Masaryk University in Brno Faculty of Arts Department of English and American Studies Kateřina Olexová Ritual in Beowulf B.A. Major Thesis Supervisor: doc. Mgr. Milada Franková, CSc., M.A. 2007
I declare that I have worked on this dissertation independently, using only the sources listed in the bibliography.
1
I would like to thank my supervisor, doc. Mgr. Milada Franková, CSc., M.A., for her kind help, patience and the time she dedicated to my work.
2 CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………….……….. 4
2. ANGLO SAXON RITUAL …………………………………………………………. 5
3. BURIAL RITUALS …………………………………………………………………. 7 3.1. Ship burial …………………………………………………….…………… 7 3.2. Cremation ………………………………………………………………….. 10 3.3. Inhumation …………………………………………………………………. 12 3.4. Mounds …………………………………………………………………….. 13 3.5. Gifts ………………………………………………………………………... 13 3.6. Mourning …………………………………………………………………... 15
4. GIFT GIVING ………………………………………………………………………. 16 4.1. Loyalty to the king ………………………………………………………… 18 4.2. Punishment of disloyalty ………………………………………………….. 19 4.3. Gifts given to the lord ……………………………………………………... 21
5. SYMBEL ……………………………………………………………………………. 22 5.1. Boasting and oath ………………………………………………………….. 23 5.2. Queen ……………………………………………………………………… 24 5.3. King’s hall …………………………………………………………….…… 25
6. SACRIFICES ………………………………………………………………………... 27 6.1. Animal and people sacrifice ……………………………………………….. 29
7. PROPHECIES ………………………………………………………………………. 30 8. SYMBOLS …………………………………………………………………………... 30 8.1. Boars ……………………………………………………………………….. 31 9.1. Runes ………………………………………………………………………. 31
9. CONCLUSION ……………………………………………………………………… 33
BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………………………… 36
3 1. INTRODUCTION
This thesis deals with the Anglo Saxon ritual practice as described in the medieval heroic epic Beowulf . The practices are discussed in connection with the Anglo Saxon culture, religion and traditions. It explores how the pagan practices are supported by archaeological or literary evidence and how they were influenced by the Christian author.
The rituals of a society are influenced by the religion. Because the religious beliefs of the Anglo Saxons were highly inconsistent, the rituals varied according to time and place, and often there were various rituals practiced at one place in one time.
The first practice this thesis concentrates on is the burial ritual. In Beowulf several burial practices are described. The very first and the most interesting one is the ship burial, which attracts the attention mainly by its similarity to the famous archaeological field in Sutton Hoo, where a comparable ship burial was found. Cremation was another widely used pagan burial practice which was described in Beowulf , it was how the hero Beowulf was buried. This practice is documented by the archaeological evidence as well. Mounds were often built to mark the burial places and many gifts were also laid with the body or the ahes. These ritual acts and especially the rich treasures are described in Beowulf with many details.
The ritual of gift giving was an important practice for the Anglo Saxons. Giving and receiving gifts strenghtened the bond between a lord and his companions. The recipient was obliged to serve his lord, follow him to battle and revenge his death. The relationship between a lord and his followers was one of the basic principles of the society. In Beowulf the violators of these rules were banished and that was a punishment of the most severe kind, for no individual could endure without the society that protected him.
Another ritual that strenghtened the relationships within a community was the symbel. It was a drinking ritual also described in Beowulf . The warriors drank from a beaker and made their boasts which were equal to sacred oaths. The beaker was served by the lady of the house
4 who was a very important figure in the Anglo Saxon society, for she functioned as the peace
weaver. The symbel usually took place in the lord’s hall, in Beowulf it was Heorot, the great
hall of king Higelac. The Anglo Saxons believed that the world was a cruel place and the hall
was the shelter that protected them from its dangers.
Sacrifices to gods were a significant part of the heathen life as well, yet they are not
described in Beowulf in much detail. It is probably because idolatry was forbidden by the
Christian Church and pagan practices as sacrifices of animals or even people were totally
unacceptable.
Prophecies and divination are mentioned in Beowulf too, but only divining by lots is
described. Distinctively pagan practices as divination from entrails were withheld.
Sacred symbols were used during the heathen period to protect the one who wore them.
Boars and runes are described in Beowulf , they were engraved on weapons and armour to
perfect their qualities and protect the warrior.
The rituals mentioned in the epic are not always accurate because they are influenced by
the author’s beliefs and intentions, yet often they can be supported by archaeological or
literary evidence. This thesis compares the rituals in the epic with the practices of the real
Anglo Saxon world.
2. ANGLO-SAXON RITUAL
Ritual is a “set of actions, performed mainly for their symbolic value, which is
prescribed by a religion or by the traditions of a community” (“Ritual”). It can have various
forms and purposes; while sacrifices or idolatry are practices of religious manner, symbel or
gift giving are rituals with practical purpose. These intents were often connected with the
society and thus the rituals served as a means of strengthening the relationships within a
community.
5 Both the religious and the practical ritual practices of a society were greatly affected by the religion. The religion of the Anglo Saxons was derived from the Germanic and
Scandinavian systems, however, the evidence of Anglo Saxon heathendom is so scanty that there can be no satisfactory comparison between these systems (Hodgkin, 240). According to
Maurois, the religion was greatly based on the legends that were tied to certain places of
Germany, so it lost much of its allure during the migration (40). It is no wonder then that the ideas and practices were so inconsistent and that they often mixed with older and better rooted beliefs (Hodgkin, 242).
When Christianity came to Britain it often blended with pagan beliefs. Bede gives evidence that even after Britain had been Christianized the religion was unstable, and there were frequent returns to paganism and idolatry (73). Paganism was never fully forgotten because of the contact with the Vikings in the 9th and 10th centuries which revived the interest in pre Christian religions (Čermák, 223).
These pagan beliefs and customs are an important part of the epic Beowulf . The rituals described in the poem illustrate the Anglo Saxon tradition, but they can not be considered a proper evidence of the time. The credibility of the text is determined by several factors. The first is that the poem was composed in Christian times, thus the heathen traditions are complemented with Christian beliefs and some of the distinctively pagan rituals are completely withheld. Another factor is the placement of the poem. Although the origin of the epic is in Britain, the story takes place in Daneland, so it is probable that traditions of both the countries may appear. In spite of that, many of the rituals are documented by various literary sources or archaeological finds.
6 3. BURIAL RITUALS
There were many methods of burial in the heathen period and it is difficult to pick one as the most preferred. In every part of Britain different burials were practised and often there were several different practices used in one place at a time. The burial ritual was everything but consistent; Bronsted says that one of the reasons for this fact is that heathen people had very unclear idea of the afterlife, so they were not quite sure what to do with their deceased
(222). Another theory is proposed by Collingwood; he suggests that the inconsistensy of the burial ritual is caused by the influence of Britons whose population was strong in some areas and mixed with the Anglo Saxon conquerors (448).
