The Iliad Study Guide Author Biography 2

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ABOUT THE TITLE What's Inside Iliad is Greek for "poem about Ilium," which is an alternate name for the city of Troy, the setting of the Trojan War. j Book Basics ...... 1 d In Context ...... 1 d In Context a Author Biography ...... 2 h Characters ...... 3 Trojan War k Plot Summary ...... 7 Based on its prominence in Homer's work, the Trojan War was c Book Summaries ...... 12 a central and defining event of Greek prehistory. It is believed to have been fought in the 13th or 12th century BCE. The g Quotes ...... 30 continued interest in it in Homer's time, approximately 400 l Symbols ...... 32 years later, is significant. Greek city-states were fiercely independent and perpetually at war with one another, yet m Themes ...... 33 Homer describes the Achaean (Greek) army in Book 2 of The Iliad as originating from more than 150 different locations from b Glossary ...... 34 all over mainland Greece and the Peloponnese. While this e Suggested Reading ...... 35 number of different groups may be poetic exaggeration, an alliance between any large number of them would have been remarkable. It is impossible to infer any historical details of the war from the poem. However, archeological evidence found in j Book Basics the ancient city believed to be Troy supports its destruction in war around 1250 BCE.

AUTHOR Troy is believed to have been located in northwestern Asia Homer Minor, near the mouth of the Hellespont, now called the Dardanelles, in modern-day Turkey. As such, the Trojans were YEAR WRITTEN a separate people divided from Greece by the Aegean Sea. c. 750–650 BCE However, Greek culture had spread through much of western GENRE Asia Minor by Homer's time. He depicts them as worshipping War Literature the same gods and living by the same values as the Greeks they are fighting. PERSPECTIVE AND NARRATOR The Iliad is narrated from a third-person omniscient point of As depicted in The Iliad, the Trojan War was caused by Paris's view. seduction and theft of Helen from Agamemnon. Scholars, however, speculate that the conflict may have had more to do The Iliad Study Guide Author Biography 2

with a dispute over trade routes and the strategic location of language, yet they are far from obsolete. Both works continue Troy at the Hellespont. to be taught, analyzed, adapted, and debated today.

Other oral traditions produced ancient epic poems as well. The Poetic Techniques Indian poet Vyasa may have authored Mahabharata around 400 BCE, and another Hindu poet, Valmiki, authored Ramayana approximately 500 BCE. Both contain similar heroic tropes and The structure of Homer's epics comes from the long tradition metaphors of war, such as red flowers blooming on the body of of oral poetry. Like The Iliad, these poems are not memorized a wounded warrior. word for word. Instead, poets improvise from a base narrative structure. They rely upon formulas that they can combine in a wide variety of ways. The poet knows the characters and major points of the story and has a large collection of formulaic a Author Biography descriptions for a range of characters, events, and situations. The poet composes the exact words during the performance, Not much is known about Homer except that he is the poet to varying the words based on context and individual style. whom ancient Greeks attributed the epic poems The Iliad and its sequel, The Odyssey. Most of what is understood about This repetition of passages and familiar phrases might seem Homer is inferred from the poems themselves. From the boring, but a master like Homer creatively varies and combines language used, scholars believe he lived in around the early 9th these formulaic elements in a spectacular range of ways. or late 8th century BCE in Ionia, a region in what is now Turkey. Repetition also helps listeners quickly recognize and mentally Based on his description of a poet/singer in The Odyssey, organize elements of the poem to better understand the story. which many take as describing himself, Homer is often depicted as blind. Additionally, oral poets composed in a meter (called hexameter) in which a poetic line consists of six sections, or Features such as repetition and formulaic descriptions in the "feet." Each foot has one of two constructions. It may have one poems indicate that Homer belonged to an oral poetry long syllable followed by two short syllables (a dactyl), or it tradition. These stories were passed down through may be constructed of two long syllables (a spondee). Strict memorization and were sung by a poet for an audience. rules govern which elements can go where. Hexameter is Traditionally, these stories were likely of a length that could be associated with epic poetry. Its rhythm is distinctive and performed from beginning to end in the course of an evening. recognizable. Composing spontaneously within the restrictions Homer's innovation seems to have been to stitch a number of of such a complex system makes the work of oral poets that such stories together into a complex epic. Such a poem could much more impressive. only have been performed over the course of many days.

At the time of the most likely development of The Iliad, around Influence the 8th century BCE, the Greek alphabet was coming into increased use. The earliest written version of The Iliad was To the ancient Greeks The Iliad and The Odyssey were recorded using this alphabet and contains elements of the historical accounts of heroic events. Their characters set an earliest form of Greek writing. This new technique of writing example for Greeks of how to live life honorably, and their undoubtedly played a part in the development and preservation messages remained influential through Roman times and of such a long and complex work. Whether Homer was purely beyond. Greek scholars started to write about Homer by the an oral poet who dictated The Iliad to a literate assistant or late 6th century BCE. The Roman poet Virgil emulated Homer's someone who was experienced in the oral tradition but meter, epic similes, plot structure, and many other elements of composed in writing continues to be debated. Homer's epics more than half a millennia later. More than a thousand years after Homer, Dante included characters from both Homeric epics in his Divine Comedy. The Iliad and The Odyssey are some of the oldest-surviving compositions in any

called "Atrides," meaning "son of Atreus" (as is his brother h Characters Menelaus).

Achilles Priam

King Priam presides over the city of Troy and daily life while his Achilles is the leader of the Myrmidons who fight on the side of many sons fight off the attackers. He shows compassion and the Achaeans (a collective term for the Greeks and their allies) understanding to Helen although she brought ten years of war against Troy. He is the son of Thetis, a sea goddess, and upon his city, and he reasons with his wife, Hecuba, in her Peleus, a mortal. He is a pure warrior concerned with honor distress. Unlike the warriors, he is not ruled by pride. He and glory—fierce and merciless in battle. His rage is born when humbles himself to appeal to Achilles personally for the return Agamemnon replaces the loss of one of his prizes of war by of his son's body, an act that finally brings out Achilles's human seizing one of Achilles's prizes. Until Agamemnon apologizes, side. Achilles and his men will not fight for the Achaeans. He actually asks the gods to ensure Agamemnon and his forces, his own allies, experience defeat without him, resulting in much bloodshed. His sense of honor doesn't allow for any Thetis compromise, but the loss of a friend and the appeals of an enemy bring out his humanity in the end. Achilles's sea-goddess mother, Thetis, protects and advocates for him throughout the poem. She carries his angry wishes to Zeus and persuades him to grant them, setting up the many Hector defeats that the Achaeans suffer through most of the poem. She also makes sure her son is protected, replacing his lost armor with a new set forged by a god. She is tortured Whereas Achilles is a warrior and nothing else, Hector is more throughout the poem by the knowledge that her son is fated to multifaceted. He is also a brave and fierce warrior, but as a die. prince of Troy, he is fighting for his city and family as much as for honor and glory. His interactions with his wife and son, as well as his brothers, demonstrate a strong sense of responsibility for protecting his city and the people in his Paris family. Unfortunately, his duty to Troy gets overridden by his pride, leading him to foolishly face Achilles in a fight he cannot Paris (also called Alexander in some translations) committed a win. daring act in stealing Helen away from Menelaus, but he is more a lover than a fighter at heart. He can be roused to honorable combat, but he is not terribly effective at it and often Agamemnon prefers to stay in his rooms with Helen. In contrast to Helen, who deeply regrets the consequences of her actions, Paris doesn't seem to feel much responsibility for the ten years of Agamemnon, a powerful and proud man, is the top commander war he has brought upon his city. However, his status as a of the Achaean army. He feels entitled to take whatever prizes prince and the favor of the goddess Aphrodite make him one and honors he wants without apology. When he tries this with of the heroes of Troy. (After the end of The Iliad, he is the one Achilles, he incurs the great hero's rage, with dire who kills Achilles.) consequences for the whole army. Even after he realizes the costs of his actions, he offers only reparations, not apologies. He is a good fighter, but his leadership style is harsh, and he shows no mercy to enemies. He has been promised victory at Patroclus Troy, but he repeatedly has to be talked out of fleeing when the battle goes against the Achaeans. Agamemnon is often Although Achilles is his king and commander, Patroclus is older and wiser. They were raised together, making them nearly

brothers. Patroclus is much more compassionate than Achilles, and he feels the suffering of their fellow Achaeans. When he tries to temper the effects of his friend's immovable rage, he succeeds only in bringing about his own tragic death. Patroclus seems to attract great loyalty and love from others. The bond between Achilles and Patroclus is very close—as close as self and shadow. Likewise, Briseis laments the death of Patroclus nearly on the scale of a bereaved wife (Book 19).

Character Map

Brothers Hector Enemies Warrior and protector of Troy

Father Enemies

Priam Agamemnon Enemies King of Troy Commander of Achaean army

Adversaries

Achilles Father Great Achaean warrior

Great friends

Paris Patroclus Mother Prince of Troy Myrmidon warrior

Thetis Goddess of the sea

Main Character

Other Major Character

Minor Character

Full Character List Chryseis is the daughter of Chryses, a Chryseis priest of Apollo, who was taken as a prize by Agamemnon. Character Description Diomedes, also called "Tydides," meaning "son of Tydeus," is an Achaean fighter Achilles is the greatest hero on the Diomedes known for his war cry who wounds two Achaean (Greek) side of the Trojan War, Achilles gods. and he refuses to fight after being insulted. Glaucus is a leader of the Lycians who Glaucus are allies of the Trojans. Hector is the son of King Priam of Troy Hector and the greatest hero on the Trojan side. Ajax, son of Telamon (who should not be confused with Little Ajax, son of Oileus), Agamemnon is the king of Mycenae and Great Ajax is nearly a giant and the second-best Agamemnon leader of the Achaeans; he insults fighter in the Achaean army. Achilles's pride.

Hecuba is King Priam's wife and Hector's Priam is the king of Troy and father of Hecuba Priam mother. Hector, Paris, and others.

Helen is the former wife of King Thetis is a goddess of the sea and the Thetis Helen Menelaus, who was stolen by Prince mother of Achilles. Paris of Troy.

Paris is the prince of Troy who stole Hera is the queen of the gods and wife of Paris Helen from Menelaus, starting the Trojan Hera Zeus, who passionately hates the War. Trojans.

Patroclus is Achilles's closest friend and Patroclus Menelaus, like his brother Agamemnon, is comrade-in-arms. Menelaus an Achaean king and son of Atreus, as well as the former husband of Helen. Aeneas is a commander in the Trojan Aeneas army, who is protected by his mother, the Nestor is the oldest commander in the goddess Aphrodite. Nestor Achaean army, who often provides wise advice and tells long stories. Andromache Andromache is Hector's wife. Odysseus, the king of Ithaca, is a wily Odysseus Apollo, also known by the epithet captain in the Achaean army. Apollo "Phoebus," is the god of archers and medicine, who supports the Trojans. Pandarus is a Trojan archer who hits Pandarus Menelaus with an arrow, igniting the Astyanax, whom Hector calls Achaeans to renew the fight. Astyanax Scamandrius, is the son of Hector and Andromache. Phoenix is one of the Achaean Phoenix commanders and is known for having Athena, also known by the epithet raised Achilles. Athena "Pallas," is the goddess of war and handicrafts, who supports the Achaeans. Polydamas is a commander in the Trojan Polydamas army whose advice Hector fatefully Briseis is Achilles's prize who is taken doesn't take. Briseis from him by Agamemnon.

helping Troy. Hector, a prince of Troy and the greatest Trojan Poseidon, who is the brother of Zeus, is Poseidon the god of the sea. warrior, briefly returns to the city to organize an appeal to the gods and fetch Paris back to the battlefield. The gods end the fighting for the day with a duel between Hector and Great Ajax, Sarpedon is Zeus's son and the Sarpedon commander of the Trojan allies from the second-strongest Achaean hero after Achilles. Ajax has Lycia whom he cannot save. the advantage but cannot kill Hector.

