Vol. 17,No.4 nternatlona• October 1993 etln• WODlen: An Unheralded Mission Legacy

ince 1977 some seventy articles have appeared in this quranic law as understood by its adherents, which demands on Sjournal'saward-winning "MissionLegacies" series. Only the part of Christians a penetrating witness to our common six women have been featured. human need of saving grace. Lamin Sanneh sees in Islam's Why have the contributions of women in the modern mis­ insistence on shaping social and political morality a call for the sionary movement been so little heralded? Finnish scholar Ruth Christiancommunityto reverseits retreatfrom the publicsquare. Franzen, who presents in this issue the legacy of ecumenist and And David Kerr, analyzing Egyptianand Iranian "fundamental­ student evangelist Ruth Rouse, recalls a secular scholar who ists," cautions against allowing such movements to shape our wondered whether women are noteworthy "only when their understanding of the Islamic world. achievements fall into categories set up for men!" Our colleague in mission Sr. Joan Chatfield, former director of the Maryknoll Mission Institute, wrote at length on the subject On Page in 1979(Gospel in Context2, no. 2).She suggested that the roots of the neglect lie in the traditional social pattern of discrediting the 146 The Legacy of Lottie Moon words-and achievements-of women. Recalling the Gospel Catherine B.Allen account of male reaction to the women's report of the empty 154 The Legacy of Ruth Rouse tomb-"Their words seemed to [the disciples] as idle tales, and Ruth Franzen they believed them not" (Luke 24:11)-ehatfield, tongue in cheek, imagines the possible response had the male gardener 160 The Riddle of Man and the Silence of God: been the messenger: A Christian Perception of Muslim Response "Really? We'll be right over ...." Kenneth Cragg Arthur Glasser once speculated that women may outnum­ ber men in the modern missionary movement by as much as five 164 Can a House Divided Stand? Reflections on to one (Missiology, October 1978). As R. Pierce Beaver docu­ Christian-Muslim Encounter in the West mented in his American Protestant Women in World Mission, there LaminSanneh were at one time almost as many mission agencies led, staffed, 167 Noteworthy and supported solely by women as there were agencies con­ trolled by men. 169 The Challenge of Islamic Fundamentalism In any event, the contribution of women to the world Chris­ for Christians tian mission has beenas impressive as it has been underreported. DavidA. Kerr "All Loves Excelling" (the title of the first edition of Beaver's 174 Book Reviews American Protestant Women) is particularly apt for the subject of our lead article in this issue, Lottie Moon, Southern Baptist 187 Dissertation Notices missionary to China. 188 Index, 1993 This issue also gives special attention to the challenge of Islam. Bishop Kenneth Cragg targets the self-sufficiency of 192 Book Notes of issionaryResearch The Legacy of Lottie Moon

Catherine B. Allen

ike many other missionaries, Lottie Moon left a legacy had organized a woman's college that was to be equivalent in L that paved the way for succeeding generations. But quality to the males-only University of Virginia. Lottie enrolled unlike any othermissionary, Miss Moon left a legacy that largely in this new school in Charlottesville, known as Albermarle paidthe way for the growth of the largest missionary force of any Female Institute, in 1857. Her professors included Crawford evangelical or Protestant denomination. Howell Toy, who later became the fifth faculty member of When she died in 1912 after nearly forty years in China, she Southern Baptist Theological Seminary. He would be branded a left an estate of approximately $250 and a battered trunk of heretic and banished to distinction as Harvard University's personal effects. She also left a shining name, a spotless record, professor of Semitic languages. Toy and Moon maintained a and a sterling idea for fund-raising. The Woman's Missionary Union (WMU) of the Southern Baptist Convention (SBC)shaped these legacies into the most magnetic collection plate in mission history. With more than $80 million The Lottie Moon Christmas Offering for Foreign Missions is raised in 1992, the annual the largest source of funding for the SBC's overseas missions, involving almost four thousand missionaries. By 1992the cumu­ Lottie Moon Offering for lative total of the offering was nearly$1.3billion. With more than Foreign Missions is the $80 million raised in the 1992 collection, the Lottie Moon Christ­ masOfferingis thoughtto be thelargestannualofferingcollected largest of its kind. by Christians.' After a century of intensive scrutiny by researchers, four­ foot three-inch Lottie Moon continues to stand tall in estimation. friendship, and they may have come to the point of an engage­ She hasbecomea culturaliconwithwidenamerecognitionin the ment by 1881, but the specifics of their private lives cannot now southern United States. Southern Baptists have taken her name be documented. Under Toy's tutelage, Lottie studied Greek, around the world, with Baptists in many countries contributing Hebrew, and Latin. She became fluent in Spanish and French. In to the offering bearing Lottie's name. 1861, just as the guns of Civil War were beginning to sound, Lottie and four other young womenwere awarded master of arts Best Educated Woman of the South degrees. These were thought to be the first masters degrees awarded women of the South or in the South. Lottie took away from school a new life and vision as a The LottieMoon storyalwaysbegins witha touchof nostalgia for Christian. During a student revival in 1858, she went to a prayer oldVirginia.'CharlotteDiggesMoonwasbornin December1840 meeting to scoff but left to pray all night. John A. Broadus, who near Scottsville, Albermarle County, Virginia. She grew up on soonbecame oneof the founders of Southern BaptistTheological the "Road of the Presidents" at a family estate called Viewmont. Seminary, was then pastor of the Charlottesville Baptist Church. Her maternal uncle, Dr. James Barclay, bought the nearby He baptized Lottie and years later claimed that she was the best Monticello mansion after Thomas Jefferson died. Then as one of educated and most cultured woman in the South. the early followers of Alexander Campbell, in 1850 he went to Apparently a sense of calling to foreign missions came early Jerusalem as the first missionary of the Disciples of Christ. in Lottie's life as a Christian. John Broadus was noted for his As a child, "Lottie" (as she was known) earned a reputation compelling appeals for college ministerial students to serve on for mischief and intelligence. She was initially hostile to the foreign fields. Several of Lottie's Charlottesvillefriends agreed to religion of her devout Baptist parents, pillars of the Scottsville go. Broadus would not have thought to direct the invitation to Baptist Church. She may have been influenced more by a highly missions toward Lottie. Southern Baptists at the time had ap­ independent older sister, Orianna. Orianna Moon went away to pointed only one unmarried woman as a missionary and had study at Troy Female Seminary in New York, caught the early vowednever to do it again. To fulfill anysuchcallingin the 1860s, winds of the feminist movement, and was one of the first two she would have had to marry a missionary. But when Crawford southern women to earn medical degrees. Orianna graduated Toy was ordained to go to Japan in 1860, he did not choose a wife from Female Medical College of Pennsylvania in 1857. to go with him. Lottie's girlhood seemedsimilarlymarkedwithhigherintel­ Whatever Lottie's (or Toy's) dreams might have been, the lect and greater potential than society would allow her to exer­ Civil War interrupted. She rode out the war at Viewmont, cise. After studying with tutors on the plantation, she was sent teaching a beloved baby sister named Edmonia and occasionally for formal schooling at the Baptist-related girls institute, which assisting Dr. Orianna Moon as she tended wounded soldiers in became Hollins College, near Roanoke, Virginia. Charlottesville. Lottie's wartime exploits were not as infamous By the time she graduated from Hollins, Virginia Baptists as those of two glamorous cousins,Virginia and Charlotte Moon, who served as flirtatious Confederate spies in Ohio. Catherine B.Allenis President oftheWomen's Department oftheBaptist World The Moon family's fortunes were forever lost, and the chil­ Alliance, a voluntary post for the years 1990-95. She served on the staff of dren scattered to earn their own living. For Lottie this situation Woman's Missionary Union, Southern Baptist Convention, 1964-89 and on perhaps afforded more opportunity than she would have en­ thestaffof Samford University1989-92. joyed before the war. By September 1866 she was on the faculty

146 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH of a school in Danville, Kentucky, which was a predecessor to International Bulletin Centre College. There she made the closest friend of her life, Anna of Missionary Research Cunningham ("A.C.") Safford, daughter of a Presbyterian mis­ Established 1950 by R. Pierce Beaver as Occasional Bulletin from the sionary to the South. The two women were pious and attuned to Missionary Research Library. Named Occasional Bulletin of Missionary missions. Each tolerated the other's denominational loyalty. Research 1977. Renamed INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH They were eager to improve their earnings, for Lottie had to 1981. support her family at Viewmont, until her mother died in 1870. Also, Lottie wanted more money to give to missions. Together Published quarterly in January, April, July, and October by with hersister Edmonia, she had becomeone of the mostnotable, Overseas Ministries Study Center though anonymous, donors to SBC foreign missions. 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, U.S.A. Telephone: (203) 624-6672 Responding to a Higher Calling Fax: (203)865-2857 Althoughhighlyregardedas a teacher andchurchworker,Lottie was struggling to answer a higher calling. She was apparently Editor: Associate Editor: Assistant Editor: Gerald H. Anderson James M. Phillips Robert T. Coote the author of articles suggesting deaconess jobs in which women could serve as city missionaries.' Contributing Editors ThroughconnectionswithLottie'scousins,MoonandSafford Catalino G. Arevalo, S.J. Dana L. Robert moved to Cartersville, Georgia, in 1871. For two years they David B. Barrett Lamin Sanneh operated a school for girls and took active leadership in their Samuel Escobar Wilbert R. Shenk respective churches. At the same time, the woman's missionary Barbara Hendricks, M.M. Thomas F. Stransky, C.S.P. movement was gaining momentum in the South. In 1871-72, a Norman A. Horner Charles R. Taber group of Baltimore Baptist women began to press the SBC Graham Kings Ruth A. Tucker Foreign Mission Board to appoint women missionaries and to Gary B.McGee Desmond Tutu encourage the organization of women support groups. The Mary Motte, F.M.M. Andrew F. Walls Lesslie Newbigin Anastasios Yannoulatos Baltimore women fostered branches in South Carolina and other C. Rene Padilla states. The instant financial strength of new women's groups broughtnewlife to thenear-bankruptBaptistmissionboard.The door suddenly opened for unmarried women to become mis­ Books for review and correspondence regarding editorial matters should be sionaries. addressed to the editors. Manuscripts unaccompanied by a self-addressed, With support from South Carolina women, Lula Whilden stamped envelope (or international postal coupons) will not be returned. was permitted in 1872 to accompany her married sister and brother-in-law to China. Catching news of Whilden's plans, Subscriptions: $18 for one year, $33 for two years, and $49 for three years, postpaid worldwide. Airmail delivery is $16 per year extra. Foreign sub­ Edmonia Moon instantly volunteered to pay her own passage to scribers should send payment by bank draft in U.S. funds on a U.S. bank China. Edmonia had become active in a student missionary or by international money order in U.S. funds. Individual copies are $6.00; society at the Richmond Female Institute (forerunner of bulk rates upon request. Correspondence regarding subscriptions and Westhampton College of the University of Richmond). She address changes should be sent to: INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY corresponded with Martha Foster Crawford, a pioneer Baptist RESEARCH, P.O. Box 3000, Denville, New Jersey 07834, U.S.A. woman missionary in China. Martha and her irascible husband, Tarleton Perry Crawford, had invited Edmonia to come to China Advertising: as their assistant. So in a two-weekflurry in April 1872,Edmonia Ruth E. Taylor 11 Graffam Road, South Portland, Maine 04106, U.S.A. Telephone: (207) 799-4387 Southern Baptists at the Articles appearing in this journal are abstracted and indexed in: time had appointed only Bibliografia Missionaria Christian Periodical Index one unmarried woman as a Guide to People in Periodical Literature missionary and had vowed Guide to Social Science and Religion in Periodical Literature Missionalia never to do it again. Religious and Theological Abstracts Religion IndexOne: Periodicals Moon had applied, been appointed, packed, and departed for Opinions expressed in the INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN are those of the authors China. Baptist women of Richmond had organized to guarantee and not necessarily of the Overseas Ministries Study Center. her support. Copyright©1993byOverseasMinistriesStudyCenter.All rightsreserved. From the moment Edmonia set foot in China, colleagues stamped her as too young, nervous, and spoiled to succeed as a Second-class postage paid at New Haven, Connecticut. missionary. Hearing of her older, accomplished sister, they POSTMASTER: Send address changes to INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF joined in the chorus of pleas for Lottie Moon to come to China. A MISSIONARY RESEARCH, P.O. Box 3000, Denville, New Jersey 07834, U.S.A. missionary sermon by the Baptist pastor in Cartersville decided the issue. In 1873, A. C. Safford was appointed by Southern ISSN 0272-6122 Presbyterians and Lottie Moon was appointed by Southern Baptists to missionary service in China.