Ship burial, cremation and inhumation were the most common practices in heathen
Britain. Archaeologists have found cemeteries where all these three methods are represented, in other places only one method was preferred. All these rituals were practised until inhumation, preferred by Christians, fully prevailed.
3.1. SHIP BURIAL
Ship burial is one of the most interesting and discussed burial practices of the heathen society. Although ship burial is usually connected with Teutonism, it is not the only society that used this kind of burial; similar practices were found also among Celtic and ancient
American tribes (Čermák, 220). Nevertheless, there is no doubt that ship burial is a typical practice of Teutonic heathenism and it is not only thanks to literary sources but also numerous archaeological finds that confirm it.
The evidence of ship burial practices was found in many archaeological excavations in
Europe. Due to the fact that Christianity demanding inhumation and banning laying gifts was brought to Britain relatively early, the majority of evidence has been found in Scandinavia.
7 The burial grounds in Vendel and Välsgarde in Sweden are the most important Scandinavian archaeological sites.
The most historically interesting British site has been discovered in Sutton Hoo, Suffolk.
Two Anglo Saxon cemeteries from the 6th and 7th centuries have been found there and in
1939 an example of a ship burial was excavated. Basil Brown, an archaeologist working for
Ipswich Museum, found two graves where a burial chamber was placed in a ship. The first ship was placed over the burial chamber and then a mound was raised above. The second grave, which was unlike the first one not damaged, contained a hull of a ship with a complete and undisturbed burial chamber with many gifts and treasures. The ship was about 27 meters long and 4.4 meters wide and from the construction it was concluded that it had been a functional seagoing ship, not just a model built for the purpose of burial (“Sutton Hoo”).
The ship burial found in Sutton Hoo is often connected with Beowulf . There were real links between Sutton Hoo and Scandinavia (Sweden) and also the graves found in Vendel and
Välsgarde contained ships, though smaller than the one of Sutton Hoo. Another fact that contributes to theories of connection between Sutton Hoo and Beowulf is the ship itself and the treasure found in the burial chamber (“Sutton Hoo”).
Let us have a look at the description of king Scyld’s burial in Beowulf that appears at the very beginning of the poem:
The beloved leader laid they down there, Giver of rings, on the breast of the vessel, The famed by the mainmast. A many of jewels, Of fretted embossings, from far lands brought over, Was placed near at hand then; and heard I not ever That a folk ever furnished a float more superbly With weapons of warfare, weeds for the battle, Bills and burnies; on his bosom sparkled Many a jewel that with him must travel (Beowulf , I, 35 43).
We can see there are many similarities to the ship burial of Sutton Hoo. Both men were placed in a ship, approximately in the middle. Scyld was laid by the mast; the Sutton Hoo ship
8 did not have a mast (or it had been removed) and the corpse was placed in a burial chamber in the central part of the ship. Scyld was surrounded by treasures – weapons and jewels that were put close to him. The burial chamber of the Sutton Hoo ship was equipped with weapons and jewels as well. There was, among others, a sword, a set of spears, a helmet and many wonderful ornamented objects made of silver and gold, as buckles, shoulder clasps and bosses. The grave also contained various articles of daily use, bowls, cauldrons, spoons and drinking vessels (“Sutton Hoo”).
The ships and their equipment connect Beowulf with archaeological finds. The literary sources, e.g. Snorri Sturluson, also give evidence of ship burial practices that did not leave any tangible proof, e.g. ships that were burnt or sent to the sea or both (Sturluson, 106).
Releasing a burning ship was a popular way of burial. Čermák points out the fact that
Scyld’s ship was not set on fire. He suggests that the author of Beowulf suppressed this pagan ritual for it was banned by the Christian Church (62 63). On the other hand, in the description of Beowulf’s funeral the pyre is described. However, in both cases distinctive pagan features
(e.g. sacrifices) are avoided by the author.
Although the ship burial used to be very popular in the heathen society, there were also practical requirements that people had to face. The significant reality is that mourners did not always have a spare boat because ships were important, and probably quite expensive, means of subsistence. That was the reason for the fact that many graves were only equipped with little boats or even symbolic vessels made of stones (Bronsted, 222). Another thing that must be considered is the purpose of the ship. Bronsted suggests three variants: the ship might be only one of the gifts to the deceased person, or the ship shall wait in harbour for the proper time for leaving, or the ship should carry the dead warrior straight to Valhalla, a great heavenly hall situated in the south where warriors feast and wait for the end of the world
(Bronsted, 224). The first two variants are clear – the ship should be buried with the corpse.
9 This theory is supported by various graves equipped with a ship. The third variant is the case of Scyld’s ship in Beowulf which is no doubt a means of transport to Valhalla. However, if we consider Teutons’ inclination to symbolism, the journey to Valhalla might be symbolic as well, so the ship does not have to be released to the sea or burnt at a pyre but it can be buried too. This method was found in Ladby, Denmark, where a buried ship was equipped with an anchor ready for use at the end of the journey (Bronsted, 224).
Although the author of Beowulf sent Scyld on the journey, he surely did not believe in afterlife in Valhalla; he does not mention what the destination of the ship should be. He says that Scyld “departed to the All Father’s keeping” ( Beowulf , I, 27) and that is definetely a
Christian perspective on death. The ship burial in Beowulf serves as a portrayal of a Teutonic ritual, but it can also serve as a contrast to Scyld’s coming to the Danes as a foundling
(Beowulf , I, 6).
3.2. CREMATION
Cremation belongs to burial practices often connected with paganism, for these practices were strictly banned by the Christian Church. Cremation was common to Teutonic societies not only in Britain but also in continental Europe. In Scandinavia, cremation was practised even after 1100, but then Scandinavia became fully Christianised and cremation was replaced by inhumation. In northern Germany, where the Anglo Saxons came from, the custom was to cremate the dead and bury the ashes in urns, however, there were also influences from the
Roman Empire where inhumation was the most common practice. “It would thus be natural to expect that after the migration to Britain the peoples of this region would have continued with some consistency to cremate their dead, but in fact this was not the case. From the beginning both rites are practised with a tendency much stronger in some districts than others towards a general abandonment of cremation” (Collingwoood, 448). This is a confirmation of the fact
10 that burial practices of heathen society were rather inconsistent. However, it is obvious that because inhumation was common to Christians, cremation became one of the symbols of heathenism. Description of this practice is a popular means of illustrating a pagan society in literature.
