiration is less than 5mm or 0.2inches, with sunshine duration of 7hr/day, number of rainy days as 64.3 per year, and wind speed of 2knots. The mean monthly temperature of the region varies between 15oC and 20oC, with 25oC to 30oC maxima, and 5oC to 10oC minima. The mean daily range of temperature is 10oC to 15oC, with 20oC to 25oC daily maximum, with above 10oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the region is 46oC, recorded in June, and lowest minimum temperature varies between –5 to - 10oC, recorded in January. The region is mountainous with rough topography and high snow capped mountains with narrow valleys. At high altitude, the temperature is below the freezing point except in June, when it is 0oC to 10oCelsius. The soil is poor on the hillslopes, while it is rich and loamy in the lower valleys. The agriculture in general, is practised on terraces and fed by rainwater with no irrigated plain. The natural vegetation is mostly evergreen coniferous forest with sub-tropical deciduous and farm trees in the foothills. D.4.2. Uniform rains with winter concentration and relative humidity of 60 to 65percent (Uwv):

BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 33

It includes Swat, Bunner, Kohistan and parts of Batagram district. The annual total rainfall of the area varies between 40inches to 45inches, with average day relative humidity of 60% to 65percent. The region receives both summer and winter rains with winter concentration particularly from local thunderstorms. The summers are short with moderate temperature, while winters are long and cool with snowfall over mountain slopes. June is the hottest month of the area, with maximum temperature of above 32oC, while January is the coldest month, with minimum temperature of below the freezing point. The annual evapotranspiration of the region is less than 5mm or 0.2inches, with sunshine duration of less than 7hr/day, number of rainy days as 60.6 per year, and wind speed of 1knots. The mean temperature of the area varies between 10oC to 20oC, with 30oC to 35oC maxima, and 5oC to 10oC minima. The mean daily range is 10oC to 15oC, with 25oC to 30oC daily minimum, and 10oC to 15oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the area is 43.6oC, recorded in June, and the lowest minimum is -3oC, recorded in January. The region is mountainous with narrow valleys, having different temperature. The temperature remains below the freezing point throughout the year except June, when it is 5oC to 15oCelsius. The soil on the hilly slopes is poor, while in valleys, it is rich and fertile. The area is generally, made of the piedmont plain at the foothills and alluvial plain in lower valleys particularly in Swat district. Terrace agriculture is practised in most part of the region, which is rainfed near foothills and on the hillslopes, while in the lower valleys, the land is mostly irrigated. The vegetation varies from evergreen coniferous scrub on hillslopes to sub-tropical deciduous forests and irrigated plantation at the foothills as well as in valleys. Due to deforestation, most of the mountains are barren and badly eroded by running water. D.4.3. Uniform rains with winter concentration and relative humidity of 65 to 70percent (Uwv`): It comprises only the upper Dir district, where the annual total rainfall is 55inches to 60inches with average day relative humidity of 65% to 70percent. The region receives both summer and winter rains with winter concentration from western disturbances. The summers are short with moderate temperature, while the winters are long and cool. June is the hottest month of the region when the temperature exceeds 32oC, whereas, January is the coldest month with minimum temperature below the freezing point. The annual evapotranspiration of the region is less than 5mm or 0.2inches, with sunshine duration of below 7hr/day, number of rainy days 82 per year, and wind speed of 1.6knots. The mean temperature varies between 15oC to 20oC, with 25oC to 30oC maxima, and 0oC to 5oC minima. The mean daily range of the region is 10oC to 15oC, with 20oC to 25oC daily maximum, and 5oC to 10oC daily minimum temperature. The highest maximum temperature of the area is 41.5oC, recorded in June, and the lowest minimum is –13.9oC, recorded in January. The soils of the region are poor on the hillslopess, while in valleys, it is relatively fertile. Terrace agriculture is practised in the region, which is mostly fed by the seasonal rains at the foothills and on the mountain slopes, and spring irrigation in valleys. The region is mountainous with snowfall on the mountain peaks. The natural vegetation varies from evergreen coniferous forests over hillslopess to deciduous forests and irrigated plantation in valleys and at the foothills.