Thersites is a common foot soldier who Both sides take a day off from fighting to bury their dead. The Thersites acts with insubordination in arguing with Achaeans take the opportunity to build a wall around their Agamemnon. ships. When the fighting resumes the next day, Zeus forbids the other gods to interfere. He will control the war from now Zeus is the king of the gods, who agrees on. With Zeus's help, the Trojans push toward the Achaean Zeus to punish the Achaeans for the insult to Achilles's honor. ships. Agamemnon leads a brief rally for the Achaeans, but Hector pushes them all the way back to their new wall. Alarmed by the Trojan advance, Agamemnon offers Achilles many prizes, including the return of Briseis, to return to the k Plot Summary battle. However, he offers no apology, and Achilles is not appeased. The Iliad opens with an expression of rage and frustration. The Unable to sleep, the Achaean captains Odysseus and Trojan War has been raging for nine long years, with the Diomedes make a daring night raid on the Trojan army, killing a Achaeans (Greeks) unable to break through the walls of Troy. number of Trojan allies. In the morning Agamemnon initially King Agamemnon, who leads the Achaeans, has been forced pushes the Trojans all the way back to the city. Zeus then to give up a valued prize, a woman he captured. This is no turns the tide, causing most of the Achaean captains to be ordinary woman, but the daughter of a priest of Apollo; refusal wounded. Many Achaeans fight valiantly, but Zeus empowers to return her to her father brought on the wrath of Apollo in the the Trojan fighters to break through the wall and threaten the form of a plague on the Greeks. Arrogant and high-handed, Achaean ships. When Zeus takes his eye off the war for a bit, Agamemnon repairs his loss of honor by taking a prize from the sea-god Poseidon inspires the Achaeans to kill and wound Achilles, a woman named Briseis whom Achilles values greatly. many Trojans, holding them off the ships. Achilles (who is at the beginning of the story as arrogant and high-handed as Agamemnon) resents the offense to his honor Hera devises a plan to distract Zeus. She seduces him after but is prevented by the goddess Athena from coming to blows bribing the god Sleep to put him to sleep afterward. With with Agamemnon. Instead, he turns away and refuses to fight Poseidon's help the Achaeans drive the Trojans back outside in the siege of Troy. To show Agamemnon who's more their wall. However, Zeus soon awakens and takes control important, he asks the gods to allow the Trojans to defeat his again. He directs his son Apollo to strike fear into the own army—the Achaeans—until he returns to the fight. To bring Achaeans with Zeus's terrifying shield. As the Trojans reach this about, Achilles's mother, who is a goddess, secures the the ships, Achilles's closest friend, Patroclus, begs him to help of Zeus, the king of the gods. return and save the Achaeans. Achilles is still too angry, but he lets Patroclus use his armor and chariot to make the Trojans The Achaean and Trojan armies march out onto the field to think he has returned. fight. But Paris, the Trojan prince who started the war by stealing the wife of Menelaus (brother of Agamemnon), In Achilles's armor and chariot, Patroclus turns the tide of the proposes that it be settled by single combat between him and battle, pushing the Trojans all the way back to their own city Menelaus. Menelaus agrees and a duel ensues. Just as walls. However, he gets carried away and goes up against Menelaus is about to defeat Paris, the goddess Aphrodite Hector, who kills him. Hector strips Achilles's armor from carries him back to Troy, and the battle recommences. Patroclus but is driven back before he can claim the body. In a fit of pride, Hector fatefully puts on Achilles's armor. Great Athena helps the Achaean hero Diomedes in battle, enabling Ajax, Menelaus, and others hold off Hector and his troops. him to wound Aphrodite and Ares (Book 5), two of the gods

However, they cannot get Patroclus's body back to their camp until Achilles, having heard of his comrade's death, appears on the Achaean wall. The goddess Athena makes him glorious and terrifying. He frightens the Trojans enough for the Achaeans to retrieve Patroclus's body.

Now Achilles no longer cares about his quarrel with Agamemnon. All of his anger is focused on killing Hector. The next morning, his goddess mother brings him new armor (including the marvelous shield, the description of which is detailed in Book 18) made by the god of fire, and Zeus tells the gods they may intervene in the war. Achilles rages against the Trojans, slaughtering huge numbers. No mortal can stand against him. He sends the entire Trojan army retreating back to the city. Ashamed that he has led the Trojan army to defeat, Hector waits for Achilles outside the gates of Troy.

Despite his previous boasts, Hector loses his nerve and runs as Achilles approaches. After Achilles has chased him around the city three times, Athena tricks Hector into stopping. Achilles's divine armor protects him, but Hector is betrayed by the armor he is wearing, Achilles's old armor. Achilles kills Hector through a weak spot in the armor he knows so well. In his anger Achilles abuses Hector's body and drags it behind his chariot.

Over the next couple of days, Achilles and the Achaeans hold a funeral for Patroclus and compete in games in his honor. But Hector's family and the Trojans have no such comfort. Finally, Zeus decrees that Achilles must give Hector's body back. The god Hermes guides Priam, Hector's father, into the Achaean camp to appeal to Achilles. Achilles is moved by Priam's words and allows the Trojans time to bury Hector.

Plot Diagram

Climax

10 Falling Action Rising Action 7

6 11 5

4 12

3 Resolution

Introduction

Introduction Climax

1. Apollo inflicts a plague on the Achaean army. 9. Achilles kills Hector in single combat.

Rising Action Falling Action

2. Agamemnon takes Briseis from Achilles. 10. Priam begs Achilles for Hector's body.

3. Zeus agrees to punish the Achaeans for Achilles. 11. Achilles returns Hector's body to Priam.

4. Mortals and gods fight and are wounded in battle.

5. Zeus forbids the other gods to interfere in the war. Resolution

6. With Zeus's help, Hector breaks through to Achaean ships. 12. Hector is buried in Troy. 7. Hector kills Patroclus in battle.

8. Achilles and the gods return to the fighting.

Timeline of Events

After nine years of war

Achilles refuses to fight because Agamemnon has taken his prize, Briseis. Twelve days later

Thetis appeals to Zeus to punish the Achaeans on Achilles's behalf, and Zeus agrees. The next day

A truce is called but is soon broken, and war resumes; Paris and Hector both fight duels. Two days later

Zeus takes control, driving back the Achaeans; Hector's rampage kills many before night falls. That night

Odysseus and Diomedes raid the Trojan army camped outside the city. In the morning

After Agamemnon's hour of glory, the Trojans advance and wound many Achaean heroes. As the day continues

After Hector and the Trojans reach the ships, Patroclus enters the battle and is killed. The next day

With new armor from the gods, Achilles returns to the war and kills Hector. Twelve nights later

After Priam's personal appeal to bury his son, Achilles returns Hector's body. On the 11th day

After a period of mourning, Hector's body is burned and his bones are buried.

stands up to him. Each man insults the other's honor and pride: c Book Summaries Achilles calls Agamemnon greedy and a coward, and Agamemnon disdains Achilles's battle skills. Nestor's unsuccessful appeal for peace between them is an attempt to Book 1 soothe each man's honor. When Agamemnon takes Briseis, not only is Achilles dishonored, but also his mother Thetis by extension. Agamemnon has not only insulted his greatest warrior but he has also insulted the gods, bringing to boil all the Summary ingredients that advance the plot. Many later readers of The Iliad would also have been aware that Agamemnon also has In the tenth year of the Trojan War, Achilles, the greatest the blood of his daughter Iphegenia on his hands because he fighter for the Achaeans (the Greeks and their allies), is sacrificed her life to gain the winds in the sails of his stranded enraged. King Agamemnon, who leads the Achaeans, has ships on their way to Troy prior to the events of The Iliad. They brought an illness upon the army by refusing to give up a might also have known that Agamemnon was murdered by his woman, Chryseis, whom he seized as a prize in a recent battle. wife after his return from the war partly in vengeance for the Chryseis is the daughter of a priest of the god Apollo. When murder of their daughter. Although these stories are not part of Agamemnon refuses to give her back in exchange for a The Iliad, they add to the modern reader's understanding of the ransom, her father calls on the god, and Apollo sends a plague. character of Agamemnon and the arrogance that led him to risk all in serving his pride and achieving his ends. When Achilles calls on Agamemnon to give up Chryseis in return for future compensation, Agamemnon seems to view Throughout the poem the gods pull the strings of the human the idea of future compensation as unlikely for a warrior who world. The conflict between Achilles and Agamemnon has lives moment by moment and demands immediate restoration obvious roots in human nature, but it would not have developed of his pride by claiming Briseis, the woman Achilles has taken without the plague sent by Apollo. Hera, the queen of the gods, as a prize. Only the intervention of Athena stops Achilles from also contributes by prompting Achilles to seek the cause of the killing Agamemnon at that moment, and he vows Agamemnon plague. To the ancient Greeks, both internal motivations and will beg for his skills one day. Achilles refuses to fight and events beyond human control could be explained as the work appeals to his mother, the goddess Thetis, to avenge his pride. of the gods. Achilles is only prevented from killing Agamemnon Thetis secures the pledge of Zeus, king of the gods, that the by the goddess Athena, emphasizing the power of his rage as Achaeans will lose the war until the insult to Achilles's honor beyond human control. has been repaired. Recognizing features of the improvisational oral performance tradition in which The Iliad was developed helps make sense of Analysis the poem. Recurring characters and objects are often referred to with epithets (characterizing words or phrases). Each As stated in its iconic first line, The Iliad is about the character or object can be described a number of ways. consequences of Achilles's rage. Why is he angry? It's all about Achilles is often described as "swift runner," "dear to Zeus," pride and honor. Honor is a sacred concept in the ancient and "godlike." Apollo is usually referred to by his role as an world. The Greek word for honor also means price or value, archer, and the Achaean ships are often "black," "swift," or closely connecting honor with riches and prizes. Thus, "beaked." In a performance, the poet chooses the description Agamemnon's loss of a highly valued prize is also a significant that fits the number of syllables needed to fill out the poetic loss of honor. However, it seems there would also be honor in line. The repetition of descriptions also helps listeners quickly giving up something of value to protect his army. But identify recurring characters and objects. Some epithets are Agamemnon's pride gets in the way of his considering it, even used for multiple people or things, such as the application of for the promise of valuable future prizes. "lord of the war cry" to Menelaus, Diomedes, and occasionally others. Agamemnon will only accept the immediate replacement of Chryseis with an equal prize. He zeroes in on Achilles who

blooms"—an image more threatening than peaceful. Only the Book 2 simile comparing captains splitting the army into groups to "seasoned goatherds" with their flocks is relatively organized and peaceful. The overall effect is a sense that war and Summary conflict are integral parts of life.

To fulfill his promise to Thetis, Zeus sends Agamemnon a As at the beginning of the poem, Homer invokes the help of the dream that he will defeat Troy, leading him to believe all the Muses in Book 2 to list and describe the commanders of the gods support him. Agamemnon gathers the troops, and in an Achaean army and where they come from. The Muses are act of trickery tests their will to fight by encouraging them to goddesses of the arts and literature. This lends the human sail for home. Soldiers rush for the ships, but Odysseus and poet superhuman knowledge of what ancient Greeks regarded Nestor both berate and inspire the troops, recalling the signs as historical events. This long catalog of places and that foretold their victory. Agamemnon commands the army to backgrounds may be boring to modern readers, but Greek prepare for battle, and he makes sacrifices to Zeus. listeners would have been thrilled to hear their city or area celebrated in the entertainment of the day. Seeing the Achaean army organizing, the Trojans muster as well. The poet celebrates the origin, commander, and strengths The repetition of passages is another feature of oral poetry, and talents of each group in both armies. Achilles and his from simple phrases up to long chunks of the poem. At the Myrmidons are catalogued but, true to Achilles's vow, will be beginning of Book 2, Zeus dictates his message for sitting out the upcoming battle. Agamemnon in a personified dream. The dream repeats it nearly verbatim to Agamemnon. Agamemnon then relays the whole dream in exactly the same words to his troops. Analysis Descriptions of the ritual of sacrifice in other sections of the poem often repeat part or all of the description in Book 2. Homer starts both his epics—The Iliad and The Odyssey—in These repetitions highlight and reinforce important ideas for medias res, meaning "in the middle of things." It is revealed in listeners (who cannot go back and reread if they didn't Book 2 that the Achaeans and Trojans have already been understand something the first time). They also give the poet fighting for nine long years. Homer only refers to the cause of time to think ahead to the next section to be performed. the war in passing. He assumes that his listeners know the whole backstory: Zeus (wisely not wanting to do it himself) appointed Prince Paris of Troy to judge which of the Book 3 goddesses—Hera, Athena, or Aphrodite—was most beautiful. Paris picked Aphrodite because she promised him the love of the most beautiful mortal woman in the world. Unfortunately, Summary that was Helen, the wife of Agamemnon's brother, Menelaus. When Helen ran away with Paris, the Achaeans gathered allies Paris boldly strides in the front rank of the Trojan forces, but and attacked Troy. So Paris's choice has brought down the he hides when he sees Menelaus, Helen's abandoned husband, hatred of the powerful goddesses Hera and Athena upon his in the approaching Achaean army. Hector denounces Paris for city of Troy. being more beautiful than brave, and Paris doesn't argue. However, his pride is hurt. He proposes settling the conflict Homer's distinctive epic similes—extended comparisons over Helen in single combat with Menelaus. Hector accepts the between elements of the story and scenes from nature and challenge, and the goddess Iris summons Helen to watch. everyday life—first appear in Book 2. In this section the Joining Priam on the walls, she identifies and describes the Achaean army is compared to swarming bees and flies, a Achaean champions—Agamemnon, Odysseus, Great Ajax, and wildfire, and circling flocks of birds. Although these images Idomeneus. evoke life outside of the war that dominates the poem, many contain suggestions of the aggression, violence, or destruction Priam offers sacrifices to bind the agreement, but cannot bear of war. The bees are "dark hordes," "seething over spring to stay and watch Paris be killed. Neither Paris nor Menelaus