In Beowulf cremation is the most common way of burying a warrior. It is mentioned several times and the individual procedures are very similar; the warrior is laid on a pyre and he is surrounded by treasures, usually weapons. Then the whole structure is set on fire. The funeral pyre for Beowulf is described in detail:
The folk of the Geatmen got him then ready A pile on the earth strong for the burning, Behung with helmets, hero knights' targets, And bright shining burnies, as he begged they should have them; Then wailing war heroes their world famous chieftain, Their liegelord beloved, laid in the middle ( Beowulf , XLIII, 1 7).
The treasures were burned with Beowulf, then his kinsmen made a mound over the place and many jewels were put inside. The text shows that the burned pyre was covered by the mound and that the ashes were not put inside any urn. Čemák says that this practice is not supported by any archaeological evidence and he points out the startling fact that Beowulf had two burials, both cremation and inhumation (273). There are theories which say that because
Christians believed in inhumation, the second burial is a symbol of blessing that was added later.
According to the archaeological evidence, the ashes of dead people were put in various types of containers and dug under the ground. Sometimes weapons or jewels were put around.
In the Sutton Hoo cemetery, the archaeological excavations discovered several cases of this practice. The ashes were put in bronze bowls or placed on a wooden bier and there were weapons, jewels and other objects buried with the ashes. Horses and other animals had been sometimes cremated too and then buried with the deceased; this practice was not mentioned in
11 Beowulf , apparently because its distinctive pagan character was not accepted by the Christian
Church.
Although some pagan features were withheld by the author of Beowulf , according to the archaeological evidence we can say that the burial practices described in Beowulf were quite common to the heathen society in Britain. The funeral of Beowulf, though some of its features diverge from the theories of historians, may be considered to be a typical example of Anglo
Saxon burial. On the other hand, Čermák (273) says that “we must take into account a certain universal form of burial ritual, as parallels from classical literature suggest.”
3.3. INHUMATION
As already mentioned, inhumation was typical of Christianity, even though this practice first came into Britain as an influence of western provinces of the Roman Empire and in some parts of Britain it was a universal practice long before the conversion to Christianity
(Collingwood, 448). Inhumation was a common practice also among heathen societies of
Germany and Scandinavia. Graves used to be equipped with large wooden chambers or wooden coffins, some of them were covered by ships – those would belong to ship burials.
Gifts were usually put into the graves and also a horse or a dog was often buried with the deceased. The gifts and the animals are the evidence of pagan character of these graves, for gifts were strictly forbidden by the Christian Church.
Although this burial practice was used widely in the heathen period, there is no case of inhumation mentioned in Beowulf . It is probably because the other burial practices (ship burial, cremation) were more attractive for the audience. Inhumation, so common in Christian
Britain, apparently lacked the valued feeling of paganism, so the author chose practices that would fit in with the poem.
12 3.4. MOUNDS
Mounds were built over graves as markings of burial places, they were de facto analogous to future tombstones. They were not connected with any special burial practice, mounds complemented graves with chambers or ships as well as urnes with the ashes of cremated people. Mounds could be built on raised places by the sea as documented among northern Germans and Anglo Saxons, or there could be a group of mounds as known from
Sutton Hoo, where 20 mounds were found in one place. Every mound contained a grave of one person only and they used to cover different types of burials (“Sutton Hoo”).
In Beowulf a mound was built over the place where the hero had been cremated.
The men of the Weders made accordingly A hill on the height, high and extensive, Of sea going sailors to be seen from a distance, And the brave one's beacon built where the fire was ( Beowulf , XLIII, 21 24).
There were jewels and other treasures put into Beowulf’s mound, which is a practice corresponding with the archaeological evidence. The mound served as a memorial of the dead king who did not want to be forgotten, so he commanded that the mound should be “a memory mark to the men I have governed” ( Beowulf , XXXVIII, 51).
3.5. GIFTS
Gifts were given to the deceased to provide them with necessities for the afterlife. Gifts were usually laid with the corpse (or the ashes in case of cremation) in the ground. Burial ships released to the sea were equipped by gifts as well, in Beowulf the gifts were also put on the pyre to be burnt together with the hero. Beowulf’s pyre is similar to the pyre of mythical hero Sigurd, with whom many treasures and slaves were burnt ( Edda , 349).
It is clear that the quantity and richness of gifts were directly proportional to the social status of the deceased. Graves of lords and noblemen used to be equipped with rich treasures
13 and often became targets of thieves; common people, on the other hand, were provided by meagre or symbolic gifts only, or by no gifts at all (Bronsted, 222).
The most common gifts for men were weapons and jewels. The gifts of the dead kings in Beowulf may be regarded as typical examples. Scyld’s ship was furnished “With weapons of warfare, weeds for the battle” ( Beowulf , I, 41) and “a many of jewels, of fretted embossings” ( Beowulf , I, 37 38). The gifts laid on Beowulf’s funeral pyre are described in a similar way:
There's a mass of bright jewels, Gold beyond measure, grewsomely purchased And ending it all ornament rings too ( Beowulf , XLI, 67 69).
It is beyond doubt that there is maybe more than a little bit of exaggeration by the author, yet the treasures are in many ways comparable to the gifts found in pagan graves. Many valuable gifts were found in Teutonic graveyards, the most significant ones are Vendel and Birka in
Sweden, in Britain it is the graveyard of Sutton Hoo, Suffolk. The ship burial in Sutton Hoo was the best equipped grave in the graveyard and it was one of the few that had not been burgled. The equipment of the burial chamber is in many ways similar to the gifts given to
Beowulf ; there were weapons (spears, a sword and an axe), pieces of armour (a shield, a helmet and a ring mail coat) and various ornaments (buckles and shoulder clasps). Moreover, the grave contained many articles of daily use, both luxurious (silver dish or a lyre) and ordinary (buckets, bowls and textiles) (“Sutton Hoo”). It is interesting that none of those articles of daily use were mentioned in Beowulf . The author apparently wanted to emphasize the richness of the kings’ gifts and ordinary objects simply did not match the image of a royal burial that is usually connected with weapons and precious metals.
In Beowulf ornaments from abroad are also mentioned: “A many of jewels […] from far lands brought over” ( Beowulf , I, 37 38). It is understandable that luxurious items from abroad were highly valued and thus served as a proper gift for a dead king. There is
14 archaeological evidence of foreign gifts; in Britain an assemblage of silverware of
Mediterranean origin was found in the ship burial of Sutton Hoo. However, this find is unique for the heathen period both in Britain and Europe (“Sutton Hoo”).
But not only precious ornaments and weapons, but also symbolic objects were to be found in graves. For Teutonic peoples, symbolism was an important part of life, it is no wonder then, that this feature appeared also in burials. Most frequently there were symbolic ships made from stones and figures of animals.