5.5. E. Undifferentiated highland:

The region is characterized by perpetual snow and ice, where the mean monthly temperature is equal to or less than the freezing point throughout the year and is located at an altitude of 2500m above the sea level. It is located at the extreme north of the country with lofty mountains and narrow valleys. The temperature drops rapidly with the increasing altitude. Snow and ice throughout the year cover most of the region but some areas are characterized by frost action particularly near Chilas. The famous valleys are Hunza, Khunjarab, Skardu, Astore, Shigar BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 34

and Ashkomen valley with important glaciers of Siachin, Batora, Balturo, Passu and Rakaposhi etc, which keep the temperature of the region below freezing point throughout the year. The region has rough topography with morainic materials deposited by glaciers. The landforms have been formed by glacier action. The mountain slopes are completely barren, however, some deciduous and coniferous forests cover the lower slopes of the Astore valley.

BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 35

7. Conclusion:

S.no Climate types Sub-types Micro-regions Criteria and general climates Location 1 A- Arid climates Annual total rainfall <10inches or 25cm.

1. HsMw` June temperature >32oC and 21-32oC with mean summer temperature >25oC. a. wx` Winter dry summer rainfall, average day relative Hyderabad humidity 55-60% with annual total rainfall >5inches and mean temperature >25oC. b. wv Same as in (a), but relative humidity 60-65% and mean Badin and temperature >20oC. some areas of Thata. c. Usx` Uniform rains with summer concentration, relative D.I.Khan and humidity 55-60% with annual total rainfall >5inches and Thal. mean temperature >20oC. d. sy` Summer dry and winter rainfall, average relative Punjgure and humidity 45-50%, annual total rainfall <5inches and Turbat. mean temperature >20oC. 2. HsCw` Warm desert, June temperature 21-32oC and January temperature 0-10oC with mean summer temperature >25oC. a. sz` Summer dry winter rainfall, average day humidity 30- Nokkundi 35% with annual total rainfall 0-5inches (1.4inches) and mean temperature >20oC. b. sz Same as in (a) but average humidity 35-40% with Dalbandin and annual total rainfall 0-5inches (3.28inches) and mean Kharan desert. temperature >20oC. 3. HsWw` Hot desert. June temperature >35oC and 21-32oC. Mean summer temperature of the area exceeds over 25oC. a. wx` Winter dry summer rainfall, mean temperature >25oC Multan,

BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 36

with average day relative humidity 55-60% and annual Bahawalpur total rainfall >5inches. and Bahawalnagar b. wy Same as in (a) but relative humidity 40-45%. Kach and Sibi

c. wx Winter dry and Summer with relative humidity 5o-55%, Khanpur and annual total rainfall <5inches and mean temperature upper irrigated >25oC. Sindh. d. wv Winter dry summer rainfall with relative humidity 60- Nawabshah 66%, annual total rainfall >5inches and mean monthly and Padidan. temperature >25oC. d. wy` Winter dry and summer rainfall, average day humidity Cholistan and 45-50% with mean temperature >25oC and rainfall Thar >5inches. Part of Great Indo-Pak. Desert. 4-WsMw` June temperature 21-32oC and November 10-21oC with mean summer temperature >25oC. a. wx Winter dry and summer rainfall, annual average day Lasbela triangle humidity 55-60% with total rainfall >5inches and mean temperature >25oC b. Uwv` Uniform rains with winter concentration and relative Western humidity 65-70%, annual total rainfall 5-10inches and Karachi mean temperature >25oC c. su Marine climates with summer dry and winter rainfall. Pasni and Annual total rainfall <5inches with relative humidity 70- some part of 75% and mean temperature >25oC. Jiwani. d. su` Summer dry and winter rains, average day humidity 75- Jiwani and 80% with annual total rainfall >5inches and mean Ormara. temperature >25oC. e. Usv` Uniform rains with summer concentration, annual total Eastern rainfall >5inches with mean temperature >25oC and Karachi and relative humidity 60-65%. Thata. 5. Ws` Cw June temperature 21-32oC and January temperature 0- 10oC with mean winter temperature >15oC. a. sy Summer dry and winter rainfall, average day r. humidity Kalat, Loralai 40-45% with annual total rainfall >5inches and mean and Chaman. temperature 15oC.