wound each other with spear throws, and Menelaus's sword breaks on Paris's helmet. Menelaus gets the upper hand and Book 4 attempts to strangle Paris with his helmet strap. At this turn of events, Aphrodite intervenes and saves Paris, spiriting him away to his bedroom. She then brings a resistant Helen to him. Summary After Helen mocks Paris's cowardice, they make love. Unable to find Paris, Agamemnon declares Menelaus the winner and On Olympus, the gods argue over the war. Zeus suggests that demands Helen's return. the peace hold and Helen go home with Menelaus, both because Troy is his favorite city and to mock Hera's and Athena's passion for the death of Trojans. Hera protests she Analysis wouldn't object if Zeus destroyed all her favorite cities, so he shouldn't protest the destruction of Troy. Zeus yields and After meeting the major Achaean players in the first two books, sends Athena to provoke Troy to break the truce. the audience is introduced to the main Trojan characters in Book 3. Helen is depicted as a sympathetic character. She Disguised as a soldier, Athena urges Pandarus, a Trojan deeply regrets the cost of the conflict being fought over her, archer, to kill Menelaus. His arrow hits Menelaus in the belt and maligning herself and wishing she had died before running draws blood, but Athena doesn't actually want Menelaus dead away with Paris. She wonders if her brothers aren't in the and prevents a mortal wound. However, the truce is broken. Achaean army because they are ashamed of her. (Tragically, Agamemnon uses praise and scorn to rouse his troops, and as Greek audiences knew, they are actually dead.) After her the Achaean army surges in violent waves to the attack. As past history with Aphrodite, Helen recognizes and resists gods drive them on, warriors on both sides die in droves. Aphrodite's urging to join Paris in his bedroom. She doesn't seem to like Paris much at that moment, criticizing him for cowardice. However, Aphrodite has the power to bend Helen Analysis to her will and make her continue to love Paris. This situation As Book 4 begins, the gods are arguing about mortals as usual. echoes the condition of Dido in relation to Aeneas in the later Unlike in most modern religions, the Greek gods embody all of epic The Aeneid. Viewing divine intervention as an explanation the same passions and flaws as humans. They also freely for human mysteries, readers recognize Helen's feelings for interact with humans to persuade them into action through Paris as deeply conflicted—she both loves and despises him. reason and emotions. The difference is they cannot die. This Unlike Helen, Paris doesn't seem to feel much shame or makes their conflicts seem somewhat trivial, even comical, in responsibility for his role in starting the war. Instead, Hector is contrast to the death and destruction happening down on the one who wishes Paris had died before bringing doom upon earth. Because they face no consequences, they take more their city. Here Paris is motivated more by pleasure and self- pleasure in the conflict than the mortals, for whom it is a deadly preservation than by honor. It takes Hector calling him "a curse serious business. With a truce declared, there is a real chance to your father, your city and all your people,/... rank disgrace to that the war can be ended peacefully, but Hera and Athena yourself!" to prompt him to the honorable idea of a duel. But his keep it going to avenge their own injured pride. enthusiasm for combat wanes quickly. He is not in the least War erupts in the second half of Book 4. Although he alludes to upset to end up back in his bedroom with Helen, leaving the the death of foot soldiers, Homer primarily focuses on army to continue fighting while he enjoys the spoils. It's not individual clashes between champions and other notable surprising the Trojan army hates Paris "like death, black death." fighters. His descriptions of the deadly wounds fighters inflict Past the age of fighting for glory and honor, Priam is the on one another are brutal but also based on a consistent character most connected with his humanity. The other Trojan formula. Spears, arrows, swords, and rocks crush, stab, slash, elders, not without reason, want to send Helen back to save and rip a rotating list of body parts, with the occasional their city. However, Priam does not blame Helen and treats her embellishment of an organ or other internal element. Homer compassionately despite all of the trouble she has brought on rearranges these basic elements with different specific details Troy. to create an almost endless variety of battle deaths.

Stripping armor from fallen enemies or taking possession of Achilles never let the Trojans out of their gates. Athena helps their horses is an important element of battle. These are Diomedes spear Ares in the stomach. The god of war flees to valuable prizes, and claiming them both increases the winner's Olympus, and Hera and Athena follow, having accomplished honor and dishonors the dead fighter. Seizing this honor is their goal. important enough that fighters make themselves vulnerable in the middle of battle to do so, sometimes with fatal consequences. After the first battle death described in the Analysis poem, another fighter immediately attempts to strip the gear off the body of the dead man and is killed because he exposes Book 5 is primarily Diomedes's aristeia, an extended passage his side in the process. in an epic celebrating a hero's "best work," although the exploits of others and actions of the gods are interspersed Neither side is portrayed as better than the other in the through it. This is the first aristeia of many in the poem and the poem—fighters from both sides die the same tragic deaths. longest and bloodiest except for Achilles's in Books 20–22. This is illustrated poignantly at the end of Book 4 with an Typical of an aristeia, Diomedes is inspired and empowered by image of two dead fighters from opposite sides lying next to a god (Athena), his glorious armor is highlighted, and he each other as men from both sides of the conflict die around triumphs despite being wounded. Many epic similes describe them. the hero. In several similes typical of battle scenes, Diomedes sweeps through the Trojans like raging water and attacks like a "claw mad" lion. Book 5 The concerns of the gods again seem petty compared to the seriousness of battle for the mortals. The gods have little Summary regard for the consequences of their actions for humans, unless they are protecting a favored individual. Mainly, they seem concerned with opposing the other gods. Neither Athena empowers Diomedes, who is one of the best fighters in Aphrodite nor Ares handle their wounds well, both running the Achaean army, and he sweeps through the Trojan troops. home and whining about it to a parent as soon as they are hurt. The archer Pandarus shoots him in the shoulder, but Diomedes The contrast with Diomedes's reaction after he is wounded is appeals to Athena. She willingly renews his strength and gives striking. him the power to see the gods on the field, telling him not to fight most of them—but go ahead and spear Aphrodite! When not focusing on Diomedes, Homer alternates the killings pretty evenly between the two sides of the conflict. This Aeneas and Pandarus go after Diomedes to turn the tide, but rotating perspective keeps the action from becoming Athena guides Diomedes's spear to kill the archer, and he monotonous and builds the suspenseful ebb and flow of battle. crushes Aeneas's hip with a boulder. Aeneas's death is The poet frequently gives the background of the fighter who is imminent, but Aphrodite appears to carry him away. about to die, emphasizing the loss to his army and homeland. Remembering Athena's directive, Diomedes stalks the goddess Vengeance killings form another pattern in the poem, such as and slashes her wrist. Aphrodite screams, drops Aeneas, and Aeneas killing two Achaean captains after his comrade flees to her mother. Luckily, Apollo takes over, bringing Aeneas Deicoon is killed by Agamemnon. to be healed and later returning him to battle. Apollo also brings Ares back to fight for the Trojans because an Achaean Taunts are a frequent and important element in battle. just wounded his sister. Comrades challenge each other's bravery and honor to get in the battle mood. Sarpedon does this by telling Hector his As the fighting continues, heroes on each side take vengeance Lycians are doing more than Hector's Trojans to defend Troy. for the deaths of their men. Diomedes warns the Achaeans to In battle, fighters also taunt their opponents to dishearten avoid Hector—Ares is helping him. After a number of clashes, them, such as when Heracles's son reminds Sarpedon that his the Achaeans start to fall back. Alarmed, Hera and Athena gear father successfully sacked Troy. Even the gods get in on the up for war and secure Zeus's permission to deal Ares a taunts—Hera shames the Achaeans by saying Achilles never "stunning blow." Hera shames the Achaeans, recalling that

let the Trojans out of their gates. friendship was considered sacred and, as demonstrated here, can be passed down through generations. (Among other offenses, Paris violated the guest-host relationship with Book 6 Menelaus by running away with Helen.) The peaceful honor of guest-friendship triumphing over the honor and glory to be gained in battle is a hopeful sign for humanity.

Summary The scene with Diomedes and Glaucus also contains a profound epic simile in which Glaucus compares the lives of As the Achaeans drive the Trojans back toward their gates, mortals to generations of leaves that die and bud again in the Menelaus catches a Trojan charioteer. The Trojan begs to be spring. It is the cycle of life, a hopeful image, but with a dark ransomed, and Menelaus is moved to grant the request. But shadow. He and Diomedes are the old leaves who are due to Agamemnon wants "all Ilium blotted out"—no one will be die and be blown away and forgotten: Glaucus brings up this spared. Together they kill the begging Trojan. simile in response to Diomedes's request to know his lineage.

On the advice of his brother Helenus, a seer, Hector returns to Homer doesn't just celebrate honor and glory in The Iliad, he Troy to ask the queen to make an offering to Athena. also explores their costs. In this section, Andromache fears the Meanwhile, Diomedes and Glaucus (a Trojan ally) meet on the consequences of Hector's courage and begs him to take a battlefield. Diomedes wonders who Glaucus is because he's more defensive approach to the war. Although he is also never noticed him before. Glaucus recites his lineage, and they tortured by the thought of terrible consequences—to his family, discover their forefathers once exchanged friendship gifts. The the city he loves, and especially his wife—if he should lose, his two fighters also declare friendship and exchange armor. sense of honor will not allow him to take a less glorious path. When he prays for his son, he wishes him to be glorious rather Inside Troy, Hector rouses Paris to join the fighting and then he than for him to survive. In the values of the ancient world, life visits his wife, Andromache, and baby son, Astyanax. without honor is not worth living. Andromache fears for Hector, wanting him to withdraw from the fighting, but his honor will not let him—he would "die of shame." The horsehair on his helmet frightens his son when he moves to hug him. He removes it and throws the boy into the Book 7 air, and the family shares a moment of laughter. As Hector returns to battle, Andromache grieves as if he were already dead. Summary

The return of Hector and Paris reinvigorates the Trojan troops. Analysis Alarmed, Athena rushes back toward the battle, but Apollo proposes they end the fighting for the day with a duel. Athena Two scenes illustrate brutality and humanity in war: Menelaus sends a telepathic message to the seer Helenus: Hector is inclined to show mercy to the captured Trojan charioteer, should challenge the strongest Achaean to fight. Prompted by but Agamemnon calls for the complete destruction of wise old Nestor, Achaean heroes volunteer, and Great Ajax is Troy—"all Ilium blotted out,/no tears for their lives, no markers selected by drawing lots. for their graves!" He would not spare even the "baby boy still in his mother's belly," a statement that does not bode well for the Hector is intimidated by the giant, but he doesn't waver. He future of Hector's baby son, Astyanax. This is a brutal new attacks boldly, but each blow is blocked by Ajax's huge shield. phase of war. Ajax's return blows come very close to wounding Hector seriously, and he finally knocks him over with a great rock. However, Glaucus and Diomedes manage to find a human Because night is coming on, they agree to end the duel, connection in the middle of the war. In this case their exchanging goodwill gifts. connection is based on a pledge of guest-friendship made by their forefathers through the exchange of gifts. Guest- Neither side is eager to resume fighting the next day. A Trojan