October 1993 147 Moon and Safford parted company in Shanghai. Safford's "Could a Christian woman possibly desire higher honor than to field would be Soochow, where she had a distinguished career at be permitted to go from house to house and tell of a savior to the forefront of the "woman's work for woman" movement. She those who have never heard his name? We could not conceive a was the founding editor of the formative periodical Woman's life which would more thoroughly satisfy the mind and heart of Workin China.' a true follower of the Lord [esus.:" Moon sailed on to Shantung Province. Entering through the So Lottie took every opportunity to learn the ropes of per­ treaty port of Chefoo, she traveled overland by mule litter to sonal evangelism. Often the women left the schools in charge of Tengchow, where she made her home until death in 1912.5 Chinese teachers while they itinerated village to village. Trips Tengchow had been the headquarters of Southern Baptist mis­ sometimes brought them home to their own beds at night. With sionaryworkin Shantungsince1861,butwithinthe yearof Lottie increasing frequency, however, the women took provisions for Moon's arrival it was still suffering active hostility from camping out along the way in the rude shelters for muleteers unwelcoming townspeople. Northern Presbyterians also had a called "inns." Gradually they gained the hospitality of rough mission there but were more strongly headquartered in Chefoo. peasant homes. The women traveled by donkey or mule, often For the next forty years, Lottie seldom migrated far from escorted by a Chinese Christian man or couple. The senior Tengchow. Therewere rare trips to Shanghai. Therewas a happy woman missionary would preach to women (and whatever men period of sixteen months in 1900-1901 when she retreated to eavesdropped), and Lottie would drill children in Bible stories Fukuoka, Japan, during the Boxer Rebellion. In 1876 Edmonia and hymns, teaching in the open air. suffered an alarming breakdown and had to be escorted back to Colleagues quickly pronounced Lottie a true missionary Virginia. Lottie had only two other trips to the United States. and praised her grasp of language and custom. She proved During furloughs in 1892-93 and 1903-4, Lottie Moon spoke of herselfwise enoughto tiptoe betweentwowarringcolleagues: T. Tengchow as home. P. Crawford and James Boardman Hartwell. She kept up good Moon'sassignmentin Chinawas "women'swork." This title correspondencewith the ForeignMission Board, participatingin denoted two philosophies that shaped her ministry and her the slow dialogue that shaped mission policy. She maintained world. First was the missionary strategy known as "woman's fruitful communication with a growing circuit of women's mis­ mission to woman." Second was the staunchly defended prohi­ sionary societies that organized in support of her, especially in bition against women seeming to teach, preach, or exercise Georgia and Virginia. authority over men. During the years 1873-85, when her work was officially that William Carey, the Baptist pioneer in India, recognized in of girls' schoolteacher, Lottie's greatest victories were personal. 1796 that evangelization of women would require attention First, she gained an excellent command of Chinese that cowork­ "different from, and far beyond, what men can or will bestow.:" ers envied. She developed almost an obsession for honoring Baptists, however, were reluctant to send the unmarried female Chinese customs unless they were blatantly incompatible with missionaries he requested. Christianity. Techniques of women's work had been advanced in North Second, she disciplined herself to survive physically and China by Martha Foster Crawford, who was married but had no emotionally while living in primitive circumstances with the children, andby Sallie LandrumHolmes,whosehusband died in lower-class Chinese people. She learned to endure scrutiny and China, leaving her a baby son. Having gotten to China under commentaryby curious people who did not consider her human and gave her no privacy. She conquered fears of people who continually reviled her as "Devil Woman," she stayed coura­ Lottie developed almost an geous in the face of death threats, and she kept her poise in confrontations withsoldiers. She came to accept the "real drudg­ obsession for honoring ery" of mission life. She ennobled her view of the harsh realities Chinese customs unless by remembering that the Chinese peasants were living a simple existence with which the man Jesus would have been personally they were blatantly familiar. incompatible with She diligently exercised, sought a clean and balanced diet, and rested regularly. She obtained a steady supply of reading Christianity. materials in French and English. She transformed herTengchow house to a Virginia miniature where missionary guests loved to protection of their husbands, Crawford and Holmes actively relax. She took cleanliness and all possible precautions along cultivated their own sphere of influence. These intrepid women with her when living in vermin-infested, pig-sty conditions as won their way into homes, created essential literature, and she traveled among the villages. When smallpox vaccinations and other vaccines became available, she was the first to take carved out a women's ministry before the Moon sisters arrived? While Edmonia clung sickly to schoolteaching in Tengchow, advantage of them. Lottie caughtthe courageandcreativityof CrawfordandHolmes. The missionaries as a group were committed to the plan of Outlasting Colleagues and Controversy conducting schools for girls. Under the guise of education, the missionaries fought against culture and custom to give women Both Baptists and Presbyterians regarded Shantung as a killing the freedom to become and live as Christians. While learning the place. Ability to survive was a major accomplishment when Chinese language, Lottie was given supervision of a girls school measured againstthe experienceof mostcoworkers. Mrs. Holmes associated with Holmes. She accepted schoolteaching as an burned out by 1881 and returned to the United States to try to avenueofministryshe couldcertainlymanage,butschoolteaching salvage a sane existence for her son. T. P. Crawford was subject was not her objective. Prior to sailing in 1873, she had written: to various fits and paralyses, which sorely tried his colleagues,