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b. sz Summer dry winter rains, relative humidity 30-35% with Nushki. annual total rainfall <5inches and mean temperature >20oC. c. Usz` Uniform rains with summer concentration, average day Khuzdar humidity 35-40% with annual total rainfall >5inches and mean temperature >20oC. 6. Ws`C*w June temperature 21-32oC and January temperature <0oC with mean winter temperature >15oC. a. wty Winter dry and summer rainfall from local Gupis and thunderstorms, average day humidity 40-45% with total some part of rainfall >5inches and mean temperature >15oC. Chitral. b. sx Summer dry winter rainfall (snow and ice), average day Skardu humidity 50-55% with annual total rainfall >5inches and mean temperature 10oC. 7. HsCw` June temperature >32oC and January temperature 0- 10oC with summer mean temperature >25oC. a. wtY Winter dry and summer rainfall particularly from local Gilgit and Bunji. thunderstorms. Average day r. humidity 40-60% with annual total rainfall >5inches and mean temperature >15oC. b. Ustz` Uniform rains with summer concentration from local Chilas and thunderstorms. Average day humidity 35-40% with some part of annual total rainfall >5inches and mean temperature Dassu. >25oC. 2 B-Semi-arid Annual total rainfall 10-20inches or 25-50cm. climates 1. HsMw` June temperature >32oC and November temperature 10-21oC with mean summer temperature >25oC. a. wx` Winter dry and summer rainfall, annual average day Faisalabad and humidity 55-60% with mean temperature >25oC and Sahiwal. annual total rainfall >10inches. b. Usx` Uniform rains with summer concentration, annual total Khushab and rainfall >15inches, relative humidity 55-60% and mean Sargodha temperature above 20oC. c. Uwx Uniform rains with winter concentration, annual total Bannu and rainfall >10inches with average day humidity 50-55% Karak.

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and mean temperature >20oC.

d. Uwy` Same as (c) but average day relative humidity 45-50%. Peshawar vale.

2. Ws`C/C*w June temperature 21-32oC and January temperature 0- 10 or below 0oC with mean winter temperature >15oC. a.Ustx Uniform rains with summer concentration particularly Astore and from local thunderstorms, average day humidity 50- some part of 55% with annual total rainfall >15inches and mean Balakot. temperature >5oC. b. sx Summer dry and winter rainfall, average day humidity Chitral 55-60% with annual total rainfall >15inches and mean temperature >15oC. 3. Ws`Cw June temperature 21-32oC and January temperature 0- 10oC with mean winter temperature >15oC. a. Uwy` Uniform rains with winter maxima. Average day Zhob humidity 45-50% with annual total rainfall >10inches and mean temperature >15oC. b. Usy` Uniform rains with summer maxima. Average day Barkhan r. humidity 45-50% with total annual rainfall >15inches and mean temperature >20oC. c. sx Summer dray and winter rainfall, average day humidity Quetta 50-55% with total rainfall >10inches and mean temperature >15oC. d. Uwx Uniform rains with winter concentration. Annual total Miranshah and rainfall >10inches with relative humidity 50-55% and Wana. mean temperature >15oC. 4. HsMw` No sub-regions June temperature >32oC and November temperature Nagar Parkar 10-21oC with summer mean temperature >25oC with annual rainfall >10inches. Data not available for further detail. 3 C- Sub-humid Annual total rainfall 20-40inches or 50-100cm. climates 1. Hs`C/C*w June temperature >32oC with January temperature 0- Drosh and 10 or below freezing. Mean winter temperature >15oC. Kohistan distt. 2. HsMw` June temperature >32oC and November temperature 10-21oC with summer mean temperature >25oC.