Copyright © 2018 Course Hero, Inc. The Iliad Study Guide Book Summaries 17 adviser suggests returning Helen, but Paris will not give her up. Summary However, he does offer the treasure he took with her, plus more. Sensing weakness, the Achaeans reject Paris's treasure On Olympus, Zeus has had enough. He forbids the other gods but agree on a day for burial of the battle dead. They also take from interfering in the war and goes off to the mountains of Ida the opportunity to build a wall with a trench in front of it around near Troy to take charge. He weighs the fate of the two armies their ships. Sea-god Poseidon objects to the wall, but Zeus on his scales, and the Achaeans lose. Zeus drives them back chides him, saying he can wash it away as soon as they leave. with thunderbolts. Even bold Diomedes retreats. Hector and the Trojans advance, vowing to break down the Achaeans's Analysis new wall and burn their ships. The Achaeans are in danger of being wiped out. Hera rants at Poseidon, but neither wants to defy Zeus. Homer builds parallels throughout The Iliad in which an event in one group is mirrored in a scene of another group. (See the Agamemnon rallies the Achaeans and prays to Zeus to allow conflicts in Book 1, first between mortals and then between the his men to live. Zeus sends a sign of assent. Achaean fighters gods.) In Book 7, the desires and actions of Achaeans and kill some Trojans, but Zeus then spurs on Hector, who pushes Trojans mirror each other in many ways. In the duel Hector Achaean fighters back against their own walls. Furious, Hera attacks with a weapon; then Ajax counterattacks with the and Athena head for battle again despite Zeus's warning. He same weapon, usually doing a bit more damage. After the duel sends Iris to warn them off, telling them Hector will rampage both sides go home and eat, and both wish to bury their dead. until Achilles returns to battle. Homer references the grief of the Trojans as they burn their dead to describe the grief of the Achaeans. In so doing, Homer Down on earth, night ends the fighting. Feeling victory is lays the foundation of compassion that finally finds its way to imminent, Hector has his army camp on the plain to ensure the Achilles when Priam petitions him for the body of his slain son, Achaeans can't sail away. They watch fires blaze like stars. Hector. Common cause and the recognition of it binds enemies to the same principles of honor. Analysis Burial rituals were extremely important to the ancient Greeks. As Patroclus's ghost points out in Book 23, they believed that a Until this point in the story Zeus has largely stayed out of the person's spirit could not enter the world of the dead until they war, mostly overseeing the squabbles of the other gods and were properly buried. In The Iliad, bodies are usually burned on sending the occasional dream. Now he takes direct control, pyres. The remaining bones are either interred in a decorative changing the dynamics considerably. Before, the gods fighting jar or box, or are buried in an earth tomb mounded over the for each side tended to balance each other out, not giving site of the fire. either army too much of an advantage. But then Zeus sets his will against the Achaeans. Not even the bravery of Diomedes Like many of the gods's reactions, Poseidon's anger at the end can save them from disaster. He slightly counteracts his own of the chapter is petty—he mostly seems worried that the will by giving the Achaeans a bit of a rally to answer Achaeans's wall is going to take away from the glory of the wall Agamemnon's prayer. But he makes it clear to Hera that the he built around Troy. But it's also a reminder of an important Achaeans will continue to lose until Achilles stops sulking and principle: The gods should always be respected because they fights. can wipe away human works at a whim. This section contains a number of significant symbolic objects. The Achaean ships represent home and escape to their army, Book 8 so Hector's intention to burn them is a direct threat to their survival. Without any means of escape they would be trapped and slaughtered—and this is exactly what Hector wants to do. Zeus's scales symbolically weigh the fates of the two armies, and they tip against the Achaeans. Rather than determining fate, the scales seem to be an official indicator of what has

Copyright © 2018 Course Hero, Inc. The Iliad Study Guide Book Summaries 18 already been decided. Zeus's promise to Thetis means the Analysis Achaeans must lose until Achilles relents. However, the scales provide a sense of fairness and balance that makes Zeus's In Agamemnon's and Achilles's second interaction in the poem, intervention more detached than the meddling of the other this time through intermediaries, issues of pride and honor are gods. again central. The turn that the war has taken forces Zeus's rebuke of Hera portends an important future event—at Agamemnon to bend his pride enough to admit fault, but only some point Achilles's comrade Patroclus will die. He also says as much as he has to. He claims "mad, blind I was," deflecting Hector will not stop fighting until then. Because Hector is responsibility onto a disordered state of mind rather than a unlikely to ever stop fighting to defend his city, this likely choice he made. And he is not exactly humbled. The wealth of means his death as well. prizes he offers to honor Achilles is contingent on Achilles submitting himself to Agamemnon as the greater king.

Achilles bends his pride even less. Even though Odysseus Book 9 wisely leaves out Agamemnon's demand for Achilles to bow to him, Achilles apparently notices the lack of an apology. He doesn't trust Agamemnon to make good on his offer of rich Summary prizes, and he doesn't want them anyway. He seems to have given up on prizes as a means of achieving honor, saying the There is panic in the Achaean camp. Agamemnon fears they only honor he needs is the fate that Zeus has decreed for him, must sail home, but Diomedes argues against such cowardice. the honor of a glorious death. Because he doesn't have long to He still has faith in Zeus's promise of their victory. Nestor live, prizes would be of little practical use; something of an calms everyone and says it's time to approach Achilles. echo of Agamemnon's refusal to take stock in future glories Agamemnon offers great treasure—the return of Briseis, future and prizes. A warrior's enjoyment of them is very brief. plunder, one of his daughters, and seven cities—to Achilles if he will fight again and acknowledge his authority. Three Achilles's positive response to Ajax's appeal shows he values captains deliver his proposal: Great Ajax, Odysseus, and old the respect of his comrades (although he doesn't seem too Phoenix, who raised Achilles. bothered that they're dying without him). But he just can't forgive the insult to his pride. Up to this point Achilles's anger Odysseus appeals to Achilles's responsibility to help his fellow has seemed fairly justified. However, he starts to lose the Achaeans. Achilles refuses the treasure and threatens to sail audience's sympathy when he turns down an extravagant (if home. He doesn't want Agamemnon's payoff, "not if his gifts not humble) offer of compensation and stubbornly holds onto outnumbered all the grains of sand/and dust in the earth"—he his pride and anger. Achilles, more than other fighters, is wants to preserve his pride. Phoenix asks Achilles to forgive, described as and acts godlike. The pettiness of his reaction telling a story of an angry prince who lost the honor of rich calls to mind the grudges of gods such as Hera and Poseidon. gifts because he waited too long to relent. However, Achilles doesn't want honor that way; Zeus has promised him honor The many speeches in Book 9 are demonstrations of the skill enough if he stays. Ajax urges him to earn the love of his of oratory, or effective public speaking. The Greeks considered comrades and puts Achilles's loss in perspective. Achilles it to be as valuable as skill in battle. Phoenix references these responds more warmly to Ajax, but he still will not fight until two values when he says he raised Achilles to be "a man of Hector burns the ships. words and a man of action." Odysseus's speech is the most formally structured, making a series of different appeals to try When Odysseus and Ajax deliver Achilles's message, the to change Achilles's mind. Each speech demonstrates some Achaeans are stunned. Finally, Diomedes says not to mind facet of oratorical skill. Achilles. They will sleep and Agamemnon will lead them bravely in the morning.

Book 10 "worst/most brazen thing he can do" might be. The loss of a relatively small number of fighters and one chariot will not significantly weaken the Trojan army. However, Summary an attack at a vulnerable time and the loss of a valuable prize would demoralize the Trojans. It also gives the Achaeans a Agamemnon and Menelaus can't sleep with the Trojans psychological boost at a time when they are losing badly. camped so near, so they rouse the other commanders for a The thematic, narrative, and linguistic differences between council. When Nestor proposes someone use the remaining Book 10 and other books in the poem have sparked debate darkness to learn the Trojans's plans, Diomedes quickly about its authorship since ancient times. Was it composed by volunteers and selects Odysseus to go with him. Outfitted with Homer to show a different aspect of war or added by a later others' armor and weapons and backed up by the goddess contributor? Regardless of the answer, it provides an exciting Athena, they sneak toward the Trojan camp. interlude from the chaos of battle and a bit of a change in the In the Trojan camp, Hector has a similar idea and calls for a tide of the war for the Achaeans, who are currently suffering volunteer. A man named Dolon says he will scout all the way to crushing losses. Agamemnon's ship if Hector gives him Achilles's chariot and horses as a reward. Sadly he has no chance. Diomedes and Odysseus see him coming from a mile away and easily capture Book 11 him. Dolon tells them of a group of newly arrived Thracian allies exposed on one edge of the Trojan camp. Odysseus has told him he will live, but instead Diomedes kills him. Summary

Diomedes and Odysseus sneak into the sleeping Thracian In the morning the armies clash, wreaking destruction on both camp and slaughter the Thracian king and a dozen of his men. sides. Then Achaean fighters begin to gain ground. Before the god Apollo can wake some opposition, they drive Agamemnon kills many enemies and drives the Trojan army off in the king's chariot with his team of magnificent white back to the gates of Troy. Allowing Agamemnon his hour of horses. glory, Zeus sends Hector a message to charge once Agamemnon is wounded and retreats. At the signal Hector Analysis advances, pushing back the Achaeans until Diomedes nearly knocks him unconscious with a spear to the helmet. He retreats back to his forces. Book 10 takes a break from the simple if chaotic head-on battles described in the rest of the poem. Instead, it examines In quick succession most of the best Achaean fighters are the murkier realm of spying and psychological warfare. It may wounded and forced to retreat. Paris shoots Diomedes in the be a necessary part of war, but it contains little in the way of foot with an arrow, leaving Odysseus vulnerable. He is also honor, casting Diomedes and Odysseus in a different light than wounded and is about to be overwhelmed when Great Ajax the rest of the poem. arrives and beats back the Trojans. Hector, who is battling in another area, rushes to block Ajax's advance but avoids Odysseus is described as crafty and cunning throughout the fighting him directly. Zeus forces Ajax to retreat, but he poem. (Odysseus appears even more treacherous in Virgil's nonetheless holds the Trojans back until others come to characterization of him in The Aeneid.) In Book 10, he crosses support him. into brutal dishonesty when he falsely assures Dolon he will not be killed. (Dolon would have been better off asking his captors Watching the battle from his ship, Achilles sends Patroclus to to swear to Zeus than having Hector do so for a prize that identify the wounded fighter Nestor is bringing in. Nestor hadn't been taken yet.) The same Diomedes who recognized wonders why Achilles cares about wounded Achaeans now an enemy's claim to guest-friendship during the heat of battle after so many have died for his pride. He suggests Patroclus now kills a defenseless man and wonders what the convince Achilles to return to battle, or at least let Patroclus,

wearing his armor, lead his troops and intimidate the Trojans. They have little hope of holding off the Trojans otherwise. Book 12

Analysis Summary

Book 11 begins with Agamemnon's aristeia, or "best work" in As the Trojans advance on the Achaean wall, the poet reveals the poem, a passage in which he dominates the fighting and that the gods will destroy it as soon as they depart. The trench cannot be opposed. The traditional arming sequence is before the wall blocks their chariots, so Hector and his troops extended to focus on a detailed description of Agamemnon's attack on foot. One captain and his men race ahead toward the arms and armor. They are gloriously decorated: precious still-open gates, but they are blocked and cut down by two materials emphasize his richness, and the Gorgon on his shield, valiant fighters. The Trojans hesitate to follow when they see a which also appears on Athena's shield, symbolizes the support sign: an eagle bitten by the huge snake it is carrying. of the gods. For a time, he turns the tide of battle against the Polydamas advises falling back, saying the sign means the Trojans despite Zeus's plan for the Achaeans to be driven Achaeans will defeat them, but Hector mocks him and charges back. the wall.