Animals, both in symbolic and real shape, were among customary gifts. Many graves found in Scandinavia and Britain contained a skeleton or ashes of an animal – most frequently horses and dogs, but there were also cases when cattle, sheep, pigs and even a red deer were buried or cremated with the deceased. A morbid equivalent of this practice was burial of people as one of the gifts, mostly wives or slaves. It was probably a sporadic custom, yet there is archaeological evidence that proves it. One of the most interesting ones is from Birka,
Sweden. Corpses of two women have been found there, one of them was surrounded by gifts, the second one lied in a contorted position that suggests that the woman died of suffocation; it was probably a slave who had been buried alive with her mistress (Bronsted, 225).
It is understandable that none of these morbid practices can be observed in Beowulf .
Laying gifts is used as an illustration of the heathen lifestyle there, although it was forbidden by the Church, but the practices containing animals or people were withheld completely. It is obvious that the author chose just those features of the ritual that corresponded with the poem and that were not too outrageous for the audience.
3.6. MOURNING
Mourning is an important part of a burial ritual among many nations, it represents respect for the deceased and expresses sorrow at his death. The belief that it is appropriate to
15 remember the lord with praise is mentioned in Beowulf (XLIII, 38 39). Bronsted says that relatives are responsible for keeping the tomb of the deceased neat and remember the dead one, or he would feel aggrieved and punish them (223). For this reason, weepers were a frequent part of burials. In Beowulf women weepers lamenting at Beowulf’s and Hnaef’s funerals are described (XVII, 64 and XLIII, 14). The author of Beowulf also describes mourning of Beowulf’s kinsmen at the funeral of their king:
'Round the dead mound rode then the doughty in battle, Bairns of all twelve of the chiefs of the people, More would they mourn, lament for their ruler, Speak in measure, mention him with pleasure, Weighed his worth, and his warlike achievements Mightily commended ( Beowulf , XLIII, 33 38).
According to Čermák, this description of funeral is in many ways accurate (237), it could be also some kind of duty to grieve over their lord. Yet, Tacitus reports that “The pomp of tedious and elaborate monuments they [Germans] contemn, as things grievous to the deceased. Tears and wailings they soon dismiss” (Tacitus). This information is inconsistent both with the spectacular ceremony described in Beowulf and the remarkable tombs that were found by archaeologists. It is no doubt that it is appropriate for a hero of Beowulf’s kind to have a funeral where both men and women would weep for him.
4. GIFT GIVING
Gift giving was a significant feature of heathen society. “Old Germanic culture […] had a system of gift exchange so clearly defined and well developed that there are few systems so typical” (Bjork, 995). In Beowulf it is mentioned repeatedly, the usual kenning for ‘king’ is
‘giver of rings’ ( Beowulf , I, 36) or ‘giver of gold’ ( Beowulf , XXXII, 89). The function of the gifts was not only material but also symbolic, gifts confirmed the bond between the king and his companions. Gifts served as a reward for service both in the past and future; by receiving the gift the recipient pledged to follow his lord to the end and revenge his death, if necessary,
16 and the gift became a tangible prompt of the promise (Čermák, 27). Gift giving was surely an occasion held before witnesses, usualy in the king’s hall. “Preferably only through public ritual should the exchange occur” (Bjork, 995).
According to Čermák, the most usual gifts were weapons, the value of which depended on their age, horses, gold and land (26 27). The gifts mentioned in Beowulf confirm this proposition; Hrothgar gave to Beowulf golden jewels, a sword and eight steeds ( Beowulf ,
XVI, 38 44), Higelac rewarded him with “land ‘mong the people, estate and inherited rights and possessions” ( Beowulf , XXXI, 51 52).
A special kind of ‘gifts’ were daughters of noblemen, often given away to other lords to fulfil their function of peace weavers. King Higelac gave to Eofor “his one only daughter, the honor of home, as an earnest of favor” ( Beowulf , XLI, 53 54).
Gift giving was a “basic royal function” (Helterman, 5). In Beowulf this function is described as a custom that a good king should never break. King Heremod is given as an example of a bad ruler:
He gave then no ring gems To the Danes after custom; endured he unjoyful Standing the straits from strife that was raging, Longsome folk sorrow. Learn then from this, Lay hold of virtue! ( Beowulf , XXV, 69 73).
As warriors had obligation to their king, a good king had an obligation to his men. Not only should he reward the men for their service, he should also hold their favour for the future. Gift giving is a feature according to which the power of a king can be measured. Hrothgar is an example of a good king, he is described as a ruler who “his promise he brake not, rings he lavished”( Beowulf , II, 27).
However, in Beowulf not only kings but also queen Hygd serves as a gift giver. After the death of Higelac, her husband, she offered to Beowulf “treasure and kingdom, rings and dominion” ( Beowulf , XXXIII, 57 58). It was the queen who decided that her son was too
17 young for reign and asked Beowulf to be his guardian. The queen was obligated to decide the issue, for the situation required her to substitute the king’s function.
After the expansion of Christianity the role of the gift giver passed from kings to God.
Christian God was “the giver of all good things” (Bede, 78), yet they were not of material value as the gifts of kings but rather spiritual. In Beowulf the great qualities of heroes are often described as gifts given by God; Beowulf himself remembers that “God had erst given him greatness no little” (XXVI, 8). However, in this case we can not talk about an exchange, the gifts of God were nonmaterial and they were not meant to be a pledge of loyalty.
4.1. LOYALTY TO THE KING
The principle of the comitatus is one of the principles common to Germanic tribes on which society was built; it secured for a warleader a troop of devoted followers (Hodgkin,
210). The relationship between a lord and his followers was very important, for the king was the source of food, drink and treasure, and he was the protector of his people (Halverson,
594). According to Tacitus, the number and valour of followers was also a matter of distinction, so it is natural that the king rewarded his devoted men richly (Tacitus). The king was obliged to provide his men with “board and lodging, supplemented by occasional special rewards, such as bracelets of gold and silver”(Hodgkin, 210). These principles well correspond with the promise that Hrothgar gave to Beowulf:
I'll love thee in spirit As bairn of my body; bear well henceforward The relationship new. No lack shall befall thee Of earth joys any I ever can give thee ( Beowulf , XV, 22 25).
Of course these rewards offered by the king require loyal service of his followers.