148 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH and Martha Crawford several times was forced to retreat for the resignation of a young missionary colleague whose theologi­ health's sake. J. B. Hartwell outlived three wives and survived cal views matched Toy'S. To a young person who once asked if poor health himself by long sojourns elsewhere. Other early she had ever been in love, she said, "Yes, but God had first claim missionaries in Shantung, both Baptist and Presbyterian, suf­ on mylife and since the two conflicted, there could be no question fered serious disabilities and death. Of those Baptists who ar­ about the result/"? rived in Shantung during her first twenty years of service, only Lottie Moon entered a period of restlessness related to the Lottie remained unbroken in body and spirit. growing controversy between Crawford and the Foreign Mis­ Another major development in Lottie's early China days sion Board and also related to the growing agitation about the surely contributed to her survival. This development occurred role of women in Southern Baptist life. Through letters, she and along spiritual fronts. She remembered that she had heard God's Martha Crawford encouraged the developments toward forma­ calling to China"as clear as a bell." After Edmonia's breakdown tion of the Southern Baptist Woman's Missionary Union from and departure, she filled her human loneliness with the Divine 1883untilformal organizationoccurred in 1888.As if to flee from Presence. She daily studied the Bible in Hebrew and Greek. She unpleasantness, she gave herself with greater consecration to read devotional materials from the Holiness movement and direct evangelism. diligently read Thomas a Kempis's On the Imitation of Christ. Some called her a mystic, for her daily routines revealed that she Pioneering in Inland China was taking into account the personal presence of Christ. A favorite quotation was "LordJesus, thou art home and friend and A new leaf in her ministry was started in 1885, when she moved fatherland to me."? to Pingtu, approximately 120 miles from Tengchow. This area Withemotionaldisciplineshe triedto live at peace withall­ had been explored by some younger colleagues and was thought Chinese and missionary. This was difficult, since T. P. Crawford promising. While Crawford was making a controversial tour andJ.B.Hartwell'sfeud grewintolawsuits andrumoredmurder through the United States to expound his divisive views, she plots that continued even after Hartwell left the field for a time. made her move. With only reluctant consent of coworkers, she Then Crawford confronted the entire Southern Baptist mission took her own brief survey trip in autumn 1885,traveling for four system, making unauthorized trips through the homeland en­ grueling days into the interior. In December she moved to Pingtu couraging schism. Out of his own thwarted battles with the with a caravan of provisions and settled into rented rooms in the Foreign Mission Board, he adopted the belief that such boards city. She was thought in her own times to be the first woman of were unscriptural. He began to promote the idea that Southern any mission to establish an inland mission station by herself." Baptist churches should send out their missionaries directly. Lottie's tactic in Pingtu was to live quietly and acceptably Controversy surrounding Crawford made Lottie consider among the people until they befriended her and invited her into and modify her own thoughts. She tended to agree with their homes. She taught the women and children in the accus­ Crawford's contention thatforeign mission moneyshouldnotbe tomed personal way. To placate any Americans who might paid out to Chinese assistants and should not be spent on church criticize her for abandoning her assigned job as a schoolteacher, buildings. She never agreed with his opinion that the Baptist she wrote that she was still a teacher, but her school was mobile, schoolsshouldbe closed andvigorouslyopposed his plotto close following her from house to house. down his wife's school while she was absent for medical treat­ For the next seven years, Pingtu was her primary base of ment. However, she did come for a while to view schools as a work, although she maintained her home in Tengchow and waste of her own time and called them the greatest folly of retreated there occasionally. Not only did she work in Pingtu missions. City, but also in surrounding villages, particularly one called As Crawford became more dictatorial about the methods of Shaling. In Pingtu, she was beyond protection of treaty and newly arrived young coworkers, she became more permissive, foreign intervention on which coastal missionaries relied. In fact, willing to allow each missionary to seek his or her own strategy when the American government tried to intervene in behalf of and theology. In communication with A. C. Safford, she stayed Americans during a 1887 skirmish in Tengchow, she fled not to abreast of the latest thinking about how best to evangelize the waiting warship but to Pingtu. She seldom heard any lan­ women and improve their plight in society. She adopted the guage spoken but Chinese and seldom had contacts with West­ custom of wearing a form of native clothing. erners. Only rarely did a male colleague journey out to Pingtu to Nothing in mission policyor strategy ruffled her equanimity check on her well-being. except for threatened trespasses on her freedom and autonomy Her practice in Shaling village was repeated in a circuit of as an equal partner. An implied infringement on the dignity of tiny rural outposts around Pingtu. She simply lived among the unmarried women missionaries madeherfire off a resignation to people as teacher and friend. She sat on a stone or pile of straw at the ForeignMissionBoardin 1885.Herangerwasmetby calming the threshing floor of the village and chatted with the women as explanations, and she stayed on. they came to prepare their grains. Or she crawled upon the warm Her crisis in personal discipline came in 1881-85. Just past brickbedwithwomenwhoinvitedherto theirhomes. She taught her fortieth birthday, she was said by T. P. Crawford to be rudimentary reading, Bible truths, and hymns. planning to return to the States to marry Crawford Toy, who had As the only resident Christian in Pingtu, she found herself been fired in 1879 from the Southern Baptist Theological Semi­ unavoidably teaching men as well as women and children. She nary because of his views about biblical inspiration. At the time, reportedthis habitverycasuallybutcarefullyin lettersto America, only T. P. Crawford and Moon were on the field, all other knowing that she was committing a serious breach of Baptist colleagues, including Martha Crawford, having been felled by etiquette. Her reports sought to shame American pastors for illnesses. Seeing T. P. Crawford's irrational behavior, Lottie may abdicating their duties to a woman. She reported that, while have felt the necessity of sticking by her work. A wedding never packing for her overdue furlough in the United States, a delega­ took place. Some felt that Lottie had studied Toy's views and tion of men from Shaling tracked her down in Tengchow to beg rejected him and them. However, she ardently tried to prevent her to return to the village.

October 1993 149 It was in the throes of isolated self-sacrificein Pingtu thatshe Foreign Mission Board, sought her consultation. She strongly wrote a letter that was to change the course of Southern Baptist objected when she learned of the board's plans to return J. B. history. The Pingtu field was too responsive to abandon and she Hartwell to thefield, as seniormanin the place of his old nemesis, decided not to leave it until more missionaries came to relieve Crawford. She begged to be transferred to Japan because "life her. She wroteto encourageSouthernBaptistwomento organize would not be living" in China. One of Tupper's last acts before andend the hand-to-mouth patternsof missionsupport. Writing resigning in sorrow from the Foreign Mission Board's top post on September 16, 1887, she suggested that the women should was to beg Lottie to return to China and to accept Hartwell. "I take an offering at Christmastime, thus to obtain funds with doubt if the Board has had a missionary more esteemed than which to send more women missionaries to Pingtu. yourself .... If I had but one request in this world to make of you, This letter helped to swing the tide in favor of organizing the mysister, it would be that, if possible, you keep in harmony as far Woman's Missionary Union, Auxiliary to Southern Baptist Con­ as possible with the Board that honors you more than you vention, on May 11, 1888. By October the women had put Miss know."13 Moon's idea into operation. They issued offering envelopes She returned to Tengchow with a different status and differ­ calling for a Christmas offering for Pingtu, China. Hoping for ent approach to work. Her seniority and her heroism were $2,000 to send two helpers to Miss Moon, they in fact cleared undisputed. She made up her mind to cooperate with Hartwell, more than $3,000, and three women were soon on their way to butshe didnotbreakhercommunicationswithMarthaCrawford China. and the young missionaries who had cast in their lot with the Still Lottie would not leave until the new recruits were Gospel Mission group. trained. After the arrival of Fannie Knight, the first new mission­ ary, sufficient converts had been won to form the first Baptist church of Pingtu region, in Shaling village, and the third church Reaping the Harvest in North China. A church was constituted in September 1889, with Miss Knight as one of the members. Knight moved into The early seed-sowing years were now yielding a great harvest. Moon's place as the resident missionary of Pingtu. New missionaries constantly arrived. In answer to an appeal she In the meantime, with the youngermale missionaries suffer­ made during furlough, the first Southern Baptist missionary ing stress of adjustment, Moon became virtually the pastor of hospital was opened in 1900, in Hwangsien, when the first one of the earlier churches near Tengchow. A new outpost had practicing missionary nurse and doctor arrived. Other hospitals been claimed in the city of Hwangsien (today Huangxien), but soonopenedinLaichowandPingtu. The humbleschools of early the young missionaries were frightened and sick, and she had to years now grew into higher-level institutions. A theological tend them. Though very busy in her role as senior missionary of seminary was begun. the area, she continued to journey to Pingtu to encourage the Her daily duties as a missionary fell into three categories, new believers. A storm of persecution against the new church with little changefrom 1894until her death in 1912.She resumed was so fierce that missionaries were forced out of the area. management of schools, up to six at one time, for both boys and Refusing to call on the power of the United States government to girls. She invested much time in guiding new missionaries, who protect the converts (as other missionaries often did), she could relied heavily upon her. And she gave herself increasingly in do little for the persecuted believers but send them messages of personal ministries to the Chinese people. comfort. Strangely, she never returned to Pingtu. Pingtu quickly Busy in productive workwith converts and new missionary became the most productive mission field of Southern Baptist recruits, she tried to keep herself above the worsening conflict experience until recent times. A young Confucian scholar whom between T. P. Crawford and the Foreign Mission Board. In 1889 Lottie had taught, named Li Show Ting, became the leading Crawford was taken off the board's missionary list, although native evangelist. Baptisms in the area exceeded five hundred a Martha Crawford was retained until she sent in her own very year, and it was said years later than Pastor Li had baptized more reluctant resignation. Crawford's group by this time had taken than ten thousand people. Although Pastor Li and others never on the name Gospel Mission Movement. Churches in the United forgot Lottie's role in inaugurating the work in Pingtu, she never States werebeginning to drop their involvementin the Southern again spoke of it. Male missionaries came in to administer BaptistConvention's cooperativemissionwork. Crawfordurged baptisms and perform pastoral roles. Lottie allowed them to take his colleagues in North China to join him in work that was not full credit. About the time of Lottie's death, there were thirty two under control of the SBC. Many of the younger missionaries, churches in the area. including Fannie Knight, did resign. They moved off to the She continued making day trips to nearby villages for evan­ western end of Shantung, taking much home and field support gelistic teachinguntilshe wasat last welcomed into the Tengchow with them. city homes of the upper class, who had so long spurned the Lottie Moon tried to make peace. She announced her inten­ missionaries. Her converts and friends from Pingtu and other tion to keep up friendly cooperation with the renegades. She regions came to her. On her compound, called The Little Cross expressed her agreement with some of the Gospel Mission Roads house, she had extensive guest quarters. The rooms were group'sfield philosophies. In fact, she refused to use anymission constantly full, especially of women who came to her for per­ money to build a church building for Shaling, instead helping sonal training. At times the classes were more or less formalized, the local believers to build their own." But Lottie Moon re­ as she trained women for evangelistic work. But gradually, after mained loyal to the Foreign Mission Board. her furlough in 1903-4, the students were replaced by the poor It was in this state of severe controversy that the exhausted and homeless who needed basic human care. woman finally took her furlough, after sixteen unrelieved years While other missionaries fled, she weathered the Russo­ in China. She arrived in Virginia with chronic headaches. She Japanese War of 1904-5 at her home, despite being bombed. Her made very few public appearances but did consent to attend the intention was to give courage to the Chinese. With the deaths of WMU convention of 1893. The Gospel Mission controversy the Crawfords, most of the missionaries who had affiliated with dogged her heels. H. A. Tupper, embattled secretary of the the Gospel Mission group were coming back into the Foreign