Zeus is still the only god allowed to intervene, and he mostly The two Ajaxes rally to defend the wall. Zeus sends his son works from afar to intimidate the Achaeans and nudge Hector Sarpedon forward, and he fights through all opposition to rip a this way or that. The goddess Strife (or Hate in some section of the wall away. Achaeans rush to block the breach, translations) appears as an extension of his will and a and neither side can push the other back. Finally, Zeus helps manifestation of the brutality of war. Homer shows the cost of Hector heroically lift a giant rock and smash it through the this brutality throughout the poem, but he is by no means gates, and Trojans stream over and through the wall to the condemning war. Although it is terrible, it is also a vital means Achaean ships. of winning the glory and honor that was so important in the ancient world. In other words, it is an unavoidable part of life. Analysis Achilles's reappearance in the narrative at the end of Book 11 starts the progression of events that leads to the fated deaths More doom is foretold at the beginning of Book 12. In a of Patroclus, Hector, and (after the end of the poem) Achilles passage that jumps forward in time to predict the death of the himself. When Patroclus answers Achilles's call to question "best of the Trojan captains," Hector, and the Achaean victory Nestor, Homer says "from that moment on his doom was and departure "in the tenth year." Because there have already sealed." After Nestor's suggestion that Patroclus pretend to be been nine years of war, all of this is going to happen pretty Achilles in battle, the shape of that doom starts to become soon. clear. Hector's reaction to Polydamas's advice begins moving him Patroclus's character also sheds light on Achilles. Although toward his doom. He takes Polydamas's first suggestion to they are great friends and foster brothers, they are quite attack on foot because it promises "less danger, more different. The humanity of Patroclus's compassion for the success." But he rejects Polydamas's accurate reading of the wounded fighter Eurypylus contrasts with Achilles's choice to bird sign warning of the Trojan defeat. It would mean place his pride above the fate of his fellow Achaeans. retreating, a dishonorable move, and an illogical one based on Patroclus himself even speaks with some disapproval of how the battle is going—except for the sign. Hector decides to Achilles's anger, saying he would "leap to accuse a friend ignore the omen and fight honorably for his home, fulfilling the without a fault." destiny laid out by Zeus that ultimately leads to his death.

Zeus gets more involved in orchestrating the conflict in Book 12, granting and denying specific fighters success and glory as they struggle for control of the wall. Both sides of the war

claim his backing, but fighters are often confused about his Achaeans, which would presumably attract Zeus's attention. will. When the battle turns against them, more than one Instead he sticks to giving advice and whipping up morale. The Achaean rails at Zeus for breaking his promise that Troy will effects of Poseidon's intervention can also be viewed as the fall before they sail for home. Fear shakes their faith in the bravery of desperation. The Achaeans rally because they have prophecy that supports them. In Book 12, Hector mistakes nowhere left to retreat to and need to protect their ships, Zeus's current favoritism for a promise of ultimate success and without which they cannot survive. ignores his sign to the contrary. As throughout the poem, the intervention of Zeus can be seen as providing an explanation The action in Book 13 displays more strategy than past scenes for things that have no obvious explanation: the chaotic ebb of war. Leaders on both sides consider which part of their and flow of war and individual instances of inspiration and fighting line needs to be reinforced. Hector's and the Aeantes's extraordinary valor. (plural of Ajax) position in the center of the line illustrates their central roles in the conflict—at this point the Aeantes are the best fighters still unharmed on the Achaean side. Paris, who Book 13 has been less than heroic in most of his appearances, actually demonstrates a fighting spirit that lifts up Hector at a time when he is tired and discouraged.

Summary The beginning of a pattern in the poem of warriors fighting to protect their comrades's bodies can be seen in this section. With the Trojans through the Achaean wall, Zeus takes his This interaction directly pits the honor of one side against the eyes off the fighting, and the sea-god Poseidon takes other. Both collecting plunder from fallen enemies and advantage. He inspires Great Ajax, Little Ajax, and the troops protecting a comrade's body can be honorable and glorious, around them to hold back Hector. After his grandson is killed, but only one side of each conflict can claim the honor. Poseidon inspires Idomeneus of Crete and his fierce aide Meriones on the left of the battle. He doesn't dare openly defend the Achaeans for fear of Zeus's punishment, but with Book 14 his support Idomeneus and other Achaeans kill or wound many Trojans.

Polydamas successfully urges Hector to withdraw a bit and Summary regroup. Looking for his captains, he finds that many are dead or wounded. However, Paris speaks bravely and raises Hearing the sounds of battle, Nestor gathers the wounded Hector's spirits. Now Zeus remembers to drive on the Trojans, Achaean commanders. Agamemnon fears losing and proposes who advance like pounding waves. Great Ajax is not sailing away while the army still fights. Odysseus intimidated, making a brave speech. Hector responds, contemptuously rejects the idea, and Diomedes offers a better promising to kill Ajax and the Achaeans. With many war cries, plan: All the commanders should go to the front, not to fight the armies clash again before the ships. because they are wounded, but to inspire their army. On the way to the front, Poseidon in disguise reassures Agamemnon that the Trojans will retreat from the ships at some point. Analysis On Olympus, Hera decides to distract Zeus. Making herself beautiful as only an immortal can be, she tricks Aphrodite into Zeus, who has kept tight control of the action for the last few giving her a band that contains the power of love. She also books, now takes his eye off the ball. Gazing at the peaceful bribes the god Sleep to help her. She goes to Zeus on Ida, and land of Thrace to the north of Troy, he doesn't notice that he is overcome with desire for her. Hidden in a cloud they Poseidon defies his order of noninterference—it seems Zeus make love. Afterward, Sleep uses his power on Zeus and then isn't completely all-seeing. Poseidon manages to avoid informs Poseidon he is free to fight for the Achaeans. detection by waiting until Zeus is distracted, and staying disguised and hidden. He avoids fighting directly for the Inspired by Poseidon, the Achaeans prepare for more fighting,

giving the best fighters the best armor. The battle resumes, Homer portrays both sides sympathetically—both display and Great Ajax and Hector soon face off. Hector strikes Ajax honor and fight heroically—but as the epic continues, it with a mighty spear throw, but it again fails to get through his becomes increasingly clear the comparative strength of the armor. Ajax crushes Hector with a rock for a second time, and Trojans just doesn't stack up. he begins to spit up blood. After Hector retreats, opposing fighters trade insults and battle, and Poseidon turns the tide against the Trojans. Book 15

Analysis Summary

At the beginning of Book 14, top Achaean commander As the Trojans are driven back to their chariots outside the Agamemnon must once again be talked out of giving up and wall, Zeus wakes up and sees what is happening. He threatens sailing away. At every setback he thinks Zeus has abandoned to punish Hera, but she protests her innocence. Zeus seems to his promise of victory. Seeing defeat as inevitable, he proposes accept her answer but puts her to work to undo Poseidon's dishonorable survival, sailing away while part of his army still interference. She obeys, but not before goading the war-god fights. Choosing a safe return home over glorious and Ares into almost defying Zeus to avenge his son—he is only honorable death is the opposite of Achilles's choice. Odysseus stopped by Athena. Iris calls off a reluctant Poseidon, and roundly denounces this plan and calls him a disgrace. As the Apollo strengthens Hector and accompanies him back to the audience knows, an Achaean defeat is not inevitable and battle. Agamemnon needs to have more faith in the gods. The uninjured Achaean champions gather together to face This revelation of Agamemnon as faltering and faithless helps Hector and his army. With a war cry, Apollo shakes Zeus's explain why Achilles and other Achaeans resent his claim to storm-shield at the Achaeans, who are struck with terror and the bulk of the plunder they seize. For the first time retreat. The god fills the trench and knocks down the wall for Agamemnon seems to feel some regret for offending Achilles, the Trojans's charging chariots. But Nestor prays to Zeus for but only insofar as how it directly affects him. He worries that help, and the charge stops just before the ships, with neither the men blame him for the current turn of events. side able to gain ground. With the ships in imminent danger,

The gods again provide a humorous counterpoint to the brutal Patroclus goes to persuade Achilles to fight. slog of war down on earth. Hera, who never misses an Fighters rally to protect and avenge fallen comrades, first on opportunity to take advantage, capitalizes on Poseidon's one side and then the other. The great archer Teucer aims at success and uses all her wiles to keep Zeus distracted a little Hector, but Zeus breaks his bow. Death comes to brave longer. She comically takes advantage of Aphrodite's good will fighters on both sides while Hector rampages, glorified by to manipulate Zeus on his weakest point, his fondness for Zeus with only a little time left. Finally, with Zeus's help, Hector beautiful woman. Although naive about Hera's intent, Aphrodite reaches a ship! Great Ajax stands alone on the deck fighting is supreme in her own area, love, and Zeus is helpless to resist off Trojan torches. the band she loans to Hera.

Book 14 also features Hector's second one-on-one face off with Great Ajax, in which he again comes out the loser. This Analysis illustrates the relative strength of each side's armies and Zeus's reaction to Hera's meddling and Poseidon's heroes. Hector is the strongest Trojan fighter, but he interference in the war sheds light on the relationships consistently cannot stand up to the second-strongest fighter between the gods. Hera manages to wriggle out of punishment on the Achaean side. And if he falls, there is no fighter nearly by swearing her innocence. However, her oath on the river as strong to replace him, whereas the Achaeans have a deep Styx—a vow the gods cannot break—cuts the truth pretty fine. pool of mighty warriors. Even with Zeus's help, Hector's It is true she did not send Poseidon to help the Achaeans, but progress toward the ships is painfully slow and full of setbacks. she seized the opportunity to assist him. If Zeus recognizes

this, he lets it go, perhaps in favor of preserving his relationship wants to save his son from his fate to be killed by Patroclus, with his touchy wife. but Hera argues every god would then want to follow his example. Zeus agrees but weeps as Sarpedon dies. Hector In addition to holding a grudge against the Trojans, Poseidon is and other Trojans return to fight a fierce battle to protect his motivated by a rivalry with Zeus, his older brother. The first- body. born Zeus is more powerful, but Poseidon bristles at having to give up his own interests for Zeus's priorities. This parallels the However, Zeus decides to glorify Patroclus before he dies by conflict between Achilles and Agamemnon. Achilles resents driving Hector back to Troy, and he makes Hector retreat. The Agamemnon, the more powerful king, who expects Achilles to Achaeans get Sarpedon's armor, but Zeus sends Apollo to give up something he values for Agamemnon's whim. Poseidon take his body home for burial. Patroclus chases the Trojan gives way rather than face Zeus's punishment—clearly he fears army to the walls of Troy, but Apollo holds him off. After he kills his brother's power—but with a threat that calls to mind Hector's chariot driver and many others, Apollo strikes him in Achilles's ultimatum. the back, knocking his armor and weapons away. A young Trojan spears him in the back, and Hector finishes him off with Zeus reveals to Hera, and the audience, the full pattern of fate a spear to the gut. As he dies, Patroclus warns Hector of his to come: The audience has already heard that Achilles, Hector, fate that Achilles will bring him down. and Patroclus will die, but more details are revealed. Zeus's son Sarpedon will be killed by Patroclus before he dies. After Achilles kills Hector, the Achaeans will advance until they have Analysis taken Troy, an event that occurs after the end of The Iliad. This creates the tragic irony of the audience knowing Hector's fate As the story finally returns to Achilles in Book 16, his rage may even as he gains ground in battle and boasts of Zeus's be waning a bit, but his injured pride is still as fresh as ever. He support. continues to act without humanity, showing no concern for the fate of the Achaean army—in stark contrast to Patroclus, who When Hector finally battles through to the Achaean ships, with is in tears over their plight. Patroclus accuses him of being one about to be set on fire, Zeus's promise is fulfilled. From this born not of gods and mortals but of the ocean and rocks, point on the tide of battle will turn, and the Trojans will be forces with no feelings. Homer also creates a sense of tragic driven back for the final time. irony related to Patroclus's fate. Achilles prays for his success and safe return, but the poet reminds the audience the second Book 16 part of that prayer will not be answered. Battles over fallen comrades become more significant in Book 16. The desire to protect Sarpedon's body motivates Hector to Summary return to battle where Hector and Patroclus face off in a literal tug-of-war over the body of Hector's driver. Patroclus Patroclus tells Achilles how badly the battle is going and scolds eventually wins these face-offs and gains the glory of stripping him for his rage. If he will not relent, Achilles should at least let the bodies of armor. Zeus wants him to achieve glory in battle Patroclus take his armor and troops into battle. Tragically, before he dies. Patroclus is begging for his own death. Achilles agrees but tells As Patroclus rises in glory, Hector seems to diminish. He Patroclus he should only drive the Trojans back from the ships, retreats without being wounded twice in this section. Although not follow them to Troy. As the Trojans finally set fire to a ship, Homer says Zeus forces the second retreat to allow Patroclus Patroclus dons Achilles's armor and Achilles musters his his glory, Hector's earlier retreat from the ships, abandoning Myrmidons. his fleeing army, seems out of character with his earlier The fresh fighters turn the tide of battle, and Hector and the conduct. (Even a few short lines earlier he was guarding the Trojans break and run. In Achilles's chariot Patroclus sweeps retreat.) Patroclus's death is strangely unheroic—for both him through the retreating Trojan army. Sarpedon turns to face and Hector. Apollo knocks his armor and weapons away, Patroclus, and they get out of their chariots to duel. Zeus allowing him to be stabbed in the back by one of the youngest

Trojans. As Patroclus points out, Hector only delivers the coup mutilation and theft, and the Trojans want to dishonor the body de grâce—the gods did most of the work. of their enemy to gain honor for themselves.