Hodgkin says that the men were bound to their lord by a devotion which was almost a religion
(211). The king was not only the gift giver and protector, but also a noble figure, a descendant of gods. Bede says that it was Woden “from whose stock the royal race of many provinces
18 deduce their original” (23). In spite of that, the follower was more a companion than a servant; the word used in the Anglo Saxon period to describe a man loyal to his lord was gesith , which contains the idea of companionship (Hodgkin, 210). The men who formed the troop were carefully selected, for the king’s obligation was not only to protect his followers, but he was also responsible for their deeds (Čermák, 27), so the description of Hrothgar’s men as “true unto other, gentle in spirit, loyal to leader” ( Beowulf , XIX, 37 38) might not be too exaggerated.
The most important obligation the men had to their king was to follow him in battle. For a true follower it was scandalous to desert his lord in the fight (Hodgkin, 236) or to survive him. According to Tacitus, “it is infamy during life […] to return alive from a battle where their Prince was slain” (Tacitus). Basically the same values are mentioned by Wiglaf, who urges the men to help Beowulf:
Meseemeth not proper To bear our battle shields back to our country, 'Less first we are able to fell and destroy the Long hating foeman, to defend the life of The prince of the Weders. ( Beowulf, XXXVI, 48 52).
Yet, the men did not fulfil their oaths and did not follow their king. They acted against an important principle of the society, which was that “the Princes fight for victory; for the Prince his followers fight” (Tacitus).
4.2. PUNISHMENT OF DISLOYALTY
Breaking the oath given to a king was one of the most terrible crimes in the Anglo
Saxon society. Deserting or surviving the lord in battle was something that had to be punished. Not only did the violator lose his honour and the favour of the king, a disloyal man could be also banished and that was a punishment probably worse than death. Tacitus says that the shame was often so great that the violators preferred suicide to shameful life
19 (Tacitus). This philosophy is mentioned in Beowulf as well; when Beowulf’s men deserted him, Wiglaf moralises:
Now must ornament taking and weapon bestowing, Home joyance all, cease for your kindred, Food for the people; each of your warriors Must needs be bereaved of rights that he holdeth In landed possessions, when faraway nobles Shall learn of your leaving your lord so basely, The dastardly deed. Death is more pleasant To every earlman than infamous life is! ( Beowulf , XXXIX, 60 67).
Wiglaf’s speech suggests that the shame concerns not only the warriors but all their kindred.
The violators have little chance of escaping their destiny, for also the lords of other lands shall hear about their betrayal.
Banishment was one of the most severe punishments that could be inflicted on a man.
Teutonic society was based on a kinship system; society (i.e. kin) was an important feature in everyone’s life, for it supported and protected all it’s members (Bronsted, 243). To be excluded from the society meant that the individual became unprotected and weak; Bronsted says that this was typical of slaves of the most inferior status (243).
This kind of punishment was mentioned several times in Beowulf , most noticeably in the part where Wiglaf predicts this cruel fate to the men who deserted Beowulf (XXXIX, 60 61).
Another example is the case of Eanmund, who was “exiled and friendless” (Beowulf , XXXVI,
10) and thus his death was not revenged by his relatives.
However, in Beowulf disobedience can be forgiven. The man who found the dragon’s den is described as a “sin driven warrior” ( Beowulf , XXXII, 5), but his offence is pardoned when he brings a golden beaker to his lord. Čermák says that when the lord took the beaker from the wrongdoer’s hands, he officially confirmed that he accepted the compensation and forgave the offence (173).
The punishment of a malefactor was a matter that concerned the whole kin. According to Bronsted, the members of the kin protected and revenged every individual, who was also
20 responsible for protecting and revenging the others (243). Also Tacitus says that “All the enmities of your house, whether of your father or of your kindred, you must necessarily adopt; as well as all their friendships” (Tacitus). Similar principles worked in the relationship between a lord and his followers, because for Germans this relationship was equal to kinship.
When Hrothgar promises Beowulf “I'll love thee in spirit, as bairn of my body“ ( Beowulf , XV,
22 23), he adopts him into his own family with all the kinship responsibilities.
It was common for Teutons to compensate crimes by an appropriate sum of money.
“Even for so great a crime as homicide, compensation is made by a fixed number of sheep and cattle, and by it the whole family is pacified to content” (Tacitus). This practice is mentioned also in Edda: Hunding’s descendants asked Siegfried for rings and treasure, because they were bound to revenge their father who had been killed by Siegfried (227).
When the compensation could not be paid (e.g. it was refused or the offender’s family could not afford it), the revenge usually took the form of a blood feud. When Beowulf recalls the wars between the Geats and the Swedes he says that his “kinsmen avenged the feud and fury” ( Beowulf , XXXV, 19 20), which means that they killed the Swedes who attacked
Geatland.
In Beowulf a murder that can not be revenged is also mentioned, when Haedcyn accidentally kills his brother Herebald (XXXIV, 46). According to the social rule, Herebald’s father was obliged to revenge his son, but “he was unable to follow the warrior with hatred”
(Beowulf , XXXV, 7). This situation is described as a “feeless fight” ( Beowulf , XXXIV, 49) for it does not allow any compensation.
4.3. GIFTS GIVEN TO THE LORD
Kings of the period were not only givers but also recievers of gifts. It was usual that men gave occasional gifts to their friends to retain their friendship and support. One of the
21 Teutonic wisdoms was that those who exchange gifts will have a long lasting friendship
(Edda , 42). Thus, it was natural that nobles were giving gifts to each other, and a lord could also receive a gift from somebody of a lower social rank.
In Beowulf the hero is described offering gifts that Hrothgar gave him to king Higelac:
But he gave me jewels, regarding my wishes, Healfdene his bairn; I'll bring them to thee, then, Atheling of earlmen, offer them gladly ( Beowulf , XXXI, 3 5).
Beowulf offers the gifts to please his king and hold his favour, but the gifts also act as the proof of Beowulf’s great deeds and a guarantee of the future ones.
Before the fight with Grendel Beowulf also requests his followers to send his armour to
Higelac in case he should die ( Beowulf , VII, 79 80). Here Beowulf makes Higelac his heir; it could be because Higelac was Beowulf’s relative and thus it was his right to inherit the hero’s possessions, or Beowulf wanted to gratify the king, so he would remember him with affection.
This would probably mean that Higelac would arrange an excellent funeral for Beowulf and that he would also take care of his men. In any case, Beowulf knew that the favour of the king was significant and so it was important to ingratiate himself with him.
5. SYMBEL
Symbel was one of the most interesting and important rituals of the heathen period in
Britain. It is also called the drinking ritual or the ritual of passing of the cup. “The primary elements of a symbel are drinking ale or mead from a horn, speech making (which often included formulaic boasting and oaths), and gift giving” (“Symbel”). A symbel was usually held in a lord’s hall, as described in Beowulf (VIII, 36) and its purpose was ritual, but not religious. Although it probably derived from Indo European libation rites common to ancient
Greeks, Romans and Celts, it differs from them for there is no pouring out to the gods and the toasts to the gods are a secondary aim of the symbel (Wodening).