150 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Mission Board's fold by 1909.Lottie urged the board to welcome were mailed to the Foreign Mission Board in Richmond, Vir­ them home and led her coworkers to make room for them. ginia. The family ultimately buried them in Crewe, Virginia, In 1909, news came that sister Edmonia had committed home of her one remaining sister-in-law. suicide. She began to dread the specter of furlough or retirement Thenbegan the more famous phase of Lottie Moon's immor­ in a land that was no longer home. The more she felt cut off from tality. Cynthia Miller faithfully retold the circumstances of Lottie the United States, the more emotional investment she made in Moon's death. Leaders of the WMU were appalled as they heard the neediest people of Tengchow. As the Chinese Revolution how Miss Moon had weighed only fifty pounds at death. They developed in 1911, she tried to maintain nonpartisan ministries conducted memorial services for her and pledged themselves to to the wounded and was discovered in Hwangsien running the lift the debt of the Foreign Mission Board in the Christmas Baptist hospital while other missionaries joined a flood of refu­ gees. Despite the increased support fostered by the WMU, the Foreign Mission Board slipped into debt. Now instead of the During the revolution of personal, chatty letters she was accustomed to receive from the 1911 Lottie ran the Baptist board headquarters, she was receiving mass-produced form letters threatening retrenchment. Lottie responded on a very hospital while her fellow personal level to the near-hysteria from the Southern Baptist missionaries joined a flood homeland regarding the foreign mission debt. She began to give proceeds from the small annuity left at the death of Edmonia to of refugees. the board's debt-payment fund. In China, drought and famine began to add human misery to the revolution. She heard reports of suffering among the Pingtu Christians. So she took her annu­ offering of 1913as a memorial to Miss Moon. In variousways the ity proceeds to meet the needs closest to hand. Amid the gloom women pledged to retell her story until indifference to missions of 1911, she took a decisive step by gathering the leading Chris­ was conquered. tian women of Shantung province. In her parlor, they organized Lottie'sdeathbroughtforth manycommendationsandmany the Woman's Missionary Union of North China, for support of lamentations from her friends. The young missionaries assessed women evangelists. her career not in terms of evangelization, women's work, or schoolteaching-all of which seemed incidental to them. They Paying the Price saw Lottie as one performing social or human needs ministries for the Chinese and diplomacy for the missionaries. She was By 1912, Lottie Moon was occupying Tengchow almost alone. J. called a statesman, a queen, and "the best man among our B.Hartwell and family were in Hwangsien, with the theological missionaries." One missionary wrote, "The most remarkable seminary, when death claimed him. Younger missionaries were thing was that she was in the middle of a lifelong feud between concentrating on Hwangsien, Chefoo, Pingtu, Laichow, and two colleagues and throughout she remained the friend of both Tsingtao (Qingdao), where Baptists had extensive institutions families." 14 and growing congregations. So her colleagues did not realize The Christmas Offering for Foreign Missions has been col­ until late fall that Miss Moon had sunk into physical and emo­ lected every year since the first one in 1888. Lottie herself had tional collapse. Nurse Jessie Pettigrew was called from suggested that it be enlarged to include not only Pingtu, not only Hwangsien to Tengchow. She found what was described as a her work, not only China, but also Japan and all the world. carbuncle eating into the base of Moon's skull. She was horrified In 1918, the retired first executive secretary ofWMU, Annie at the loss of weight and the depression she readily observed. Armstrong, broke her silence on WMU matters with a proposal Pettigrew bundled Moon off to Hwangsien. There the mission­ to strengthen the offering. Miss Armstrong proposed that the aries realized that she had ceased to eat, in order to assure food Christmasoffering henceforthbearthenameLottieMoonChrist­ for her Chinese sisters in her compound. She was obsessed with masOffering. In themid-1920s,WMUleadersmadean extensive the thought that the children of missionaries were starving to investigative effort, asking eyewitnesses to write recollections of death. Malnutrition was advanced, and the young missionaries Lottie Moon, and they commissioned Una Roberts Lawrence to wanted to conceal Moon's mental state from the Chinese. write a full biography, which was published in 1927. Ever since, She was sent on to Laichow, but the doctor there, one of her the Lottie Moon story has been retold and rewritten to typify the favorites, could not turn back the horror Miss Moon was pri­ sacrifice required of missionary and supporter. A contemporary vately facing. He sent her on to the next station, Pingtu. There in missionary of another denomination, watching the growing a splendid medical compound near her old house, the mission­ fame of Lottie, is reputed to have said, "If I had knownthe old girl aries decided that she must return to America. Keeping Moon's was going to become so famous, I would have paid more atten­ distress as quiet as possible, Dr. T. O. Hearn took her to the tion to her." Some of her coworkers cautioned that Miss Moon nearest port, Tsingtao. It was arranged that nurse Cynthia Miller would not have approved of the adulation. The story has at­ would accompany her. tracted not only funds but personnel to the mission cause. On Christmas Eve 1912, as the ship was in the harbor of Beginning with Dr. T. W. Ayers in 1900, dozens of missionaries Kobe, Japan, Lottie Moon died. In the hours before death, her have testified that they responded to God's call to missions after mind had cleared. She had sipped some grape juice and ex­ reading about Lottie Moon. pressed appreciation for her care. After prayer and hymns, she The Lottie Moonstorywas retold in a differentwayin China. dozed, then smiled, lifted her hands in the customary form of The Christiansin Shantungimmediatelybegancollectingmoney Chinese greeting, and exhaled quietly. to erect a monument in her honor. This was a form of apprecia­ The ship's captain, who attributed her death to melancholia tionaccordedto few others. For instance,MarthaFosterCrawford and senility, arranged for hercremationin Yokohama. Herashes (but not her husband) was memorialized on a plaque inside the

October 1993 151 Tengchow Baptist Church. William H. Sears, first pastor of the return for the first time in thirty five years to Tengchow. The first Pingtu Baptist Church, was honored by a tablet detailing his ones, visiting unofficially, could see that the Tengchow church biography. building was still standing behind its locked wall. The second The monument to Lottie Moon was different. It was set delegation wasable to walkinside. Partof the building was in use inside the walled yard of Tengchow Baptist Church in 1915. It as a clinic, but most of the auditorium was standing in dusty was a simple shaft bearing her name in Chinese characters and a neglect. The visitors saw the plaque honoring Martha Foster brief explanation that she was an American missionary. The Crawford inside. Outside, they found the monument to Lottie inscription spoke not of her evangelistic work, not of her Moon lying on its side under a pile of rubble, as if buried for schoolteaching, and certainly not of her powers of persuasion in protection. One word of the inscription had been obliterated: the United States. It simply said, "How she loved us." "American." The word "missionary" and the words about her In 1985-86, Baptists from the United States were able to love for the Chinese remained." Notes------­ 1. Records of the Lottie MoonChristmasOffering for ForeignMissions church building, which had been used as a meeting hall, was re­ are maintained by Woman's Missionary Union, Auxiliary to South­ turned for use by the Christians. The hospital building, on the ern Baptist Convention, Birmingham, Alabama. The history of the compound where Lottie was cared for at the end, was being re­ offering and reports through 1985 are published in Catherine B. claimed from overgrowth and was partially restored. Through a Allen, A Century to Celebrate: History of Woman's Missionary Union joint venture between U.S. Christians and the local authorities, a (Birmingham: Woman's Missionary Union, 1987).The 1992offering medical training programwas begunin 1992.One of the researchers totalled $80,980,881. in the first WMU-sponsored tour returned to China in 1992 as a 2. Unless otherwise noted, sources for this article may be found in coworker to the Chinese Christians. Catherine B.Allen, TheNew LottieMoonStory (Nashville: Broadman Press, 1980).A condensed version in Spanish was published in 1992 by the Woman's Missionary Union. Bibliographic Notes 3. Religious Herald, newspaper of Virginia Baptists, March 23and April 13, 1871. Lottie Moon wrote many letters, many of which were published in 4. SeeIrwinT. Hyatt,[r., OurOrdered Lives Confess (Cambridge:Harvard the Foreign Mission Journal of the Southern Baptist Foreign Mission Univ. Press, 1976). This book contains good biographies of Lottie Board. She was also often published in the Baptist newspapers of Moon and two of her leading contemporaries in Shantung Province: Virginia, Kentucky, Georgia, and occasionally other states. Despite real Tarleton Perry Crawford and Calvin Wilson Mateer. skill in written expression, she wrote no books or pamphlets. A request 5. "Shantung" Province is today usually transliterated as "Shandong." from the WMU for a "bright little tract" drove her to adamant refusal. "Chefoo" is known in modern Chinese nomenclature as "Yantai." Her only formal article, published in Woman's Work in China, November "Tengchow" is now known as "Penglai." 1881, concerned the rights and roles of unmarried women missionaries. 6. Timothy George, Faithful Witness: The Life and Mission of William An amazing number of letters were saved by her correspondents­ Carey (Birmingham, Ala.: New Hope: 1991), p. 114. family, women's missionary circles, and others. These have been col­ 7. Hyatt, Our Ordered Lives Confess. lected into two main repositories: the JenkinsLibraryand Archives of the 8. Religious Herald, August 28, 1973. Southern Baptist Foreign Mission Board, Richmond, Virginia, and an­ 9. From St. Bernard, quoted in a letter to H. A. Tupper, November 11, other at the Hunt Library and Archives of Woman's Missionary Union, 1878, Lottie Moon Letter File, Foreign Mission Board. Auxiliary to Southern Baptist Convention, Birmingham, Alabama. Both 10. Quoted by Una Roberts Lawrence, LottieMoon (Nashville: Sunday of these archival collections contain much collateral data about Moon. School Board of the Southern Baptist Convention, 1927). The WMU collections focus on Christmas offering promotion, pam­ 11. Recent visits to Pingtu located the house and found it to be still in phlets, andbiographicalstudies. Most of these retell the 1927biography, active use. Open meetings of the Pingtu city churchwere resumed in Lottie Moon,by Una Roberts Lawrence. Also they draw on the eyewitness 1989. tracts produced by those who knew her: Mrs. J. M. Gaston, Dr. T. W. 12. The first Westerners to seek out the Shaling Christians in the post­ Ayers, Mrs. C. W. Pruitt, Mrs. W. W. Adams, and Dr. W. W. Adams. Mao era visited the village in 1987.The grandson of the first convert, Another useful source is the pamphlet Heavenly Book Visitor, by Eliza Dan Ho Bang, was visited. The church building, which had been a Broadus, a contemporarywho was the daughter of the one whobaptized simple native-style shelter, had fallen down, but the benches had Lottie. The complete research files for The New Lottie Moon Story by been preserved in local homes. Local Christians were maintaining Catherine B.Allen are held by the WMU Archives. The Foreign Mission worship in their homes. Board archives are rich in extensive letter files from all North China 13. H. A. Tupperto Lottie Moon, April(?) 28, 1893,Tupper'sCopyBook, missionaries during the Moon era. There are displays concerningMoon. Foreign Mission Board Archives. The original manuscript for LottieMoon(1927)and some interview 14. Notes of W. W. Adams, Woman's Missionary Union Archives. notes by Una Roberts Lawrence are at the Southern Baptist Theological 15. By 1989, more than seven hundred Southern Baptist tourists had Seminary Library, Louisville, Kentucky. The library also has a Lottie visited Penglai (as Tengchow was then called) and Pingtu in tours Moon historical room containing Moon's desk and a portrait. sponsored by the WMU. Because of interest shown by Americans, Helpful references to Moon, her family, and her coworkers are local authorities repaired the Penglai/Tengchow church building found at the Historical Foundation of the Presbyterian and Reformed and reset the Lottie Moon monument. Christians from the commu­ Churches, Montreat, North Carolina; at the Presbyterian Historical nity began to return to the church building, and the congregation Society, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and at the Disciples of Christ His­ was re-formed with a woman as pastor by early 1989. In Pingtu, the torical Society, Nashville, Tennessee.