Zeus's decision not to save Sarpedon illuminates the Menelaus has a dilemma of honor as he first defends relationship between the gods and fate. Apparently, fate can Patroclus's body alone. Should he stand against Hector and die be changed because Zeus considers making an exception for or desert Patroclus who was there fighting for him? (Helen was Sarpedon. However, even the king of the gods cannot block an Menelaus's wife before running off with Paris.) He wisely fights established fate without consequences. If he saves his son, the the urgings of pride to make a strategic retreat to find help. gods will fail to respect him and think they can do the same, This is one of the times in the poem that a mortal makes a leading to all sorts of problems. significant decision without the prompting of any god. Menelaus's death would remove much of the justification for the war. It might result in the Achaeans sailing home without Book 17 victory, as Agamemnon fears when Menelaus wants to duel Hector in Book 7.

In contrast Hector gives in to his pride. Angry that Hector has Summary abandoned Sarpedon's body to the Achaeans, Glaucus calls him a coward for running and says he can't stand up to Great A fierce battle rages over Patroclus's body with gods assisting Ajax. Although (or perhaps because) Hector has already come fighters on both sides. Menelaus kills Euphorbus, the young out on the losing end of two encounters with Ajax, this stings Trojan who stabbed Patroclus in the back, but backs off when his pride. He boasts overconfidently of Zeus's support and Hector joins the fight. Menelaus calls in Great Ajax to help him, rashly chooses to wear Achilles's armor. Many seeds of and together they drive Hector off before he can dismember Hector's ultimate destruction can be found in this scene. Patroclus. However, Hector does come away with Achilles's armor, which he quickly puts on. Zeus disapproves—he will Homer sometimes describes a darkness or fog that comes empower Hector because he is about to die, but he has no over fighters in battle, a physical manifestation of the right to the famous armor. confusion of war. In this section, Zeus deliberately places a similar haze of battle around the Achaeans guarding Patroclus. Hector whips up his troops and allies, and Menelaus calls for Descriptions contrast the hazy center with its close hand-to- and challenges his own reinforcements. Having always liked hand fighting with the battle on the flanks where fighters get Patroclus, Zeus helps the Achaeans shield Patroclus's body. long breaks between combat and where the sun shines bright. First one side gains ground, and then the other pushes back, The haze hampers both the Trojans and the Achaeans. Ajax but neither can move the other. must pray for it to be lifted to find someone to go to Achilles.

Hector, Aeneas, and others briefly try to seize Achilles's horses, but they quickly focus back on the corpse. After Apollo strikes fear in the Achaeans with Zeus's storm-shield, Book 18 Menelaus sends a messenger to Achilles, hoping he can help retrieve Patroclus's body. In the meantime, Great Ajax organizes fighters to carry the body off the field. Hector, Summary Aeneas, and the Trojans charge desperately, but the Aeantes hold them off. The battle rages on like a flash fire. Achilles has a bad feeling that Patroclus is dead even before Menelaus's messenger arrives. Upon hearing the news, Achilles tears his hair in sorrow and curses "anger that drives Analysis the sanest men to flare in outrage." He will beat down his rage at Agamemnon and return to the fight. The only thing to live for Issues of honor and pride run throughout Book 17. The central is killing Hector. Achilles's mother, Thetis, laments that he must conflict revolves around Patroclus's honor. The Achaeans want die soon after Hector. Thetis tells him not to go into battle until to preserve it by protecting his body and possessions from she returns. She will bring him new armor made by the god of

fire in the morning. large in the narrative, but the shield widens the focus to reveal the larger context of life for which the war is being fought. Meanwhile, Hector and Trojan fighters hotly pursue Patroclus's body, preventing the Achaeans from escaping. Athena lends When Hera makes the sun go down, it is the first nightfall since Achilles powers of the gods, and his bloodcurdling war cries the beginning of Book 11. Patroclus's attack to drive the from the Achaean wall sends panic through the Trojans. Trojans back and the aftermath of his death have happened in Patroclus's body is brought inside the camp, and the Achaeans one long and bloody day. After so many significant battles, the mourn. Achilles vows Patroclus will not be buried until he kills evening provides a welcome break in action. Both armies Hector. Fearing the consequences of Achilles's return, gather for the night, with very different moods in each camp. Polydamas recommends the Trojans return to Troy that night The Achaean camp is somber, dominated by mourning for rather than camping on the plain, but Hector replies in pride Patroclus's death. The Trojan camp, led by Hector, is that he will never run from Achilles. optimistic—a tragic irony because fate decrees that the army will be defeated and Hector will die before returning to Troy. Thetis asks Hephaestus, the god of fire, to make her son new armor. Because she helped him in the past, he gladly makes a breastplate, helmet, greaves, and a spectacular shield Book 19 decorated with images of the heavens and the earth, peace and war, and life and death. Summary Analysis The next morning Thetis delivers Achilles's new armor, gives

Patroclus's death changes everything for Achilles. He realizes him strength, and promises to keep Patroclus's body from his rage against Agamemnon has led to the death of his decaying. Calling his Myrmidons and the commanders of the greatest friend. He had asked the gods for death for the army together, Achilles foreswears his rage toward Achaeans, but he never thought that someone close to him Agamemnon and intends to immediately go into battle. would be one who paid the price. Suddenly that anger doesn't Agamemnon also speaks, again blaming the gods and seem so important anymore. He briefly wishes that all anger madness for his actions but promising Achilles the formerly could be abolished from the world, but he is not capable of offered treasures and return of Briseis. letting go of anger himself. Instead he redirects all his rage, Completely indifferent to treasure, Achilles is eager to start supplemented by grief, at Hector, seeming completely fighting immediately. But Odysseus insists the army needs indifferent to Agamemnon in future encounters. food to fight. Agamemnon quickly delivers the promised

The shield that Hephaestus creates for Achilles is an treasures. Although he will not eat, Athena fuels Achilles for instrument of war but also a symbol of life. It is covered with battle with the food and drink of the gods, ambrosia and scenes that show the scope of human existence. The physical nectar. He dons his new armor and boards his chariot, chiding world is represented in depictions of sky, earth, and sea. The his immortal horses to keep him alive. Given voice by Hera, one two cities contrast wartime and peacetime. Conflict exists horse replies that they will save him once more, but they even in the peaceful city, but it is being resolved through civil cannot fight Achilles's fate that is coming soon. Achilles isn't channels rather than violence. The scene of the second city moved—he has already chosen his fate. depicts the desperation and chaos of war. Significantly, it is the only place the gods appear on the shield. Images of a field being plowed, wheat being reaped, and grapes being Analysis harvested represent the cycle of the seasons. A herd of cattle The conflict that has driven the story to this point is resolved attacked by two lions echoes many similes used to describe as Achilles reconciles with Agamemnon. However, the rampaging warriors, connecting war to everyday life. The final resolution is not due to any character growth on Achilles's scene of young men and women dancing in a circle is an image part—he has only changed the target of his rage from of life and renewal—all things come around again. War looms Agamemnon to Hector. He continues to disregard the needs of

his own army. Instead, he is trying to impose his method of Apollo wraps Hector in a protective mist and warns Achilles it mourning on everyone else. As Odysseus points out, if soldiers is not yet time for him to die. Achilles rages on, killing warriors were always fasting to mourn their fallen comrades, they would and allies of Troy without mercy. never be able to fuel themselves for the next day's battle. They have to be able to move on to fight and win glory. Analysis Eating represents a degree of acceptance that life goes on even after the most tragic events. It is an idea that will play a In another Homeric parallel, the council called by Achilles at the significant role in Book 24 as well. Achilles's rejection of food is beginning of Book 19 is echoed in the council of the gods a rejection of life and a fatalistic acceptance of his fated death. called by Zeus at the beginning of Book 20. Zeus gives the To sustain him through battle, the gods grant him the privilege gods free rein to intervene because Achilles could actually of living off their own food and drink, again emphasizing his overpower the Trojans without divine help, bringing down Troy nature as a demigod, being half mortal and half god. before its fated time. This suggests even mortals can change fate in some cases if the gods don't actively counteract them. Even as he pledges to reward Achilles for returning to the Although Zeus is the god most responsible for ensuring that battle, Agamemnon continues to deflect responsibility for his fate is fulfilled, all the gods play their parts. For later Greeks actions. He blames his actions on the goddess Ruin, a and Romans, fate was much more fixed, but Homer seems to translation of the Greek Atê. This word has a range of view it as the result of a complex interplay of the actions of meanings, from the afflictions of "delusion," "madness," and gods and mortals. "infatuation," to their consequences "disaster," "doom," and "ruin." Ancient Greeks viewed these strong feelings as being Poseidon actually briefly switches sides to ensure fate is from the gods rather than features of human nature that might carried out when he rescues the Trojan hero Aeneas. He pities be subject to human control. Even Achilles blames his anger on Aeneas because he has always respected the gods, and he "the blinding frenzies" the gods send to mortals. However, from has a destiny: "Aeneas will rule the men of Troy in power." a modern perspective Agamemnon's decision seems less like Hundreds of years later, the Romans took Homer's words as "madness" and more like selfishness. prophecy and adopted Aeneas as an "ancestor" and the founder of that city. Aeneas's destiny and impressive pedigree seemed to explain and justify the greatness of Rome. The Book 20 Roman poet Virgil made Aeneas the hero of his own epic poem, The Aeneid, which is modeled in many ways on Homer's epics. Summary Two epic similes at the end of Book 20 describe Achilles at the beginning of a long killing spree. Interestingly, they both work Zeus calls the gods together and gives them permission to together and contrast with one another. The first simile intervene in the war however they wish. The gods pick sides compares Achilles to a rampaging fireball in a wildfire, an but are reluctant to start fighting directly. Apollo urges Aeneas image of uncontrolled destruction that repeats the frequent to go up against Achilles; his mother is a goddess too, a more comparison of battle to fire. The second simile compares powerful one than Achilles's. Aeneas's spear doesn't pierce Achilles to a huge ox crushing grain for threshing (the process Achilles's shield, and Achilles throws a killing shot in return. that removes the husk of the grain so it can be consumed). Poseidon briefly switches sides to toss Aeneas to a different Although this is a peacetime task that sustains life, it also part of the battlefield so he won't be killed. The move is meant evokes the violence of war, emphasizing Achilles's strength to preserve his destiny to survive the war and lead the and the crushing of his enemies. Sustenance and violence remaining people of Troy. coexist in the same image, suggesting they are part of the Hector wants to battle Achilles, but Apollo warns him to stay same whole. with his troops. However, when Achilles kills Hector's youngest brother, Hector can't hold himself back. He throws a spear at Achilles, but Athena flicks it away. When Achilles attacks back,

for help, but he holds his own for an impressive length of time Book 21 against the elemental force of the river.

Despite the feeling that fighting because of mortals is beneath Summary them, for the first time the gods fight each other directly without any mortals involved. The divine conflict both parallels Achilles pushes the Trojan army back, driving a portion of it and contrasts with the mortal conflict playing out right beside into the river Xanthus (also called Scamander), where he them. As the fighting between mortals grows more brutal and slaughters huge numbers of enemies. Lycaon, whom Achilles deadly, fighting between the gods becomes more petty and had captured in a previous battle, begs for mercy, but there is pointless, bordering on slapstick. They no longer make any none to be found in Achilles's heart. Filled with rage at attempt to affect the course of the battle but simply act out Patroclus's death, he cries, "Die, Trojans, die—/till I butcher all their personal conflicts, which are only loosely based on the the way to sacred Troy!" He kills so many that their bodies clog war. the river. Because the gods cannot die, they risk only temporary pain This angers the god of the river, who nearly overwhelms and humiliation, and their struggles have no nobility or dignity. Achilles with waves, whirlpools, and floods. However, Hera They deal poorly with even minor injuries, running back to Zeus sends Hephaestus, the god of fire, to force back the river until as soon as they are hurt. The specifics of each attack seem to its god swears not to interfere with the fate of Troy. At this fit the nature of the god being attacked. Artemis crushes Ares, point, the gods begin to fight each other directly. Athena the god of war, with a boulder, a common type of attack in war. knocks Ares out and injures Aphrodite when she tries to help Athena punches Aphrodite, the goddess of love and desire, in him. Hera humiliates Artemis, sending her running home. Apollo the breasts. Hera boxes the ears of the huntress Artemis with declines to fight Poseidon and retreats to protect Troy. her own hunting implements.