22 The usual drink served at a symbel was mead or beer. According to Splitter, “beer was drunken to welcome a guest or to speed him on his way” (257). In Beowulf both beer (X, 60) and mead (XXIX, 19) are mentioned. The drinks were served in cups or sacred horns. These drinking vessels were found also in archaeological excavations, in the Sutton Hoo ship burial there were drinking horns made of the horns of an aurochs and a set of maplewood cups
(“Sutton Hoo”).
The important persons at symbel were a scop or scald who recited genealogogies and poetry, women who served the drinks, and a thyle who challenged those who made boasts
(“Symbel”). Both the scop and the woman serving drinks (queen) are described in Beowulf
(VIII, 40 and X, 55). Unferth, the man who confronts Beowulf by ridiculing his swimming contest, fulfils the function of the thyle . However, this character is very much speculated for it is rather ambiguous; some interpreters think he could be a magician, a pagan priest or even a jester (Čermák, 227 228). In spite of these speculations it is obvious that Unferth’s main role is to be Beowulf’s challenger and opponent.
An important rule that had to be respected during a symbel was the order in which the men were seated and in which they drank and made their boasts. Celebrants should be seated according to their rank and seniority and in the same order they should be served (Wodening).
During the symbel at Heorot queen Wealhtheow first serves the king, then his men and
Beowulf as the last ( Beowulf , X, 59 67). According to Čermák, this order corresponds to the position of Beowulf, for he has not made his oath yet (91).
5.1. BOASTING AND OATH
Boasting was an important part of a symbel. It was a speech that revolved around one’s ancestry and deeds, both past and future (Wodening). After coming to Heorot, Beowulf first tells about his kin and brave deeds he did in the past ( Beowulf , VII, 35 52) and he makes a
23 promise (not binding yet) that he would fight Grendel and dispense with all weapons
(Beowulf , VII, 52 69). Then he is confronted by the thyle , Unferth, who challenges his speech
(Beowulf , IX, 1 30). When Beowulf succeeds in this war of words he is allowed to make an oath over a cup. The boast made over a cup is not a simple promise, but a sacred oath with the most powerful of obligations to complete (Wodening).
The purpose of boasting was to influence the future by recalling the past deeds; the
Anglo Saxons believed that results of actions of the present were based on the results of actions of the past (Wodening). The boasting should affect the fortune and bring luck to the one who did it.
Beowulf’s refusal to use weapons against Grendel is a part of his boasting ( Beowulf ,
VII, 63 68). According to Helterman, it is a symbolic feature for the two opponents become equal and “the battle becomes a clash between two elemental forces” (11). In spite of the symbolism, the important fact is that Beowulf fulfilled his oath and thus he accomplished the role of a hero.
5.2. QUEEN
A woman serving drinks was an important person at a symbel. She was called the ealu bora or the alekeeper, and “she was always a noble woman, often a queen, and it was her hand that poured the first drink thus sacralizing it” (Wodening). In Beowulf queen
Wealhtheow is the ealu bora and not only does she serve drinks but she also speaks to the warriors and encourages them:
She greeted the Geat prince, God she did thank, Most wise in her words, that her wish was accomplished, That in any of earlmen she ever should look for Solace in sorrow ( Beowulf , X, 68 71).
The queen heartens the warrior and her words are kind and caring, she creates the feminine element that contrasts to the hard words of men. Čermák says that her role was to express
24 feelings instead of the king, for such behaviour was not appropriate for him (241). She was also some kind of opposite of the thyle for instead of challenging the boasts, she flattered those who made them (Wodening).
A noble woman was not inferior to men, on the contrary, she was very powerful. There is a gnomic saying which declares that “the woman shall be high in honor among men, in the mead hall of comrades first to greet the ruler, to hand to the king the drinking horn” (Splitter,
257). The queen could give wise advice to her husband as described in Beowulf (XVIII, 45
63).
A woman served as the peace weaver, she was the calming element in the house. A warrior might offend a king, but no one wanted to offend the likes and power of the queen
(Wodening). By marriage she could also settle feuds between kins or tribes (Čermák, 155). In
Beowulf queen Thrytho is set as an example of a bad queen who does not fulfil her function, and the author moralises:
Such no womanly custom For a lady to practise, though lovely her person, That a weaver of peace, on pretence of anger A beloved liegeman of life should deprive ( Beowulf , XXVIII, 50 53).
A woman should be the heart of the house and the support to her husband. Wealhtheow is an example of an excellent queen for she “makes Heorot an ideal place for the weary warrior”
(Helterman, 14).
5.3. KING’S HALL
The place where a symbel takes place is the chieftain’s hall. In Beowulf it is Heorot,
Hrothgar’s residence, which is “the greatest of hall buildings” ( Beowulf , II, 25). For the Danes
Heorot is “the place of social joy, music, drinking and feasting, the source of pleasure, where friends and kinsmen are together in peace. The hall embodies all the good things of this world” (Halverson, 594). It is no doubt that feasting in such a hall had to be one of the most
25 gratifying things in life; in the hall there was light and joy while the cruel world had been left outside. For Teutonic people the world was a dark, cold and chaotic place full of danger and horrible monsters (Čermák, 27), in Beowulf the landscape is described as “moor fens, the marsh and the fastness” (II, 51). The hall, on the other hand, represents stability, safety and delight.
Halterman says that “all primitive cultures, extending up until classical Greece and
Rome, consider the chief palace or temple as a symbol of the center of the universe” (6).
Heorot thus can be seen as a parallel to Valhalla, the great heavenly hall of Odin. In Edda
Valhalla is described as a hall with golden roof where the faithful company shall live and joy forever (33). Similarly, in Heorot there was “light hearted laughter loud in the building”
(Beowulf , II, 35).
Heorot is described as a magnificent building, “high and horn crested, huge between antlers” ( Beowulf , II, 29). In Iceland an archaeological excavation revealed a hall that could be similar to Heorot. It was approximately 36 metres long and 5 8 metres wide, and in the same building there was also a 6 metres long sanctuary (Munch, 237). Such a large building surely fascinated people with its magnificence. Royal halls like Heorot used to be nicely furnished; the walls were hung with arms and woven hangings, gold embroidered, round the walls there were benches and half way down one side there was the high seat of the king
(Hodgkin, 220). Light and warmth were secured by long fires that burned along the middle of the floor (Munch, 273). Heorot was equipped similarly; there were the benches on which the warriors sat ( Beowulf , VIII, 36) and which could be removed to make place for sleeping
(Beowulf , XIX, 47). Like Valhalla, Heorot had a golden roof ( Beowulf , XV, 3) and inside the hall there were wonderful decorations:
Gold flashing sparkled Webs on the walls then, of wonders a many To each of the heroes that look on such objects ( Beowulf , XVI, 4 6).