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a. Usv Uniform rains with summer concentration, average day Lahore and humidity 60-65% with total rainfall >20inches and mean Gujranwala. temperature >20oC. b. Usv` Same as in (a) but relative humidity 65-70% with Sialkot, Jehlum annual total rainfall >35inches and mean temperature and Jammu. >20oC. c. Usy` Same as in (a) but relative humidity 45-50% with Kohat and annual total rainfall >20inches and mean temperature Hangu. >15oC. d. Uwv Uniform rains with winter maxima. Average day Chakdara and humidity 60-65%, annual total rainfall >35inches and some part of mean temperature >20oC. Malakand and lower Dir. e. Uwx Same as in (d) but relative humidity 50-55% with Cherat and annual total rainfall >25inches and mean temperature some part of >15oC. Kohat. f. Usx` Same as in (a) but relative humidity 55-60% with Rawalpindi and annual total rainfall >35inches and mean temperature potowar >20oC. plateau. 3. Ws`Cw June temperature 21-32oC and January temperature 0- Parachinar 10oC with mean summer temperature >25oC. Average day humidity 50-55% with total rainfall >30inches and mean temperature >15oC. 4 D- Humid climates Annual total rainfall 40-80inches or 100-200cm.

1. HsMw` June temperature >32oC and November temperature 10-21oC with mean summer temperature >25oC. a. Usv Uniform rains with summer maxima, average day Islamabad humidity 60-65% with total rainfall >45inches and mean temperature >20oC. b. Usx` Same as in (a) but relative humidity 55-60% with Kotli (AJK) annual total rainfall >50inches and mean temperature >20oC. 2. Ms`Cw November temperature 10-21oC and January Murree temperature 0-10oC with mean winter temperature >15oC. Annual total rainfall is >65inches with relative humidity 50-55% and mean temperature >10oC.

BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 40

3. HsCw` June temperature > 32oC and January temperature 10- 21oC with mean summer temperature >25oC. a. Usv Uniform rains with summer concentration, annual total Muzaffar abad rainfall >60inches with relative humidity 60-65inches and Garhi and mean temperature >15oC. Dupatta. (AJK) b. Usx` Same as in (a) but annual total rainfall >65inches with Balakot average day humidity 55-60% and mean temperature >15oC. 4. Ms`Cw November temperature 10-21oC and January temperature 0-10oC with winter mean temperature >15oC. a. Usx` Uniform rains with summer maxima, annual total rainfall Hazara and >50inches with relative humidity 55-60% and mean Mansehra temperature >10oC. (Kakul) b. Uwv Uniform rains with winter maxima. Average day Saidu sharif humidity 60-65% with mean temperature >15oC and annual total rainfall >40inches. c. Uwv` Same as in (b) but average day humidity 65-70% with Upper Dir annual total rainfall >55inches and mean temperature >15oC. 5 E- Undifferentiated All months mean temperature <0oC but June 0-5oC, Highland highland. perpetual snow and ice and Snowfall mostly in winter having season. altitude>2400m eters.

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6. Acknowledgement:

All glories and praises be to Almighty Allah, who bestowed me with the potential and abilities to complete this research work and to his Holy Prophet, Muhammad (PBUH), whose life teaches us spiritual depth and supreme standards in every aspect of life. I offer my deep sense of gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Mahmood-ul- Hasan, Associate Professor, Department of Geography, University of Peshawar, for his valuable guidance, constructive criticism and critical review and painstaking efforts to get this research work completed. I am also thankful to Prof. Dr. Amir Nawaz Khan, Chairman, and to Prof. Dr. Amir Khan, Department of Geography, University of Peshawar for providing all necessary research facilities during the course of work. I also wish to express my gratitude to Muhammad Taimur Khan, Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, and member of the supervisory committee for his help. I am also indebted to Mrs. Berjis Talat, Chairperson, and to Dr. Ihsanullah, Associate Professor, Department of Geography, University of Karachi, and to Jamil Ahmad Khan, Meteorologist and Professor for teaching of how to construct and study weather maps and climographs during my Masterate Degree, and to Late Muhammad Ashafaq Khan Professor and Chairman Department of Geography Urdu Science College Karachi, for their help and encouragement. We are also indebted to Prof. Dr Tiha Sarwar, Water Management Department Agriculture University Peshawar for providing evapo-transpiration and sunshine data of Pakistan. Thanks are owing to Nadeem Faisal, Assistant Meteorologist, Pakistan Meteorological Department Karachi, for providing weather data and stupendous cooperation, and to Syed Mukhtar Bacha, SMC consultant, Peshawar for providing of computer facilities during course of research.