With the Trojan army completely routed, Priam flings open the gates for the survivors, and Apollo distracts Achilles to protect Book 22 their retreat. He inspires Prince Agenor to attack Achilles. When Achilles strikes back, Apollo disguises himself as Agenor and lures Achilles away until the last Trojan fighters reach the Summary gates of Troy.

Apollo reveals he has tricked Achilles into letting the Trojans Analysis escape, and Achilles runs back to Troy like a deadly star. Despite the pleas of his parents, Hector waits outside the gates alone. But when Achilles approaches, Hector breaks and Achilles's grief and rage results in the wholesale slaughter of runs in fear. Achilles chases him around the plain of Troy, the Trojan army without a shred of mercy. The episode with always blocking him from the city. Apollo gives Hector extra Lycaon highlights the difference between Achilles's past strength to flee for a time, but Zeus's scales declare his doom, actions, when he sometimes ransomed or sold fighters he and Apollo departs. Disguising herself as Hector's brother captured rather than killing them, with his current state of mind Deiphobus, Athena pledges to help him fight Achilles so that in which no one will be spared. He only seizes some enemies Hector will stand and fight. alive to later burn on Patroclus's funeral pyre. It is a practice that greatly honors the dead but seems a little close to Hector proposes a pact that the winner will not mutilate the barbarity, even from the ancient Greek perspective because it loser's body, but Achilles has only rage in his heart, saying, is not a part of any other funeral in the poem. "There are no binding oaths between men and lions." Achilles throws his spear first, and Hector dodges. Unbeknownst to Achilles's rampage is unstoppable, godlike. He even attacks Hector, Athena then brings Achilles's spear back to him. Xanthus, the god of the river, when he sides with the Trojans. Hector's spear throw hits Achilles's shield dead center—and Because he is actually mortal, Achilles ends up having to call bounces off. Hector calls to Deiphobus for another spear, but

there is no one there. Inextricably linked with Hector's doom, the impending doom of Troy lies especially heavy in Book 22. Priam foresees, as Realizing his fate is upon him, he charges with his sword. Andromache did in Book 7, that Troy will fall without Hector. Achilles spears him through a hole in the armor—his This makes the scene in which Andromache learns of Hector's armor—and slashes his neck. Dying, Hector begs Achilles to death especially poignant. She fears the fate of their son, who ransom his body back to his parents for burial, but Achilles will lack status without a father. Tragically, as Homer's responds, "dogs and birds will rend you—blood and bone!" audience knew, his fate is much worse. Achilles strips his body of armor and other Achaeans take turns stabbing the body. As Achilles drags Hector's body back to the Achaean camp behind his chariot, the whole city wails in Book 23 mourning. Hearing the cries, Andromache runs to the walls and faints when she sees what has been done to her husband. Summary Analysis After returning to the Achaean camp, Achilles and the

Pride and honor finally bring Hector to his doom. Waiting at the Myrmidons mourn Patroclus, and Achilles vents his anger by gates, he recognizes "reckless pride" made him reject abusing Hector's corpse. He vows he will not wash Hector's Polydamas's advice, and now he can't retreat without facing blood off his body until he has buried Patroclus. Later Achilles dishonor. Andromache regrets Hector's "fatal headstrong falls asleep on the beach. Patroclus's spirit visits him in a pride" that doesn't allow him to give ground to anyone. dream, asking why he has forgotten him. His spirit cannot enter However, that is also part of what makes him honorable and the land of the dead until his body has been burned. Recalling heroic. Even as he begs Hector to return to the city, Priam their shared childhood, Patroclus asks that their bones be fears the disgrace of dying an old man in a conquered city (a interred in the same jar when Achilles dies, which will be soon. fate he will soon suffer), suggesting it is better to die young Achilles reaches out to hold Patroclus, but he slips away like gloriously. smoke.

Hector's vow to never run from Achilles goes out the window The next day, the Achaeans build a pyre for Patroclus, when they come face to face. Whether or not it was intended, surrounding his body with slain animals, enemies, and other the image of fighters running after each other across an empty goods. Achilles cuts a lock of hair he was letting grow as a battlefield is a bit comical. However, the stakes—Hector's pledge to return to his father and burns it with Patroclus. life—could not be more serious. This scene also contains a Achilles vows that dogs will eat Hector's body, but Aphrodite striking simile, comparing the chase to a nightmare in which and Apollo keep it safe from animals and the elements. the dreamer can never catch what he is chasing, a theme Achilles gathers the Achaeans for funeral games the following different from that of any other simile in the poem. day. Diomedes, with Athena's help, wins the chariot race.

Achilles is his most godlike in battle (he needs no help from a Nestor's son Antilochus appeases Menelaus, who feels he god to run endlessly and never gets tired) but least human. cheated, by giving up his second-place prize. Odysseus and Achilles doesn't even treat Hector as human, instead viewing Great Ajax tie in the wrestling match, and Odysseus wins the him as prey. He refuses to agree to respect Hector's body in footrace. Warriors also compete in a boxing match, a duel, and any way, threatening to "eat you raw" (the same sentiment is shot put and archery contests. Achilles awards Agamemnon attributed to Hera in Book 4). These two warriors represent first place for the spear-throwing contest based on his very different kinds of heroism. Achilles is all heroic strength reputation. and fighting prowess, but he suffers from character deficiencies. Hector displays the more heroic character, valuing mutual respect even amid the horrors of war and in the Analysis face of death. As he did in his argument with Agamemnon, Achilles takes his anger against Hector too far, abusing his body at every

opportunity and killing captured enemies to burn with compromise: Achilles will give up Hector's body for a ransom, Patroclus's body. As he cries to Patroclus, he is "venting my which Priam will bring in person and alone. With the treasures rage on them for your destruction!" The appearance of gathered, Priam prays for a sign of approval and Zeus sends a Patroclus's ghost emphasizes the importance of a proper huge eagle in confirmation. Zeus sends the god Hermes, who burial for the ancient Greeks, exactly what Achilles is denying disguises himself as Achilles's aide, to hide him and guide him Hector. Achilles again expresses a feeling of responsibility for safely to Achilles. Patroclus's death. Cutting the lock of hair he has been growing out symbolizes his choice to die with glory in the war rather Arriving at Achilles's lodge, Priam kneels before him and kisses than return home. his hands. Priam's appeal touches Achilles's heart, and they weep together. Achilles agrees to give up Hector's body, but In the second half of Book 23, the audience gets a fascinating when Priam suggests he sail home safely to his own father, glimpse of Achilles free of the effects of rage, which seems to Achilles warns him not to tempt his rage. After ordering briefly take a backseat to his role as host of the games. He is Hector's body prepared, Achilles provides hospitality—food fair and diplomatic, graciously conceding to resolve a dispute and a bed for the night. Achilles pledges to hold off attacking about prizes that contains echoes of his own conflict with until Hector is buried. Agamemnon. Fearing Priam might be captured, Hermes wakes him before Games such as those described in this section played an dawn and guides him out of the Achaean camp with Hector's important role in Greek culture. They were a way for fighters to body. Priam's daughter Cassandra sees him approach, and the win glory, honor, and prizes in peacetime, and they share many entire city gathers at the gates to receive its favorite son. attributes of war. The games test many of the same skills used Andromache, Hecuba, and Helen sing songs of mourning that to make war, and boasting plays a similar role in the contests highlight Hector's skill in battle, how the gods favored him, and as in battle. However, contests and arguments are not allowed his kindness. After nine days of mourning, his body is burned to proceed to the point of actual harm. Participants in the and his bones interred in a golden box. "And so the Trojans games are as protective of their honor as in battle, as shown buried Hector breaker of horses." by the disputes over the equitable awarding of prizes.

In addition to achievements in the games, position and Analysis recognized skill are honored. Achilles wants to award second prize in the chariot to the best driver who actually came in last. Book 24 is a portrait of grief, from anger to compassion. Up to (Ultimately he gives him a different prize.) Nestor is honored this point Achilles has been stuck in anger fed by grief. At the with a leftover prize for his long and accomplished life as a beginning of the section Apollo calls him "That man without a warrior. Achilles diplomatically declares Agamemnon the shred of decency in his heart," all "brute force and wild pride," winner in the spear-throwing contest without a competition, a and no "shame that does great harm or drives men on to nod to his position as the overall commander of the army and good." Abusing the corpse of noble Hector offends the gods his pride. and brings him no honor. However, when Achilles is asked to give up Hector's body, it seems to open his ears, and he actually listens to Priam. When they weep together, Achilles is Book 24 mostly crying for his own losses, but he also empathizes with Priam's pain, recognizing that his own father will feel the same grief after Achilles's fated death. The other concession he Summary offers Priam, to hold the Achaeans back from attacking until Hector is buried, seems inspired entirely by his own For the next several days, Achilles drags Hector's corpse compassion with no prompting of the gods. He is finally putting around Patroclus's tomb every time he misses his comrade. aside his godlike rage and finding his humanity. Apollo protects the body from decay and damage, but Hera, This gentler Achilles is not likely to stick around for long, Athena, and Poseidon won't let the other gods steal it from though. The poet shows that his anger is not far from the Achilles and return it to Hector's family. Zeus decrees a

Copyright © 2018 Course Hero, Inc. The Iliad Study Guide Quotes 30 surface, even now. He warns Priam not to insult his honor with ever bear you?/... doomed twice suggestions that he sail home without glory, and he avoids rousing Priam's anger, fearing it will ignite his own rage again over." and he will kill Priam in defiance of Zeus's decree. Other characters also display anger in grief. Priam takes his pain out — Thetis, Book 1 on his remaining sons, saying he wishes they had died instead of Hector. Hecuba (Hector's mother) is so angry she could It is a terrible thing for a parent to foresee the death of a child, "sink my teeth in [Achilles's] liver, eat him raw!" echoing even a brawny, grown one. Thetis, the sea goddess who is Achilles's words to Hector in Book 22. Achilles's mother, knows he is fated to die at Troy. (At least Eating plays a significant role in this section. In his grief, that is one of his fates.) And now he must suffer dishonor for Achilles isn't eating or sleeping. His mother, Thetis, asks him, much of his remaining time as well, compounding both their "How long will you eat your heart out here in the tears and sufferings. torment?" He seems to be living on rage rather than food. However, after weeping with Priam he tells the story of Niobe to urge Priam to eat. They dine together, symbolically providing "Now be men, my friends! .../Dread some healing for both their griefs. what comrades say of you here in The eagle of Zeus again appears in Book 24 as a sign of the bloody combat!" god's approval of Priam's trip to the Achaean camp. As an animal with excellent vision, it also symbolizes that the gods will help the king navigate successfully through the darkness. — Agamemnon, Book 5 The god Hermes, who acts as Priam's guide, is likewise associated with clear sight. In the first battle in The Iliad, the leader of the Achaeans sums up the significance of honor: it's basically what others say The poet uses parallel events to bring the story structure full about you based on your performance in battle. Fighters seen circle. Chryses's appeal for the return of his daughter from cutting and running will be dishonored. He goes on to say fear Agamemnon in Book 1 is balanced by Priam's appeal for the of dishonor makes fighters stand their ground together, return of his son's body in Book 24. The parallel is helping keep more of them alive. masterful—the first appeal starts the conflict and the second one ends it. The poet's choice to end the story with this emotional resolution, rather than with a dramatic battle that provides a military resolution, focuses the epic on the "Zeus ... Grant this boy, my characters's emotional journeys. The burial of Hector parallels son,/may be like me, first in glory the burial of Patroclus and ends the poem with mourning befitting not only Hector but all those who died. among the Trojans."

The story of the Trojan War continues in many other stories, — Hector, Book 6 including Homer's The Odyssey. (Tragically, Andromache's fear that an Achaean will hurl Hector's son "down from the ramparts" does foretell his fate.) However, the story of Hector prays over his baby son before he returns to battle. Achilles's rage is done. Although he recognizes that the destruction of Troy, the death of his family, and the capture and enslavement of his wife are possible outcomes of continuing to fight, honor demands that g Quotes he continue to seek glory. Despite the costs, glory is also what he most wishes for his son.

