Masaryk University in Brno Faculty of Arts Department of English and American Studies Kateřina Olexová Ritual in Beowulf B.A.MajorThesis Supervisor: doc.Mgr.MiladaFranková,CSc.,M.A. 2007 Ideclare thatIhaveworkedonthis dissertationindependently,usingonlythesources listedinthe bibliography. 1 Iwouldlike tothankmysupervisor,doc.Mgr.MiladaFranková,CSc.,M.A.,forher kindhelp,patienceandthetimeshededicatedtomywork. 2 CONTENTS 1.INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………….……….. 4 2.ANGLO-SAXONRITUAL…………………………………………………………. 5 3.BURIAL RITUALS …………………………………………………………………. 7 3.1.Ship burial…………………………………………………….…………… 7 3.2.Cremation………………………………………………………………….. 10 3.3.Inhumation…………………………………………………………………. 12 3.4.Mounds…………………………………………………………………….. 13 3.5.Gifts………………………………………………………………………... 13 3.6.Mourning…………………………………………………………………... 15 4.GIFTGIVING………………………………………………………………………. 16 4.1.Loyaltytotheking………………………………………………………… 18 4.2.Punishmentofdisloyalty………………………………………………….. 19 4.3.Giftsgiventothe lord……………………………………………………... 21 5.SYMBEL……………………………………………………………………………. 22 5.1.Boastingandoath………………………………………………………….. 23 5.2.Queen……………………………………………………………………… 24 5.3.King’s hall…………………………………………………………….…… 25 6.SACRIFICES………………………………………………………………………... 27 6.1.Animalandpeoplesacrifice……………………………………………….. 29 7.PROPHECIES………………………………………………………………………. 30 8.SYMBOLS…………………………………………………………………………... 30 8.1.Boars……………………………………………………………………….. 31 9.1.Runes………………………………………………………………………. 31 9.CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………… 33 BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………………… 36 3 1. INTRODUCTION ThisthesisdealswiththeAngloSaxonritual practiceasdescribedinthemedieval heroic epic Beowulf .The practicesarediscussedinconnectionwiththeAngloSaxonculture, religionandtraditions.Itexploreshowthe paganpractices aresupportedbyarchaeologicalor literaryevidenceandhowtheywereinfluencedbytheChristianauthor. Theritualsofasocietyareinfluencedbythereligion.Becausethereligious beliefsof theAngloSaxonswere highlyinconsistent,theritualsvariedaccordingtotimeandplace,and oftenthere werevariousrituals practicedatone place inone time. Thefirst practicethisthesisconcentratesonisthe burialritual.In Beowulf several burial practices aredescribed.Theveryfirstandthemostinterestingoneistheship burial,which attractstheattentionmainlybyits similaritytothefamousarchaeologicalfieldinSuttonHoo, whereacomparableship burialwasfound.Cremationwasanotherwidelyusedpaganburial practicewhichwasdescribedin Beowulf ,itwas howtheheroBeowulf was buried.This practice isdocumentedbythearchaeologicalevidenceaswell.Mounds wereoftenbuilt to markthe burial places andmanygiftswerealsolaidwiththe bodyortheahes.Theseritual actsandespeciallytherichtreasures aredescribedin Beowulf withmanydetails. Theritualofgift-givingwasanimportant practicefortheAngloSaxons.Givingand receivinggiftsstrenghtenedthe bondbetweenalordandhiscompanions.Therecipientwas obligedtoservehis lord,followhimtobattleandrevengehis death.Therelationship between alordandhisfollowers wasoneofthe basic principlesofthesociety.In Beowulf the violators oftheseruleswere banishedandthatwasa punishmentofthe mostseverekind,forno individualcouldendure withoutthe societythat protectedhim. Anotherritualthatstrenghtenedthe relationshipswithinacommunitywasthesymbel.It wasadrinkingritualalsodescribedin Beowulf .Thewarriorsdrankfroma beaker andmade their boasts whichwere equaltosacredoaths.The beakerwasservedbytheladyofthehouse 4 whowasaveryimportantfigureintheAngloSaxonsociety,forshefunctionedas the peace- weaver.Thesymbelusuallytookplaceinthelord’shall,in Beowulf itwasHeorot,thegreat hallofkingHigelac.TheAngloSaxons believedthat theworldwasacruel placeandthehall wastheshelter that protectedthem fromitsdangers. Sacrificestogodswereasignificant partoftheheathenlifeaswell,yettheyarenot describedin Beowulf inmuchdetail.Itis probablybecause idolatrywasforbiddenbythe ChristianChurchandpaganpracticesassacrificesofanimalsorevenpeoplewere totally unacceptable. Prophecies anddivinationarementionedin Beowulf too,butonlydiviningbylotsis described.Distinctivelypaganpracticesasdivinationfromentrailswere withheld. Sacredsymbolswereusedduringtheheathenperiodtoprotecttheonewhoworethem. Boarsandrunesaredescribedin Beowulf ,theywereengravedonweaponsandarmourto perfecttheir qualities and protectthe warrior. Therituals mentionedintheepicarenotalwaysaccurate becausetheyareinfluencedby theauthor’s beliefsandintentions,yetoftentheycanbesupportedbyarchaeological or literaryevidence.This thesiscomparesthe ritualsinthe epic withthe practicesofthe real AngloSaxonworld. 