152 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH ler Theological Seminary's Scho W a Mission has developed the Doct issiology ~9 Ph.D. in Inte ~cul! !1ral ies for people;,:like you who " "(lt~ s i r e to i prove their skills in ministry andteaching. Our doctoral programs help Y~!1 inte­ grate your practical experience in the mis­ sion field with additional research and-ace­ dernlc input. A floctoral program gives'yo th ~opportunity : t~ focus your minist9fia aq :} uire skills thatlwlll help Y~ ll " a,dva"nce to ' ~ n,f7~£"R~~~~~~f: ;~~~~/c aree~ ' While on mpus you willstlioy with men and ~()I;t)eIl ~\(.9I~f7o in ministry in oY E1r i ~ 9 ' i' f ~U1;iV !eS i n(je ' be gu i 9 ~~ c e ofJhe latgeSt iSchobl of or ."". :Jssion'!a§ulty anywhere. 'F ler's location in Southern California pla~es you in thejniddle of t2 E1 most cUltu ~;;; al ! ~oi~erse .cOrl1Int.mi!y inAm"erica. Fuper 's /" g:nio uate schools of Theology ana Psychol­ gy offer i ~c ~eoib. le op ~ ~rtun~yes f ~ ~: j 9.teF· i,sciplinary stuOi e~ . ;t". , ;, . t ' A If you a~e ~ n t eres t e o i~I?a!d 9g Y~.1lr min­ i ~ !ry mo~e ~ffective consioer 'one ' of our idoctoralfprograms In the School of World Mission. For more information, t ~ W fi« ; 1-- c ~'l tl =800-235-2222 ana ask for admisslons at ext. 5400 or write to: Office of Admissions Fuller Theological Seminary Pasaoena,CA 91182 Dr. Charles E. Van Engen, Associate Professor ofTheology of FULLER Mission. and recognized missions consultant. THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY School of World Mission The Legacy of Ruth Rouse

Ruth Franzen

ne of the pioneers in women's history asks us whether posed to stay at home and wait for a suitable suitor, Ruth had O women are noteworthy only when their achievements parents unprejudiced enough to send their daughter to some of fall into categories of achievement set up for men! 1 Regardless of the best schools available-first Notting Hill High School and how one answers this question, it is undoubtedly time to attempt then Bedford College in London. Later they also let her have her to explore the role of women in both the modern missionary own way when she wanted to study at Girton College, Cam­ movement and the ecumenical movement. One who deserves an bridge. This wasoneof the first colleges for womenand one of the honorable place in this history is Ruth Rouse (1872-1956), mis­ most prestigious ones, with the same standards as the best sionary, evangelist, and pioneer in reaching students in count­ colleges for men. (The women students took their degree exami­ less universities and colleges around the world. nations in exactly the same way as men, but Cambridge Univer­ A picture taken in 1908 of the officers of the World Student sity did not give women the titles of their degrees until 1923, and Christian Federation (WSCF) shows three men and one woman: not until 1948 were they given membership of the university.)" Ruth Rouse, then 36 years old. The intelligent expression behind Afterstudyingfor the normalthreeyears, RuthRouse passed the glasses typical of the period reflects good powers of observa­ her tripos in classics. In preparation for a missionary career in tion. Her long dark hair put up under a huge hat suggests that India, she then studied Sanskrit one year at the British Museum she did notassumethepostureof a radical feminist, in spiteof her in London. pioneering role. A certainaristocratic elegance thatwas regarded In 1892 during Ruth Rouse's second year at Girton College, as the right and proper thing in those years indicates that the tall Robert P. Wilder visited Cambridge. He was the son of mission­ slender woman in a fashionable skirt reaching down to her feet aries and himself on his way to take up a missionary career in was well aware of the significance of appearing as a lady. India. This gentle and modest young man of prayer had been Symbolicallythe picturesuggeststheframework of RuthRouse's instrumental in starting the rapidly growing Student Volunteer life work. With her fellow workers she shared an interest in all Movement (SVM). He was one of the foremost advocates of the branches of the burgeoning student and missionary movement SVM pledge "willing and desirous, God permitting, to become of the period. Nevertheless her contribution was very special, a foreign missionaries.:" Wilder distributed declaration cards in woman pioneering among pioneer women, in a society domi­ Cambridge, and one of those who promptly signed a card was nated bymen. The picture shows her together withJohn R. Mott, Ruth's friend and schoolmate Agnes de Selincourt. Ruth also Karl Fries, and Walton W. Seton; the first two were internation­ took one, but she was unable to make a decision to sign it. About ally known Christian workers. She was highly trusted by these two years later, after much agonizing uncertainty and self­ men, with whom she had a good, long-lasting, fruitful coopera­ searching, she was finally able to take the decisive step, trusting tion. not herself but God. She later told how Paul's sentence had GeorgeWoodford Rouse and his wifeW. G. (nee) MacDonald, flashed through her mind: "I know whom I have believed, and the parents of RuthRouse, represented devoutevangelical tradi­ ampersuaded thathe is able to keep thatwhichI havecommitted tions, her father coming from an English family chiefly associ­ unto him against that day." Wilmina Rowland, who had several ated withthePlymouth Brethrenand hermotherbeing a Scottish interviews with Ruth Rouse more than forty years later, writes: Baptist. When Ruth was born, in 1872, they lived in Clapham Park, a London suburb. A layman leading seaside services from Suddenly it came to Ruth that what she could commit to Christ's the Children's Special Service Mission was instrumental in help­ keeping could be a purpose as well as anything else. A decision in ing the tall, sportyyoungster fight herconversion throughwhen his keeping, would be inviolable; there need be no fear of she was nearly eighteen. After that Ruth was baptized in the changing it. That intuition broke the back of her indecision. At church of her childhood, the Metropolitan Tabernacle, where once she signed the declaration. Never again was there the slight­ est uncertainty in her mind that the purpose of God for her was Charles H. Spurgeon preached to thousands every Sunday until 2 worldwide and missionary, nor the faintest thought of changing his death in 1892. That same year Ruth joined the Church of her purpose to follow that will for her life. Her indecision in other England. Both the work of the Children's Special Service mattersstill continued for a time, but from this momentshe began Mission, based in the Church of England, and Spurgeon's to "grow Up."S preachingrepresenteda typeof interdenominational,orrather undenominational, evangelicalism emphasizing vital reli­ During the early nineties there was a great interest in reli­ gion, not doctrine. gious matters in Cambridge, with many of the young students later becoming legendary for their enthusiasm and zeal, includ­ Cambridge, and a Life Purpose ing Theodore Woods, G. T. Manley, Douglas Thornton, and In an age when a pious, Victorian, middle-class girl was sup- Louis Byrde. University missions and open-air meetings were arranged using mature and experienced speakers. Many of the prominent evangelists and missionaries of the day were heard, Ruth Franzen holds a doctorate in church history from the University of men like Sir Arthur Blackwood, Wilson Carlile, Lord Radstock, Helsinki, Finland, where sheis a teacher and researcher. Her book A Woman PioneerAmongStudents: RuthRouse andHerWorkin an International, E.A. Stuart, J. E. K. Studd, and Douglas Hooper. The morning Ecumenical, and Ideological Perspective isforthcoming. Theauthor wishes watchand Bible studywere essential partsof the students' active to acknowledge thegenerous helpof hersenior friend BirgitRodhe of Sweden religious life, the center being prayer. Ruth Rouse and Agnes de andother friends and colleagues fortheirsupport and counsel in thecourse of Selincourt were the backbone of the daily Girton Prayer Meet­ herresearch and writing. ing."

154 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Beginning a Life of World Travel An unbelievable opportunity was mine-a most direct prepara­ tion for workin the Federation. Notonly did Ilearnto understand the varied and widespread work of the national Y.W.C.A. and Ruth Rouse started her first paid job in 1895 as the editor of the Y.M.C.A. movements-a valuable training for cooperation-but Student Volunteer for one year. As a traveling secretary among along my own line I visited at least 100 universities and colleges, women students during the following year, she shared her time women's colleges and co-educational, denominational and State between the Student Volunteer Missionary Union (SVMU), the institutions, mostly in the East and Middle West. I attended and Inter-Collegiate ChristianUnion, and the Missionary Settlement helped to workupdelegations to the QuadrennialStudentVolun­ for University Women at Bombay. The last organization had teer Convention at Cleveland, February, 1898; I was present at been founded to secure women students' contributions to mis­ summer student conferences, both men's and women's." sionary work among the Parsees in India. Ruth and her friend Agnes de Selincourt were instrumental in the planning and implementation of this project from the outset? John R. Mott and the WSCF Miss Rouse (as she was generally referred to in an age charac­ terized by the spare use of Christian names) went to her first Her own contribution was to direct the attention of the national student conference in the summer of 1894 at Keswick. There she leaders of the YWCA to the student field, to help them under­ met for the first time the Americans Robert E. Speer and John R. stand the importance of their student departments, and to make Mott. The latter was to become her most influential and much­ valuable links with some new, very important colleges. She tried admired fellow worker for about a quarter of a century. She to cover the enormous area, visiting all types of colleges, from belonged to the small group of young Britons who undertook to Bryn Mawr-the queen of colleges, "witha course fully as stiff as arrange the first International Students' Missionary Conference; Harvard"-tosmall, denominational, coeducationalcolleges. By the famous Liverpool Conference was held in January 1896, placing her side by side with many celebrities in foreign mis­ attended by more than seven hundred students.vThese student sions, C. Howard Hopkins in his biography of Mott gives her a conferences were marked by youthful earnestness, missionary fine tribute: enthusiasm, and prayerfulness. Later in life she attended innu­ merable conferences, both national and international, including At no point was Mott's talent as a judge of men-and women­ the Edinburgh World Missionary Conference in 1910 and the better displayed than in his selection of the traveling staff for the World Council of Churches' first assembly in Amsterdam in SVM. During his absence in 1895-97, Henry W. Luce, Horace T. 1948. Pitkin, and G. Sherwood Eddy, all Yale men, went on the road for short assignments before "sailing" to their mission posts. Others The Liverpool conference decided to adopt the watchword of to make names for themselves were Harlan P. Beach, Fletcher S. the American SVM: "The evangelization of the world in this Brockman, Robert R. Gailey, Robert E. Lewis, J. Ross Stevenson, generation." Ruth Rouse was also one of ten signers (among Fennell P. Turner, S. Earl Taylor, Fred Field Goodsell, and Ruth Rouse. 11 After signing the SVM After attending the Cleveland Convention (2,214 delegates from 458 institutions) Ruth Rouse was offered a post by the pledge, Ruth Rouse never YWCA as international student secretary among women. She had any uncertainty that did not accept it, however, as she felt it to be in conflict with her call to India. Still this invitation demonstrated the direction of her the purpose of God for her mission in life.12 was worldwide. In a very strict sense, Ruth Rouse's missionary career was a short one, from December 1899 to the end of 1901, when she had to leave India because of ill health. Sharing her time between the them were also G. T. Manley, J. H. Oldham, and D. M. Thornton) Missionary Settlement for University Women and the YWCA, of a memorial to the church urging it to accept this watchword as she had a large and difficult field-from settlement work in its missionary policy." To their disappointment, no church Bombay during the years of the bubonic plague to developing adopted the watchword. and organizing Christian work among schoolgirls and women Ruth Rouse made her first tour abroad in 1897, as a traveling students in the whole of South India. secretary visiting all the Scandinavian countries, including Fin­ Ruth Rouse saw the need for a radical improvement in the land, which in those years was attached to Russia, though as a position of Indian women, and like many other Western women, rather autonomous part named the Grand Duchy of Finland. she hoped for a cultural transformation through a Christian, and From these years on, Ruth took a never-ceasing interest in the Western, influence. In her early years she was hardly aware of evangelization of the student world, giving her time and energy any problematic links between colonialism and British missions. especially to the work among women students in all parts of the In her later writings she still summed up the missionary motive world. in the words "saved to serve the world."13 An appeal from John R. Mott brought her to North America In 1903 while on convalescent leave in England, Ruth Rouse for eighteen months in 1897-99. She served as a Student Volun­ was asked by Mott to visit Holland, Germany, Finland, and teer secretary and then as a College Young Women's Christian Russia "in order to study the religious conditions of women Association secretary in both Canada and the United States. She students, to seek to lead them to Christ and to promote Christian was introduced to the movement in America pressing for the work among them." The arrangement was officially sanctioned higher education for women; she came to know that this move­ in 1905 when she was appointed traveling secretary of the World ment was pioneered by women of strong Christian conviction Student Christian Federation. In his characteristic manner Mott and purpose. She herself later summed up the benefits of this had taken care of the only serious objection to her appointment period for her further career: by securing means for her salary and expenses. from Grace