"O my son, my sorrow, why did I

"First they fought with heart- "Bird signs!/Fight for your devouring hatred,/then they country—that is the best, the only parted, bound by pacts of omen!" friendship." — Hector, Book 12

— Hector, Book 6 This is the first time that Hector disdains Polydamas's advice, and he continues to attack the Achaeans despite the bad According to Hector, this is what will be said of him and Great omen of an eagle dropping a snake it has caught after being Ajax after their duel and exchange of gifts. This statement bitten by it. Polydamas rightly interprets that this bodes badly emphasizes the conflicted relationship between the honorable for the Trojans. The second time Hector ignores his advice is values of glorious combat and friendly respect. This pact of even more fateful. friendship will not prevent them trying to kill each other the next day, but the exchange of gifts is recognition that they faced an honorable opponent. "If only strife could die .../and anger that drives the sanest man "The same honor waits/for the to flare in outrage." coward and the brave. They both go down to Death." — Achilles, Book 18

— Achilles, Book 9 When he learns of Patroclus's death, Achilles briefly curses the anger that kept him from protecting his greatest friend. He wishes anger and strife could die from the world altogether. Of Although he has been very mindful of his honor in the past, course this is an impossible wish, and Achilles soon loses when Agamemnon offers Achilles extravagant prizes in Book 9 himself in rage again, only redirected from Agamemnon to to replace the one he took, Achilles makes a couple of Hector. However, it represents a brief moment of self- statements, like this one, seeming to reject honor. Some think awareness for this hero not otherwise given to self-reflection. Achilles realizes he doesn't need these honors because he is going to die soon. Others believe he is rejecting the concept of honor altogether. "So grief gives way to grief, my life one endless sorrow!" "Even the gods themselves can bend and change." — Briseis, Book 19

— Phoenix, Book 9 Briseis is a hostage of war, seized when Achilles defeated one of the towns around Troy. Other parts of the poem indicate that these women were expected to help mourn along with Phoenix asks Achilles to give up his anger and return to the their captors. However, Briseis's sorrow over the death of fighting. If the immortal gods can do it, so can Achilles. Of Patroclus seems genuine. She says he was kind and helped course, not all the gods are capable of forgiveness—Hera, her work toward regaining status by becoming Achilles's wife Athena, and Poseidon all hold grudges against Troy—and rather than a slave. She has already lost her family, and now Achilles is not about to forgive either.

"Here was a man not sweet at heart, not kind, no,/he was raging, Achaean Ships wild."

For the Achaean army, their ships represent home and survival. — Narrator, Book 20 They are their home base, holding supplies and treasures, and their means of flight if the war should completely turn against This is how the narrator describes Achilles when he kills the them. The Achaeans are very protective of them. Each group Trojan fighter Tros as he begs for his life. Achilles's rage is the camps around its own ships, and they build a protective wall focus of the epic, and there is no room in his heart for mercy, around them once the Trojans start to gain ground outside the especially after his greatest friend in the world, Patroclus, has city. Without the ships the Achaeans could not get home, been killed by the Trojans. which is why when Hector begins getting close enough to burn one of them, it is such a threat. They are also symbols of power and might, crossing a sea to make war in a distant land. Homer "Come, friend, you too must die. takes quite a bit of time in Book 2 to enumerate the ships of each group and commander, representing relative strength. .../Even Patroclus died, a far, far better man than you." Eating — Achilles, Book 21

As another Trojan begs for his life, Achilles displays the Homer employs the ritual of eating, which is governed by social fatalistic view that now governs his actions. His greatest friend rules, as a means of characterization in the poem. When has died, and he will die soon as well. Death comes to characters eat and how reveal important states of mind. After everyone, so what point is there to mercy? the death of Patroclus, Achilles chooses not to eat breakfast, showing his separation from his peers. When Achilles fights Hector, he expresses a desire for cannibalism, illustrating his "You ... were their greatest glory distance from civilization. In the end Achilles shares a meal with Priam, reconnecting with his humanism through this social while you lived—/now death and ritual. fate have seized you."

— Andromache, Book 22 Shield of Achilles

Hector's wife, Andromache, speaks these words after learning of his death. Not only has fate seized Hector, it is about to The most symbolic object in the poem, the shield that the god seize Troy. He was the city's protector, and without him it is Hephaestus makes for Achilles, represents the world outside destined to fall. of the Trojan War and his status as the dominant warrior in the conflict. The images on the shield depict scenes of war and peace. Some of the scenes of everyday life include conflict or violence that evokes the brutality of war. The circular dance

symbolizes the endlessness of time, and the Ocean River that An eagle serves as a good omen, reassuring Priam of Zeus's runs around all the images also bounds the world without end. promise of a safe entry into the Achaean camp to recover his son's body. Achilles's shield is also invulnerable to attack. Spears go through many other shields, but not his. His superior armor (particularly the shield) represents his special status in the conflict that glorifies him and distances him from his comrades. m Themes However, even his divine armor will not prevent his eventual death. War Armor

Achilles seeks a vengeful glory by staying separate from the battle. Even the images of nature and everyday life that appear Armor symbolizes glory and honor. The finer the armor is the in the many epic similes often contain elements that evoke the more prestigious its wearer. To take an enemy's armor is to violence of war in normal life, creating a sense that war and strip him of honor and take it for oneself. This causes fighters conflict are part of the fabric of life. In The Iliad the war is to expose themselves to harm on the battlefield to take this sparked, directed, and even occasionally fought in by the gods, prize. making it a force beyond human control, much like the images of storm, water, and fire often used to describe it. Armor also has great value as a symbol of trust and goodwill. When Glaucus and Diomedes meet in battle, they realize that As such, war cannot be good or bad—it is simply a fact of life they are guest-friends and exchange armor to display their old with inherent contradictions. As Hector says in Book 17, "live or ties. die—that is the lovely give-and-take of war." It is brutal, beautiful, and confusing. It fosters brotherhood and heroism Armor seems to have a life of its own in The Iliad. Hector's and destroys people in terrible, bloody ways. The poet often helmet is constantly flashing, setting him apart from other describes a haze or darkness of confusion that overtakes the warriors. Armor rings and clashes as fighters prepare for heaviest fighting. Otherwise reasonable people lose combat as well as when they fall on the battlefield, almost themselves in chasing glory and honor, often to their doom. seeming to express eagerness or sorrow for the Vengeance leads to a lack of mercy and more killing. circumstances. The armor worn by two Lapiths who block the gates in the Achaean wall gets its own epic simile, its clatter compared to the noise of boars ripping up trees. In Book 19, Achilles's new armor clashes as Thetis delivers it, almost Humanity seeming to announce itself.

Amid the horrors of war, human compassion and connection Eagle of Zeus are hard to find—but not impossible. Glaucus and Diomedes meet on the battlefield and, finding their forefathers were guest-friends, pledge friendship and exchange armor. Achilles shows a hint of humanity early on by understanding the Zeus, king of the gods, often sends mortals signs in the form of position of couriers sent by Agamemnon to seize Briseis from an eagle, his personal bird emblem. Eagles were valued for the him, but he immediately turns around and asks that his own distances they fly and the sharpness of their sight. Eagle signs allies be killed and defeated to get back at Agamemnon. When indicate the direction of Zeus's changing favor. Hector ignores he finally emerges on the battlefield, he shows no mercy to his an eagle sign in Book 12, starting his path toward destruction. enemies no matter how much they beg, and he treats Hector's

body monstrously. However, Priam's grief and humility break modern perspective, the gods provide explanations for through his anger and grief and he is able to show mercy to his phenomena that people couldn't otherwise explain: chance opponents. When it does occur, humanity counteracts the evils occurrences, sudden changes in the course of battle, and of war. individual inspiration. But to the ancient Greeks they were the controlling forces in their lives.

Even so, The Iliad shows that mortal actions and choices can Honor and Pride sometimes determine a person's fate, such as when Menelaus decides not to face Hector on his own after the death of Patroclus.

Honor was supremely important to the ancient Greeks and Fate is at least somewhat changeable based on the decisions underlies nearly every interaction in the poem. Honor can be and actions of gods and of mortals. Achilles has the gained through position, athletics, or debate; and particularly in opportunity to choose between two fates—a long life without wartime, it is built by demonstrating skill and bravery in battle glory or a short but glorious life. Zeus chooses not to change and seizing valuable prizes. Fighters make themselves his son Sarpedon's fate because it would upset the balance of vulnerable in battle by stripping their defeated enemies of their power with the gods, but it seems he could do so if he wished. armor as battle trophies. They even wear it to emphasize their Even Achilles's actions occasionally threaten to change fate, triumph. Conversely, fierce battles are fought to keep enemies though the gods always prevent that. It seems that fate is the from gaining the honor of looting comrades' bodies. Leaders result of a complex interaction between the gods and mortals. such as Agamemnon inherently have more honor, but they assume the dishonor for their followers in the case of defeat. The choices of both Hector and Achilles demonstrate that honor and glory are more important than long life. b Glossary

The argument between Achilles and Agamemnon escalates Aeacides: Another patronymic for Achilles, meaning "grandson because both exercise pride without humility. When of Aeacus" Agamemnon seizes the woman Achilles has taken as a battle prize, he takes Achilles's honor away and insults his pride. Aeantes: Collective name for the two Achaean fighters named Without an apology, a humbling of Agamemnon's pride, Achilles Ajax will not return to the battle. Although Agamemnon started the conflict, he will not bend his pride to apologize. Only an issue of Amazons: Tribe of fierce warrior women who later become greater pride and honor, avenging Patroclus's death, can make Trojan allies either man budge. In contrast, Priam humbles himself to Achilles to beg for Hector's body and is able to break through Ares: God of war, who is neutral but fights more in support of his grief and sense of vengeance to reach his humanity. the Trojans

Argives, Danaans: Other names for the Achaeans (Greeks and their allies)

Gods and Fate Artemis: Huntress goddess of wild places and childbirth and sister of Apollo; like her brother, she is an archer

Atridae: The two Atrides, Agamemnon and Menelaus The immortal gods gleefully pull the strings of mortal humans, often determining the fate of armies and individuals without Centaurs: Mythical creatures that are half horse and half much thought for the consequences. Sometimes the gods human—mostly wild and brutish, except for Chiron who taught push mortals to be better (such as when Hera and Athena the famous healer Asclepius restrain Achilles from killing Agamemnon), but often their interference leads to more death and destruction. From a Cronus: Father of Zeus, Hades, Poseidon, Hera, and Demeter;

Edwards, Mark W. Homer: Poet of the Iliad. Baltimore: Johns Demeter: Goddess of agriculture and grain crops Hopkins UP, 1990. Print. Enyo: Goddess of war McLoughlin, Kate. Authoring War: The Literary Representation Gorgon: Mythological monster, a woman with snakes for hair of War from the Iliad to Iraq. New York: Cambridge UP, 2014. whose glance turns people to stone Print.

Hades: God and king of the dead Schein, Seth L. The Mortal Hero: An Introduction to Homer's Iliad. Berkeley: U of California, 1984. Print. Hellespont: Narrow straight north of Troy that connects the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara (now called the Weil, Simone. War and the Iliad. New York: New York Review of Dardanelles) Books, 2005. Print.

Hephaestus: God of fire and blacksmith of the gods, who Willcock, Malcolm, M. A Companion to The Iliad. Chicago: U of fashions Achilles's new armor Chicago P, 1976. Print.

Heracles: Greek name for Hercules, the hero son of Zeus who was raised to godhood after his death

Hermes: Guide and messenger of the gods, god of shepherds and luck, and son of Zeus, who killed the hundred-eyed giant Argos

Ida: Mountain range near Troy and its central peak, where Zeus likes to rest

Ilium: Another name for the city of Troy

Lycia: Region near Troy and source of Trojan allies such as Sarpedon and Glaucus

Olympus: Tall mountain in northeastern Greece believed to be the home of the gods

Poseidon: God of the sea and earthquakes, who has been an enemy of Troy since Priam's father Laomedon refused to pay him for building a wall around the city

Scamander: River that runs near Troy that is also worshipped as a god

Simois: River that runs near Troy, brother river of Scamander

Styx: River in the land of the dead on which the gods swear binding oaths

Xanthus: (1) Another name for the river Scamander near Troy and its god; (2) river in Lycia