2. ANGLO-SAXON RITUAL Ritual isa“setofactions,performed mainlyfortheirsymbolicvalue,whichis prescribedbyareligionor bythe traditionsofa community”(“Ritual”).Itcanhavevarious formsandpurposes;whilesacrifices oridolatryare practices ofreligious manner,symbelor giftgivingareritualswithpractical purpose.Theseintentswereoftenconnectedwiththe societyandthustheritualsservedas ameansofstrengtheningtherelationshipswithina community. 5 Boththereligiousandthe practicalritual practicesofasocietyweregreatlyaffectedby thereligion.ThereligionoftheAngloSaxonswasderivedfromtheGermanicand Scandinaviansystems,however,the evidenceof AngloSaxonheathendomissoscantythat there canbe nosatisfactorycomparisonbetweenthesesystems(Hodgkin,240).Accordingto Maurois,thereligionwasgreatlybasedonthelegendsthatweretiedtocertainplacesof Germany,soitlostmuchofitsallure duringthemigration(40).Itisnowonderthenthatthe ideasandpracticesweresoinconsistentandthat theyoftenmixedwitholderandbetter- rootedbeliefs(Hodgkin,242). WhenChristianitycametoBritainit oftenblendedwithpaganbeliefs.Bedegives evidence thatevenafter BritainhadbeenChristianizedthereligionwasunstable,andthere werefrequentreturns topaganismandidolatry(73).Paganismwasneverfullyforgotten becauseofthecontactwiththeVikingsinthe9thand10thcenturieswhichrevivedthe interest inpre-Christianreligions(Čermák,223). These pagan beliefsandcustomsareanimportant partoftheepic Beowulf .Therituals describedinthe poemillustratetheAngloSaxontradition,buttheycannot beconsidereda properevidenceofthetime.Thecredibilityofthetext isdeterminedbyseveralfactors.The firstis thatthe poem wascomposedinChristiantimes,thustheheathentraditionsare complementedwithChristianbeliefsandsomeofthedistinctivelypaganritualsare completelywithheld.Anotherfactoristhe placementofthe poem.Althoughtheoriginofthe epicisinBritain,thestorytakes placeinDaneland,soitis probablethattraditionsof boththe countriesmayappear.Inspiteofthat,manyoftherituals aredocumentedbyvariousliterary sourcesorarchaeologicalfinds. 6 3. BURIAL RITUALS Therewere manymethodsof burial intheheathenperiodanditisdifficulttopickone asthemost preferred.IneverypartofBritaindifferent burialswere practisedandoftenthere wereseveraldifferent practicesusedinone place atatime.The burialritualwaseverything butconsistent;Bronstedsaysthatoneofthereasonsforthisfactisthatheathenpeoplehad veryunclearideaofthe afterlife,sotheywerenotquitesure whattodowiththeirdeceased (222).Anothertheoryis proposedbyCollingwood;hesuggeststhattheinconsistensyofthe burialritual iscausedbytheinfluenceofBritons whose populationwasstronginsomeareas andmixedwiththeAngloSaxonconquerors (448). Ship burial,cremationandinhumationwerethe mostcommonpractices inheathen Britain.Archaeologists havefoundcemeteries whereallthesethreemethodsare represented, inother placesonlyone methodwas preferred.Alltheseritualswere practiseduntil inhumation,preferredbyChristians,fullyprevailed. 3.1. SHIP BURIAL Ship burialisoneofthemostinterestinganddiscussedburial practicesof theheathen society.Althoughship burialisusuallyconnectedwithTeutonism,itisnottheonlysociety thatusedthiskindof burial;similar practiceswerefoundalsoamongCelticandancient Americantribes(Čermák,220).Nevertheless,thereisnodoubtthatship burialisa typical practiceofTeutonicheathenismanditisnotonlythankstoliterarysources butalsonumerous archaeologicalfindsthat confirmit. Theevidenceofship burial practices wasfoundinmanyarchaeologicalexcavationsin Europe.Duetothefact thatChristianitydemandinginhumationandbanninglayinggiftswas broughttoBritainrelativelyearly,themajorityofevidencehas beenfoundinScandinavia. 7 The burialgroundsinVendelandVälsgardeinSwedenare themostimportantScandinavian archaeologicalsites. ThemosthistoricallyinterestingBritishsitehas beendiscoveredinSuttonHoo,Suffolk. TwoAngloSaxoncemeteriesfromthe6thand7thcenturies have beenfoundthere andin 1939anexampleofaship burialwasexcavated.BasilBrown,anarchaeologistworkingfor IpswichMuseum,foundtwograves wherea burialchamberwas placedinaship.Thefirst shipwas placedover the burialchamberandthenamoundwasraisedabove.Thesecond grave,whichwasunlikethefirstonenotdamaged,containedahullofashipwithacomplete andundisturbedburialchamberwithmanygiftsandtreasures.Theship wasabout27meters longand4.4 meterswideandfromtheconstructionitwasconcludedthatithadbeena functionalseagoingship,not just a model built forthe purposeof burial(“SuttonHoo”). Theship burialfoundinSuttonHooisoftenconnectedwith Beowulf .Therewerereal links betweenSuttonHooandScandinavia (Sweden)andalsothegraves foundinVendeland Välsgarde containedships,thoughsmallerthantheoneofSuttonHoo.Anotherfact that contributes totheoriesofconnectionbetweenSuttonHooand Beowulf is theshipitselfand thetreasure foundinthe burialchamber(“SuttonHoo”). Letushave alookat thedescriptionofkingScyld’s burial in Beowulf thatappears atthe verybeginningofthe poem: The belovedleaderlaidtheydownthere, Giverofrings,onthe breastofthevessel, Thefamedbythemainmast.Amanyof jewels, Of frettedembossings,from far-lands broughtover, Was