26 Heorot was a magnificent building and it was a proper place for the great king Hrothgar. It was a feast house of brave heroes who contributed to its fame. The symbel taking place in such a hall was especially appreciated and the oaths that were made there were irreversible.
6. SACRIFICES
When speaking about sacrifices to pagan gods, we must take into account that there is little evidence of Anglo Saxon heathendom. Hodgkin explains this fact in two ways: one is that the evidence did not survive the Christian censorship, the other is that Germanic heathenism did not weather the migration and it never recovered fully in Britain (238).
However, Bede gives evidence that an organised priesthood existed and that even in the
Christian times there were frequent returns to paganism and idolatry (73). Because of such little evidence, there can be no satisfactory comparison between the British and Scandinavian system (Hodgkin, 240), yet there are notable similarities.
The most important Anglo Saxon deities were Woden, the god of war, and Tunor the
Thunderer. Woden was the chief god of warriors at the time of the migration when the worship of Woden spread from Rhine lands to Britain (Hodgkin, 29). It was Woden from whom the origin of kings was deduced (Bede, 23). Woden can be compared to the
Scandinavian god Odin, the one eyed All Father. Yet, Anglo Saxon Woden is different from his Scandinvian counterpart, he appears to be first and foremost the god of war (Hodgkin,
239). Similar relationship exists between Anglo Saxon Tunor and Scandinavian Thor.
Apart from gods, there were numerous lesser beings as Wyrd (Fate), elves, giants, sea monsters and many others (Hodgkin, 243). Then there were mythical heroes who were brought to Britain during the migration. In Beowulf the mythical hero Siegmund and Wayland the Smith are mentioned (XIV, 38 and VII, 83). According to Hodgkin, these lesser powers were in some ways more important than the gods (243).
27 Sacrifices were made both to gods and the lesser beings. Because of the assorted ideas, the Anglo Saxon practices were diverse and often mixed with older beliefs (Hodgkin, 242).
Like burial practices, the sacrifice rituals are similarly varied and inconsistent. When speaking about sacrifices described in Beowulf , three factors must be taken into consideration; the first is the diversity of the rites and the second is the fact that Beowulf was composed by a
Christian author, so the authenticity of the pagan rites is rather questionable. The third factor is affected by the location of the story, even though it was written in Britain, the story takes place in Daneland, thus it is probable that in the poem rituals and beliefs of both the countries may be represented.
In Beowulf sacrifices to gods are made to ask them for help against Grendel:
At the shrines of their idols often they promised Gifts and offerings, earnestly prayed they The devil from hell would help them to lighten Their people's oppression. Such practice they used then, Hope of the heathen ( Beowulf , III, 60 64).
The existence of shrines is documented by the archaeological evidence. The sanctuaries were roofed or under the open sky (Munch, 267). Often they were separate large buildings but they could be a part of a festival hall, as found in excavations in Hofstaðir, Iceland (Munch, 273).
The Danes are described when laying gifts to their idols but there are no details about these practices. The author was surely cautious about giving too much information about pagan practices, some of them (e.g. animal and people sacrifices) were definitely unacceptable for
Christians. According to Čermák, in Beowulf there are two spiritual perspectives; pagan
Danes distant in time and the Christian reality of Britain (223). The author mentiones the ritual without any details and concentrates on the spirituality of the text.
For Christians, idolatry and sacrifices were unacceptable. According to Bede, St. Alban preached: “These sacrifices, which by you are offered to devils, neither can avail the subjects, nor answer the wishes or desires of those that offer up their supplications to them. On the
28 contrary, whosoever shall offer sacrifice to these images shall receive the everlasting pains of hell for his reward” (12). The author of Beowulf is not so strict in his moralizing, he describes heathen Danes as people unaware of God who “hell they remembered in innermost spirit, God they knew not” ( Beowulf , III, 64 65). Although the pagan gods and lesser beings are described as “ill favored creatures” and “devils from hell” ( Beowulf , II, 59 and III, 62), the Danes are not sinners who will get into hell, but only uneducated people who can still hope for enlightenment and salvation.
6.1. ANIMAL AND PEOPLE SACRIFICE
It is not surprising that in Beowulf there is no direct reference to sacrifice of animals or people for these practices were intolerable in Christian times. However, animal and people sacrifice was an inherent part of heathen religion. Munch describes a ritual where sheep and horses were killed, their blood was collected into bowls and then it was sprinkled over the assembled men (271). Tacitus gives information about sacrifice of people: “Of all the Gods,
Mercury is he whom they worship most. To him on certain stated days it is lawful to offer even human victims” (Tacitus).
It is clear that none of these strongly pagan practices could be described by the Christian author of Beowulf . Yet, in the part where the war with the Swedes is described, Ongentheow says that “he at morning would kill them with edges of weapons, some on the gallows for glee to the fowls” ( Beowulf , XL, 45 46). Čermák says that the verse could refer to the sacrifice of dead enemies to the god of war (270). Hanging was a common way of sacrifice to Odin in
Scandinavia, so it is probable that similar sacrifices were offered also to Anglo Saxon Woden.
In spite of this, it is a question whether the author’s intention really was to remark about the pagan custom or if it was only a mention of an execution practice.
29 7. PROPHECIES
Divination was a frequent way of foretelling the future. Its purpose was to learn the will of the gods in matters of importance (Munch, 275). In Beowulf divining by lots is mentioned
(XLII, 66) and in Edda also gods are said to use lots for foretelling the future (120).
Divining by lots is described by Tacitus. A twig was cut from a tree, divided into pieces and magical marks (probably runes) were cut into them; then they were thrown upon a white garment and a judgment was made according to the marks (Tacitus). In Beowulf no details are given, yet we can assume that the divination was similar to the one described by Tacitus.
Lots were not the only way to make a prophecy. The Teutons were able to divine also from the voices and flight of birds or from horses (Tacitus). Čermák also mentions diviniations from entrails or from an anklebone (224). None of these practices were described in Beowulf , obviously because they were too revolting for Christians.
Another way to receive information about the future was to ask soothsayers or magicians. These were usually women, so called volur , who occupied themselves with soothsaying and sorcery (Munch, 275). Wisdom based on divinatory insight into the future was a characteristic of noble women and even of Christian saints (Čermák, 254). This could be the reason why Anglo Saxon noble women had such a high position in the society and their wisdom was considered equal to men.
8. SYMBOLS
The Teutonic people were fond of symbolism and thus various symbolic elements can be found in many features of their culture. Symbolism affected their burial customs, when symbolic gifts (ships made of stones, animal figures) were laid in the graves (Bronsted, 222).