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Graph-1 Pakistan Graph-2 Mean monthly, mean monthly maximum, minimum temperature (oc), mean monthly rainfall Pakistan (cm) & humidity (%) 1931-90 Mean monthly sunshine (hr/day), temperature(oC), humidity (%) & rainfall (cm) 1931-90 45.0 70.0

12 70 40.0 60.0 35.0 60

) 10 50.0

30.0 cm ( 50 25.0 40.0 8 ) 20.0 C) & rainfall (cm ) 40 o & rain fall

30.0 y) 15.0 6

30 C ), relative o hr/da ( humidity (% Tem perature 10.0 (

temperature ( temperature 20.0 Mean monthly relative humidity (%) humidity Mean monthly relative 4 5.0 20 10.0 Mean monthly, mean monthly maximum & minimum mean monthly monthly, Mean 0.0 Sunshine Sunshine 2 10 -5.0 0.0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb 3.3 4.1 5.7 3.9 2.5 2.4 9.3 8.4 3.4 1.4 1.1 2.3 3.3 4.1 0 0 M.M. rainfall Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec M.monthly temp 10.2 12.6 17.4 22.9 27.6 30.8 30.3 29.2 27.0 22.6 16.9 12.2 10.2 12.6 sunshine 6.16.67.38.19.39.78.68.78.88.67.96.6 M.M.mini.temp. -0.5 1.1 5.1 10.2 15.1 19.0 20.4 19.8 16.6 10.1 4.5 0.7 -0.5 1.1 Precipitation 3.29 4.11 5.65 3.87 2.54 2.42 9.27 8.41 3.39 1.41 1.06 2.28 21.6 24.6 30.4 36.4 40.5 42.3 40.9 38.5 37.3 34.8 29.4 24.1 21.6 24.6 M.M.maxi. Temp. Temperature 10.22 12.56 17.4 22.93 27.58 30.75 30.3 29.17 27.01 22.58 16.88 12.2 M.M.humidity 62.5 58.6 55.4 48.6 43.6 44.5 58.7 63.1 58.2 51.6 53.9 60.2 62.5 58.6 Humidity 62.71 59.01 55.82 49.34 44.36 45.29 59.5 63.79 59.38 52.68 54.73 61.12 Months Months

Graph-4 Pakistan Graph-3 Mean monthly pressure (mb), wind speed (knots), evapotranspiration (mm) & sunshine Pakistan (hr/day) Mean monthly evapotranspiration (mm), rainfall (cm) & temperature (oC) 12 1035.0 10.0 35.0

9.0 1030.0 30.0 10 8.0

1025.0 25.0 C) 8 7.0 o

1020.0 6.0 20.0 6 5.0 1015.0 15.0 rainfall (cm ) 4.0 4 1010.0 Mean monthly pressure (mb) 3.0 10.0 Mean monthly ( temperature speed (knots) & sunshine (hr/day) & sunshine (knots) speed 2 1005.0 2.0 Mean monthly evapotranspiration (mm)Mean & monthly evapotranspiration Mean monthly evapotranspiration (mm), wind (mm), Mean evapotranspiration monthly 5.0 1.0 0 1000.0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb 0.0 0.0 sunshine 6.16.67.38.19.39.78.68.78.88.67.96.66.16.6 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Pressure 1031.0 1028.6 1026.3 1023.4 1019.4 1014.7 1013.4 1015.2 1020.1 1026.1 1029.9 1031.3 1031.0 1028.6 Evapo.T. 1.72.53.75.36.97.66.96.25.34.02.61.81.72.5 Evapo.T. 1.72.53.75.36.97.66.96.25.34.02.61.81.72.5 M.M. Temp. 10.2 12.6 17.4 22.9 27.6 30.8 30.3 29.2 27.0 22.6 16.9 12.2 10.2 12.6 Wind speed 2.73.03.43.74.34.74.44.13.52.62.32.22.73.0 M.M. rainfall 3.34.15.73.92.52.49.38.43.41.41.12.33.34.1 Months Months

BALWOIS 2010 – Ohrid, Republic of Macedonia –25, 29 May 2010 45

Map-2

For abbreviations see Table-5

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Map-4 Map-3

Map-5

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