October 1993 155 Dodge, a wealthy American lady deeply dedicated to Christian opposite sides. Her most outstanding contribution to the relief of work among young women." suffering and the restoration of international friendship was the Her personal qualities made Ruth Rouse an ideal traveling launching of the cooperative undertaking of students known as secretary. A sense of adventure was part of her constitution. She the European Student Relief. Through her vision of the need and liked traveling and slept well anywhere; she had considerable the opportunity to act "in the name and spirit of Christ," the ability as a speaker and was in her element doing personal WSCF decided to start a campaign to concentrate the energies of work." Being British, female, and a member of the Church of the students of many nations upon the relief of their needy England, she was a perfect balance in the WSCF for Mott, the comrades in other places of the world. Founded in 1925, the American Methodist, who in his turn received a gifted and loyal project grewinto an independentuniversity organization." Dur­ fellow worker. ing World War II the organization continued its struggle to meet Ruth Rouse, independent and capable in her own right, the needs of students. nevertheless admired Mott and his businesslike efficiency very Another field where the impact of Ruth Rouse was felt over an much. Their relation as fellow workers seems to have been a even longer period was the YWCA. From 1906 to 1946 she was a happy one, based on mutual respect. Mott had the rare ability to member of the World Executive Committee and its president trust and inspire his fellow workers, and obviously he had a high from 1938 to 1946. The work of the YWCA and of the WSCF was opinionof women'sintellectualcapacityandjudgment. His own correlated in such a way that the experience of each could help the other. Through her profound understanding and deep sym­ pathy with both movements, she was able to help to make their Being British, female, and cooperation more fruitful." Ruth Rouse's worldwide pioneering among students vital­ Anglican, Ruth Rouse was ized the missionary interest in many countries over three de­ a perfect balance for the cades. Later (1925-39) she served the missionary cause in herown country as educational secretary of the Missionary Councilof the American Methodist, John National Assembly of the Church of England. This was certainly R. Mott. no easy task, as many types of conflicts affected this body. At least one more important element of the legacy of Ruth Rouse must be mentioned: she was a good writer. Throughout marriage created a unique husband-and-wife team as well." In her whole life she produced articles for several different national spite of all this, Mott was, as Howard Hopkins puts it, "a bit and international papers and magazines. In addition to her many unappreciative of the role of women in the ecumenical move­ other duties, she found time to write pamphlets and books. She ment/"? Especially later in life Mott seems to have taken for started her career as editor of the Student Volunteer, and after granted the capacity and generosity of those capable women. retirement she took up a new career as historiographer of the During Ruth's nineteen years as a WSCF secretary she WSCF and the ecumenical movement. To her, the ecumenical visited sixty-five different countries, many of them several urge, a yearning for the reunion of all Christians, was an essential times. Opposition was not lacking, and her apologetic abilities part of her Christian faith. were often put to the test. Her steady aim was to "get a foothold Like so many of the educated women who were her contem­ in any group of women students, however few."18 She early poraries, Ruth Rouse never married. Her opinion of marriage as became accustomed to the aggressive type of woman student a refuge in which one is "sheltered and cared for and happy" who reacted sharply against everything old and established. invites further analysis." She was always careful that her private Probably her most fruitful method of work could be called life should not cause rumors. Consequently we should not be evangelism by friendship. Furthermore, she had an outstanding surprised that no sources have been preserved that tell us the ability of finding capable young students and training them for reason why she did not marry; we are left to guess. Certainly she leadership. To all these she reached outin personal friendship; to would have refused to compromise her ideal of marriage if no which her vast correspondence bears ample witness. appropriate suitor appeared. However, we must keep in mind that attitudes toward marriage were not easy for a professional Ecumenical Contributions woman of Ruth Rouse's generation, who first had to struggle her way to college, then to a professional identity. Female role Ruth Rouse was animated by an ecumenical spirit. She was both models were usually all single women. Most educated women of a promoter and a product of the WSCF as the "experimental this generation seem to have thought that marriage was a voca­ laboratory of ecumenism," which to her meant, according to her tion incompatible with a career, not to mention with the opinions fellow worker and friend Suzanne Bidgrain, "the experience of of a prospective husband." Ruth Rouse might well have decided fellowship in faith with all those who worshipped the Lord to notto marrybecauseof herambitionto "workouthermissionary whomherlife was dedicated." She was herselfgradually molded purpose" in worldwide service." Still she had her own depen­ by her service within the student work, so that to numberless dents. When she left her office as traveling secretary of theWSCF, women students she became the embodiment of the WSCF. Her an importantfactor was her need to take care of heraging mother, veryexistence madeit impossibleto "lookat thingsfroma purely with whom she shared her home in England. racial, national, and confessional point of view."19 By conviction both she and Mott tried, and usually succeeded, to avoid all A "Female John R. Mott" controversies, whether theological or political." During World War I and afterward Ruth Rouse, together with Ruth Rouse has sometimes been referred to as a female John R. J. H. Oldham, Karl Fries, and others, did much to eliminate Mott." In some sense this hits the nail on the head. She had the differences and bring about mutual understanding within the same zeal for evangelization and the same ability to inspire WSCF as well as between the missionary organizations of the students. Like him, she is remembered as an evangelist, person

156 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH of prayer, leader, advocate of comity, friend, speaker, executive, her work in the World's YWCA, Ruth Rouse did not chair large author, editor, fund-raiser, and traveler." Influenced by Mott's conferences as did John R. Mott. Neither did she shine as an optimism, she still seems to have been critical and reflective. administrator of genius in the same way as J. H. Oldham. Although she was not perhaps so contemplative as J.H. Oldham, Nonetheless she combined these same gifts with a third: the she appears to have had a similar mediating effect. Furthermore, ability to do personal work. it must be remembered that she was born in a time when ideas of When the women's portion of the ecumenical movement's gender differences deemed women to be in a position of inferior­ history as well as their contribution to the nineteenth-and twen­ ity. Thus her starting point was different than that of her male colleagues. Also, working as a pioneer woman among pioneer women made her contribution different. Rouse's pioneering among Though old and retired, Ruth Rouse was still very influential students vitalized missionary when she undertook one of her final jobs. She helped, rather unofficially, to arrange the archives of the WSCF and of John R. interest in many countries Mott in the library of the Yale University Divinity School. Ac­ over three decades. cording to Robert C. Mackie, then general secretaryof the WSCF, she wasable to removefrom Mott's paperssomecorrespondence "which it would have done no good for posterity to discover."28 tieth-century history of Christian mission have been properly Of course, to a researcher this is not altogether a cause of evaluated, Ruth Rouse will have her obvious and unthreatened rejoicing. However, the incident illustrates the relationship be­ place in both. She will hold it abreast of such well-known males tween those two pioneers in a brilliant way and mirrors Ruth as Wilder, Mott, Speer, and Oldham-not primarily as a philoso­ Rouses's manifold and far-reaching influence. This brings us pher and thinker, but as one who heard the missionary call and back to the point where we started: the historian's still-unsolved worked out her missionary purpose. She saw the unique oppor­ problem of how to judge the contribution of women. Except for tunities of her time and acted upon them.