Symbolism occurred also during religious festivals; sacred rituals with symbolic meaning were performed mainly to bring fertility to the land (Hodgkin, 242).
30 Various symbols appeared in everyday life as well. In Beowulf symbols on weapons and armour are described; they should protect the one who wears them or guarantee victory in battle.
8.1. BOARS
One of the symbols described in Beowulf is a boar. Boar signs were placed on warriors’ armour, most frequently on helmets. Beowulf’s helmet is described in this way:
The weapon smith worked it, wondrously made it, With swine bodies fashioned it, that thenceforward no longer Brand might bite it, and battle sword hurt it ( Beowulf , XXII, 66 68).
It is said that the boar should protect the owner of the helmet from injury in battle. The existence of helmets with boar symbols is supported with archaeological evidence; helmets similar to Beowulf’s one were found in Benty Grange excavations in Britain and also in
Scandinavian archaeological fields Vendel and Valgärde (Čermák, 225).
There is no doubt that the boar was an important animal for the Teutons. According to
Čermák, it was related to Frey, the German god of fertility (225) and in Edda the boar is said to be the animal of goddess Freya (183). It was a sacrifical animal as well, in the Eddic song of Gudrun a drink strengthened with the power of the earth and sacrifical blood of a boar is described (361). Obviously, the boar was a significant animal in the heathen period and thus it was powerful both as a symbol and a sacrifical animal.
9.1. RUNES
Runic writing was an important feature of the heathen culture of Anglo Saxons as well as Germans, Vikings or Celts. Runes were popular also in the early Christian era, they were used for tomb inscriptions and to adorn Christian works of art like the Ruthwell Cross
31 (Elliott, 257). Runic inscriptions are observable on many objects found by archaeologists both in Britain and the rest of Europe.
Runic writing is often connected with magic. The word rûna means “secret” and so it is not surprising that the runes “were regarded even in Germany proper as full of mystery and endowed with supernatural power” (Wägner, 34). However, Elliott says that “the runes were first secular and practical script, and any magic associations are later accretions” (250).
In spite of that, magical qualities were ascribed to the runes. According to Edda the runes were great and powerful writings that were created by mighty gods (65). A legend says that Odin hanged himself on the Ash Tree in order to learn the secret of the runes of wisdom, then he taught the others of his kin and that was how the runes spread among the Aesir
(Branston, 114).
The runes were used for many magical purposes, e.g. for divination, and they were also supposed to bring luck in battle. “Certain kinds of runes were regarded as producing victory and were carved on the hilt and on the blade of the sword” (Rydberg, 162). Also in Edda it is advised to inscribe the runes of victory on the sword’s hilt and the blade (311).
The sword that Beowulf found in Grendel’s mother’s lair had a runic inscription as well.
On the handle of the sword an ancient story of giants was graven and it was also said whom the sword had been made for ( Beowulf , XXV, 36 45). The purpose of these runes seems to be practical, for no magical function is mentioned. However, the sword is also described as
“gleaming with serpents” ( Beowulf , XXV, 47); Čermák suggests that the serpent like ornament could be the source of the magical power of the sword (246), so the runes could only serve as a complement to the ornamentation of the sword.
32 9. CONCLUSION
The ritual practice mentioned in Beowulf correspond in many ways to the practices of the Anglo Saxon culture in Britain, even though many of the rituals and pagan customs were modified and reduced by the Christian author. Also, since the story takes place in Daneland,
Anglo Saxon features can be mixed with the Scandinavian ones. In spite of this, the majority of the practices described in Beowulf can be supported by archaeological evidence and/or other literary sources.
The burial practices described in Beowulf were widely used in Britain during the heathen period. The practice of ship burial is best known from the archaeological field in
Sutton Hoo, Suffolk. This ship is often connected with Beowulf , specifically with the burial of king Scyld, even though Scyld’s ship was sent to the sea and not buried as the one from
Sutton Hoo.
Another burial practice of the heathen period was cremation; it was the way Beowulf was buried at the end of the poem. The practice described in Beowulf corresponds to the archaeological evidence, including the armour, weapons and other gifts that were buried with the body. Beowulf’s ashes were then covered with a mound, such monuments are also known from archaeological fields in Britain.
Various gifts were laid with the dead body, they could be both real shape and symbolic.
In Beowulf armour, weapons and jewels are the most common gifts for a warrior, and this fact is also supported by archaeological finds. Distinctively pagan gifts as animals and people
(slaves or wives) were withheld by the author and do not appear in Beowulf .
Gift giving is a typical feature of the Anglo Saxon society. Gifts given by a lord to his companion confirmed the bond between them, by receiving the gift the recipient pledged to obey his lord, follow him in battle and revenge his death, if necessary. Beowulf received gifts as a reward for killing the beast and the gifts also serve as an obligation to the future. The
33 loyalty to the king was an important quality of a warrior. The king was the source of food, drink and gifts and he also served as a shepherd of his people. Disloyalty and disobedience was considered a crime and it was punished. Banishment was one of the most severe punishments, for an individual could not exist without his kin. When the warriors deserted
Beowulf Wiglaf speaks about their miserable future for they shall be banished from the society that protected and supported them.
Symbel was an important ceremony, usually held in the king’s hall. Ceremonial drinking of an alcoholic drink (usually mead or ale) and boasting were the important parts of the ritual.
Promise that was said over the cup was equal to a sacred oath, like Beowulf who pledges to kill Grendel. The drink was usually served by the lady of the house, in Beowulf it is queen
Wealhtheow. The place where symbel was held (Heorot in Beowulf ) was a symbol of safety and power that contrasted to the dark, chaotic and dangerous world outside.
Sacrifices to pagan idols are also mentioned in Beowulf , yet they are not described in detail, because idolatry was banned by the Christian Church and pagan gods were equal to devils. For the Teutons it was usual to sacrifice animals and also people, which was unacceptable for Christians.
Animals and their organs were also used for divination. In Beowulf divinaton by lots is mentioned, but not described in detail. The runic symbols were widely used for foretelling the future. The runes were considered to be the creation of gods and they were associated with magic. Runic inscriptions were also on the sword that Beowulf brought from Grendel’s mother’s lair.
Another symbol often depicted on weapons and armour was a boar. The boars on
Beowulf’s helmet were described and they were said to protect the warrior. Similar helmets were found in archaeological excavations in Britain and Scandinavia.
34 The rituals and pagan customs described in Beowulf often correspond with the scanty evidence that we have from this time. Although the pagan features are not always accurate for they are often adapted by the author, the poem can serve as an illustration of the Anglo Saxon religious and ritual practice.
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