Notes ------

1. Gerda Lerner, TheMajorityFinds Its Past: Placing Women in History Anna V. Rice, A History of the World's Young Women's Christian (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1979), p. 13. Association (New York: Woman's Press, 1947), p. 83. 2. On Spurgeon,see W. Y.Fullerton, Charles H. Spurgeon: London's Most 12. Rowland, "Contribution of Ruth Rouse," p. 95. Popular Preacher (Chicago: Moody Press, 1966). On CSSM, see G. R. 13. Ruth Rouse, "The Missionary Motive," International Reviewof Mis­ Balleine, A History of the Evangelical Party in the Church of England sions25 (1936): 250-58. For general discussion, see Andrew F. Walls, (London: Church Book Room Press, 1951), pp. 196-98. "The British," International Bulletin of Missionary Research 6 (April 3. Deborah Gorham, The Victorian Girl and the Feminine Ideal 1982): 60-64; PatriciaR.Hill, TheWorld TheirHousehold: TheAmerican (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press, 1982); Martha Vicinius, ed., A Woman's Foreign MissionMovementandCuItural Transformation, 1870­ Widening Sphere: Changing Roles of Victorian Women (Bloomington: 1920(Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press, 1985). Indiana Univ. Press, 1977). On higher education for women and 14. Karl Fries to Ruth Rouse, March 9, 1904, Fries Papers, Uppsala Girton College, see Barbara Stephen, EmilyDavies andGirtonCollege University Library, Uppsala; Rouse, World's Student Christian Fed­ (London: Constable, 1927); Rita McWilliams-Tullberg, Women at eration, pp. 102-3; Robert D. Cross, "Dodge Grace Hoadley," in Cambridge: A Men's University-Though of a Mixed Type (London: Notable American Women, 1607-1950: A Biographical Dictionary, vol. 1, Victor Gallanz, 1975). ed. Edward T. James, Janet Wilson, and Paul S. Boyer (Cambridge: 4. On Wilder, see RuthE.Braisted,In ThisGeneration: TheStoryofRobert Harvard Univ. Press, 1974). P. Wilder (New York: Friendship Press, 1941); James A. Patterson, 15. F.W. S.O'Neill, quoted in Rowland, "Contributionsof RuthRouse," "The Legacy of Robert P. Wilder," International BulletinofMissionary p.70. Research 15 (January 1991): 26-32. On the start of the SVMU of Great 16. Hopkins, John R. Mott, p. 95. Britain and Ireland, see H. W. Oldham, The Student Christian Move­17. C. Howard Hopkins, "The Legacy of John R. Mott," International ment of Great Britain andIreland: Its Origin, Development, andPresent Bulletinof Missionary Research 5 (April 1981): 71. Position (London: BCCU, 1899);Robert P. Wilder, TheGreat Commis­18. Rouse, World's Student Christian Federation, pp. 11-118. sion: The Missionary Response of the Student Volunteer Movements in 19. SuzanneBidgrain, "RuthRouse (1872-1956),"StudentWorld 50(1957): North America and Europe; Some Personal Reminiscences (London: 73-75. Oliphants, 1936), pp. 72-83; Tissington Tatlow, The Story of the 20. On Mott, see e.g. Hopkins, John R. Mott, pp. 631-33. StudentChristian MovementofGreat Britain andIreland (London: SCM 21. Ruth Rouse, Rebuilding Europe: The Student Chapter in Post-War Press, 1933), pp. 22-35. Reconstruction, with a Foreword by John R. Mott (London: Student 5. Wilmina Rowland, "The Contribution of Ruth Rouse to the World's Christian Movement, 1925). Student Christian Federation" (M.A. thesis, Yale, 1936), pp. 58-59. 22. Rice, History, pp. 148-50. 6. Ruth Rouse, "Agnes de Selincourt: Born 1872. Died 1917," Student 23. Ruth Rouse to Helmi Gulin, May 16, 1920, Gulin Papers, Finnish Movement, October 1917; J. C. Pollock, A Cambridge Movement(Lon­ National Archives, Helsinki. don: John Murray, 1953), pp. 112-37; Rowland, "Contribution of 24. On these and other tensions and ambiguities imposed on this Ruth Rouse," p. 58. generation of women who wanted careers, see Joyce Antler, "The 7. ICCU Minutes, 1895-96, Selly Oak Colleges Central Library, Bir­ Educated Woman and Professionalization: The Struggle for a New mingham, England; Tatlow, Student Christian Movement, pp. 57-58. Feminine Identity, 1890-1920" (Ph.D. diss., State University of New 8. Oldham, Student Christian Movement,pp. 46-54. York, 1977). 9. Memorial of the SVMU to the Church of Christ in Britain (London: 25. Rouse, World's Student Christian Federation, pp. 111-23. SVMU, n.d.), 26. Karl Fries, Mina minnen (Stockholm, 1939), p. 100. 10. Ruth Rouse, TheWorld's Student Christian Federation: A Historyofthe 27. Hopkins, "Legacy of John R. Mott," p. 72. FirstThirty Years (London: SCM Press, 1948), p. 117. 28. Robert C. Mackie to Clarence Shedd, May 9, 1945, World Student 11. C. Howard Hopkins, John R. Mott, 1865-1955: A Biography (Grand Christian Federation Archives, World Council of Churches Library, Rapids: Wm. B.EerdmansPublishingCo., 1979),pp. 225-26.See also Geneva.

October 1993 157 Bibliography

Major Works by Ruth Rouse Articles in: 1906 Studies in the Epistle to thePhilippians. London: SCM. Association Monthly 1917 Christian Experience andPsychological Processes: With Special Church Missionary Review Reference to thePhenomenon ofAutosuggestion. Coauthor H. Church Overseas Crichton Miller, M.D. London: SCM Press. Eastand WestReview 1925 Rebuilding Europe: The Student Chapter in Post-War Recon­Evangel, Journal of the Young Women's Christian Association in the U.S.A. struction. London: SCM Press. Federation News (editor 1921-24) 1948 TheWorld's StudentChristian Federation: A HistoryoftheFirst Intercollegian Thirty Years. London: SCM Press. International ReviewofMissions 1954 A Historyofthe Ecumenical Movement, 1517-1948.Edited by Student Movement Ruth Rouse and Stephen Charles Neill. London: SPCK. Student ReliefSeries (editor 1920-24) Student Service Bulletin (editor 1920-22) Selected Pamphlets and Reports Student Volunteer, London Student Volunteer, New York Women Students in India. London: Missionary Settlement of University Student World Women,n.d. World's Y.W.C.A. Quarterly TheMissionary Motive.London: SCM Press, 1913. "AusztigeauseinemBericht tiber die Arbeit desChristlichenStudenten­ Weltbundes unter studierendenFrauen." In Bericht vonderKonferenz Unpublished Materials des Christlichen Studenten- Weltbundes zu Zeist in Holland, pp. 133-51. World Student Christian Federation Collection. Manuscript Record Halle: Christlicher Student-Weltbund, 1905. Group 46, Archives and Manuscripts, Yale DivinitySchool Library, "Women's Work in the World's StudentChristianFederation." In Report New Haven, Conn. (related to the period 1895-1924). of the Conference of the World's Student Christian Federation Held at WorldStudentChristianFederationArchives. WorldCouncilofChurches Oxford, England, pp. 255-73.WSCF, 1909. Library, Geneva (mostly related to the years after 1924). "Report on the Women's Work of the Federation." In Religious Forces in Student Christian Movement of Great Britain Archives. Selly Oak Col­ the Universities of the World: Four Years of Progress in the World's leges Central Library, Birmingham, England. Student Christian Federation, pp. 47-74. WSCF, 1914. Karl Fries Papers. Handskriftssamlingen (Manuscripts), Uppsala Uni­ Christand the Student World: A Reviewof the World's Student Christian versity Library, Uppsala. Federation, 1920-21. London: SCM, n.d. Lydia Wahlstrom Papers. Royal Swedish Library, Stockholm. Under Heaven One Family: A Review of the World's Student Christian Helmi Forsman Gulin Papers. Forsman Koskinen Suku 12, Finnish Federation, 1921-22. WSCF, n.d. National Archives, Helsinki. Quo Vadis: A Reviewof the World's Student Christian Federation, 1922-23. London: WSCF, n.d. John R. Mott: An Appreciation. Geneva: WSCF, n.d. Works About Ruth Rouse God Hasa Purpose: An OutlineoftheHistoryofMissions andofMissionary Bidgrain, Suzanne, "Ruth Rouse (1872-1956)." Student World 50 (First Method. London: SCM Press, 1935. Quarter 1957): 73-77. Rowland, Wilmina. "The Contribution of Ruth Rouse to the World's Published Addresses in: Student Christian Federation." M.A. thesis, Yale University, 1937. Make Jesus King: Report oftheInternational Students'Missionary Conference, Liverpool. London: SVMU,1896. TheStudentMissionary Appeal: Addresses at theInternational Convention of theStudentVolunteer Movement forForeign Missions, Cleveland, Ohio, 1898. New York: SVMFM,1898. Fourth Biennial Convention, Richmond, Virginia, 1913.NewYork: National Board of the YWCA of the USA. God Speaks to This Generation: Report of the British U.C.M. Quadrennial Conference, Birmingham, 1937. London: SCM Press, 1937.

158 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH CAN ONE LIFE CHANGE THE WORLD?

~ t the School of Intercultural Studieswe are • B.A. ICS, M.A. lCS, ~1.A . Missions, '.OVE ~ convinced that a life committed to serving D-.Miss. and Ed.D. "As a career member of lVycliffeBibkTranslaton, Jesus Christ can impact the world in a powerful way. • Vast metropolitan area providing I'vebeen very imptessed with We are equally convi nced that in our pluralistic I'" fn'ogram at SICS. Every hundreds of opportunities for class I'vetakenhas applied wo rld equipping for crosscultural competency in crosscultural studyand ministry 10 my Judd wurk." ministry isvital for "making disciples of all nations." "T'" ICS faculty is Stephen J. Barber. Student, D. Miss. program That iswhywe have asse mbled a program com­ CONSIDER THESE SICS DISTINCTIVES open and sensitive • The onlyChristian Ed.D.degree toward interna­ biningstudiesin missiology with the social sciences, tionalsludents designed to prepare you for allfacetsof crosscultur­ in the U.S. concentrating in ami expects women a1ministryat home and abroad. crosscultural education 10 bea significan l furcRfurminislry. " LOOK AT WHAT SICS OFFERS YOU • The strongest program for EikoBomukai. Student • Afac ulty with over 125 yearsof combined "Women in Ministry" of any service in international missions school of world mission • Universitysetting offering interaction with • Concentrationsin cultural anthropology, leadership, other disciplines urban ministry,and internationaldevelopment • NewMA programs in TESOL(Teaching If you are a yo ung Christian desiring foundation­ English to Speakers of Other Languages) al preparation fora life of servicein today's wo rld or and Applied Linguistics are alreadyexperienced in crosscultural ministry and lookingfor specialized training, the Sc hool of "Effecliveinterculnual ministry callsfurt'" Intercultural Studies at Biola University may have Somal. OF ltmJlCUl.11!RAL STUDIES integration of t"'ology andI'" sotial sciences in om'seducational experience. T'" SCMol of just the program you need. BlOL1 UNII 'ERSm ' lntacultutolSiudiesis uniquelypositiurud, as To find out more about the School of 13800 Biola Aven ue uru ofI'"fou rsrhootsofBiola University, 10 La Mirada, CA 90639-0001 offermaximumopportu nityfurthis Intercultural Studies call or write today. 1-800-652-4652 development totake place." (In California) 1-800-992-4652 Donald f..Douglas, Dean The Riddle of Man and the Silence of God: A Christian Perception of Muslim Response

Kenneth Cragg

ong years ago in Beirut when I was teaching English howambivalent and apprehensive the Muslim mind is about the L American-style, we used a textbook called Sentence and West. If, in effect, there is only one superpower, the opportunity Theme. It was meant to develop the art of exposition in cogent that leaders like Abd al-Nasir utilized to playoff one against the prose that had a careful sequence. other has passed. It was evident in the Gulf War how effective It would often seem these days that we work with "Headline American-led internationalism could be vis-a-vis an Arab power and Sentence," in the other sense of the second word. In some in conditions where both politics and terrain facilitated the likes newspapers there is scarcely any small print at all. Banners do of Desert Storm. (That lesson is underlined by how dilatory or justicefor thought. Contemporary media are strong on exposure evasive such internationalism can be when the will is different or but short on exposition. "Spots" and "soundbites" drastically the circumstances are ill suited.) The point here is to register how shorten the dimensions we are willing to give to vast issues. The much the Muslim mind sees and feels itself threatened by the comprehensive theme goes by default. preponderance of the West in the theorizing and the marshaling Islam has been much victimized by such superficiality. It is of any such world community organized through the United true that each religious faith must take some responsibility for Nations for "peace and security." the image it presents. It will not do to allege that all public image­ Threatened and disadvantaged it certainly feels. On the one makingis travestyanddisownit as malicious. Yet,whenwe have hand, there is no option but to concede the shape of the future as fully allowed for the bigotries of Hizballah, the fatwas (judicial technology, the informationmedia, and the global neighborhood verdicts) issued by Khomeini, and the barbarities of hostage­ are contriving it. These are largelyWestern initiated and Western taking, it remains true that many people in the West have a controlled. On the other hand, such conceding goes against the caricature of Islam. They accept a hasty verdict on these adverse grain of Muslim autonomy, of Islamic self-sufficiency. It makes aspects and seem unable, or unwilling, to take authentic stock of for a sort of love-hate relationship, for a tension between the the qualities of Islam as evident in art, culture, discipline, and irresistible and the unwelcome. other clues to its meaning. Former President Reagan's perception of Iran's Ayatollah in Islamic Resurgence the 1980s matched Khomeini's estimate of American mentality as satanic. Following the collapse of the Soviet system and the It follows that Islam is renewing in contemporary form its shift in geopolitics it has engendered, there are Western headline instinctive sense of finality and self-sufficiency, with the West as writers and analysts who are tempted to identify in Islam and the foil. In turn, its attitudes to Christianity are clearly involved. Muslims the new bete noire of the 1990s. If they feel at a loss The late Isma'il al-Faruqi took a strong lead in campaigning for without evil things to be fighting against, and if they require what he called an Islamization of all knowledge. A Palestinian phobias behind which to rally belligerence, then it seems that who studied and taught in Montreal and was later professor at Islam will serve. Some are genuinely alarmed about a threat of Temple University in Philadelphia, he insisted that education, world domination coming from Islamic fundamentalism. Such especially higher education, must be rescued from spiritually fears are based on the evident capacity of some Muslim regimes, debilitating (Western) presuppositions and based exclusively on as in the Sudan and Iraq, to operate in ruthlessness and criminal norms and values that are safe only in the keeping of Islam.' defiance of international civilized standardsof humanity and the This demand regards the Western social sciences as assum­ rule of law. ing and fostering secularity. Anthropology, sociology, and psy­ These fears need careful assessment, but in current global chology most of all are either "value-free" (as the jargon goes), or terms of power and technology it would seem credulous to they leave divine truth and human obligation to God out of their surmise a physical Muslim jihad achieving across the world the reckoning. Rational, pragmatic, and empirical as they are, they kind of subjugation Hitler's Germany attained in Europe in the undermine the sense of the divine absolute on which Islam rests. forties. That, however, is not to say that a Muslim militarism They study faith as a mere phenomenon and assess its signifi­ might not attempt, or contrive, local ventures of power and cance solely in terms of social function or personal idiosyncrasy. dominance capable of causing a global disquiet. Or it is no more than an epiphenomenon of human behavior or Our duty here has to do much more with intellectual and psychic need. All this is in complete, apparent disregard of issues spiritual themes rather than with political prognosis. In trying to of truth and questions of reality. In this way such sciences get those themes into focus, Christians-whether in scholarship introduce a lethal element of optionality into all religious faith, and education or in mission-must appreciate and understand and they do so precisely where youth is most malleable and vulnerable. Thus, Islam-in fact or by implication-is deprived of its categorical authority and fears a subtle seepage of disease Kenneth Cragg, now retired in England, wasformerly assistantbishop to the into its fabric. archbishop of Jerusalem and assistant bishop, diocese of Chichester, U.K. He served formanyyears asanAnglicanmissionary in Cairo, Beirut,andelsewhere In this way the Western academic and intellectual climate is in the Middle East. He has taught at Hartford Seminary, the University of seen to work against Islamic norms, values, and patterns. Reli­ Sussex,andUnionSeminaryin New York,andistheauthorofThe Call of the gion contracts into a private affair and is withdrawn from the Minaret (1956),Muhammad and the Christian (1984),The Christand the total aegis over life and society that Islam always assumed to be Faiths (1986),and The Arab Christian (1991). the role and right of the Qur'an, the sunnah ("divine way"), and

160 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH the shari'a ("sacred law"). Onthis analysis, only the Islamization Armed with this formidable self-sufficiency and minded to of knowledge will suffice to stop the rot among Muslim youth see the West as spiritually moribund and effete, Muslims stay and reinstate the full and effective authority of the final Iman fortified within their Islam. "Fortified" is the right word if we ("faith") and Din ("religion"). think of ramparts and bastions, walls and bulwarks, and the Before considering how this affects Christian mission and sense of defensiveness that goes with them. Any Christian min­ interpretationto Islam,wemusttake themeasureof howit seems istries of mind and spirit in these circumstances have much to do to be borne out in Muslim experience of the secular manifesta­ to find a hearing. tions of Western society. These may be directly felt by Muslim One obvious question is whether unilateral solutions, such people in Europe and the States through emigration and global as the Islamization of all knowledge would entail, are really intercommunity; or, within Muslim nations, they are experi­ feasible. Answers to the secular situation cannot be had in enced in sundry forms via the media, technology, and tourism. isolation, even for self-assured Muslims. How far can they be The break from former patterns of sexual honor, reverence, immune from secularizing factors that have so powerfully beset human dignity, and personal probity in the West leaves n1any the West? Some modern thinkers in Islam are keenly aware that Muslims dismayed, perplexed, and angry. They sense a direct human issues are universal and that responses cannot be theirs threat to their tradition and are tempted (or glad) to write off and theirs alone without reference to the parallel experience of Christianity as a played-out faith, disproven by its own present shared humanity. There is no Islamic aeronautics, just as there is predicamentand unable to discipline its ownsocieties or achieve no Christian zoology or Hindu chemistry. To some degree cul­ in the concrete its own high ethics. ture may well vary medicine and hygienebutnotastrophysics or pathology. To a fair degree, in fact, the sciences unify the world Islam's Abiding Validity that religions claim to interpret. Inasmuch as Jews, Christians, and Muslims share many Before coming to what this situation requires of Christians and areas of faith that the sciences address or interrogate, we are to how it puts into question the whole meaning of evangelism that extent concerned together about a consecration of all knowl­ ("physician, heal thyself"), it is first necessary to remember how edge. We must together assess, possess, and affirm the meaning impressed Islam is with its ownvirility. Traditionally, it has been of creation as all our scriptures Semitically confess it. Human a very self-assured faith. Heart-searching and mind-querying creaturehood, dominion (khilafah), and responsibility under di- have not normally been congenial or even thought necessary in Muslim history. Islam, it is said, is an implacable religion.' Faruqi's call for the complete Islamization of knowledge is never The break in the West with in doubt of itself. It is made in confident reaction to what is seen as the insidious "colonization of the mind" through the legacies former patterns of dignity of Western history. It reacts against a vision of European arro­ and personal probity leaves gance as always holding the rest of the world in intellectual and spiritual tutelage to itself. Muslims dismayed, This declaration of independence on the part of the Muslim perplexed, and angry. community belongs with the classical faith. The Qur'an, on its own showing, is "a Book in which there is nothing dubious" (Surah 2.2). Islam is understood as the one religion divinely vine law are common affirmations. The Qur'an has also a strong suited to human nature, and human nature is divinely suited to emphasis on divine signs in the natural order, which, given due islam,thisbeingthedoublesenseof thewordfitrahin Surah30.30. human cognizance in gratitude, come close to what we Chris­ The Qur'an reveals and enshrines what all religion ought to be tians call a sacramental world, in which all experience-sexual and, indeed, has truly been since Noah and Abraham. It does not and procreative most of all-has to be acknowledged as both a innovate or initiate the true faith; it confirms and finally institu­ sphere in our autonomy and a liability Godward for hallowing, tionalizes the faith that always was. Thus, other faiths that now gratitude, and awe.' deviate from this divine norm, which fail by test of this revealed Keeping that common territory of faith always in sight, we plumb line, are by the same token astray. can best proceed to where we differ. This means trying to clarify This Islamic posture of mind and dogma gives it enormous the bearing of Christian faith and the Gospel on all those issues self-confidence and tends to a certain triumphalism-all the of humanlife and meaning thatarise from the sphere of thesocial more heartening in times of disadvantage. It is, of course, sciences, and that produce the strains many Muslims propose to groundedin thetraditionalcomprehensionof the form of quranic isolatewithina separateIslamizationof knowledge, thus serving revelation. This is understood as having been verbally received notice of irrelevance on all other faith systems. We need to bring by Muhammadin entire,syllabic, stenographicinerrancy,through to bearon this Muslimself-sufficiencyor self-reliance thewitness the mediation of the very words of God. The Prophet's part was and the credentials of those Christian convictions of which they completely passive-indeed, not a part at all. Analogies used feel no need. here are, for example, a robot, or "as a pipe conducting a jet of There is a deep irony in this situation inasmuch as a great water through a stone lion in a Persian garden."? Modern apolo­ commonality is present about the situations for which Islam gists and medieval Sufis are one in this regard. believes it must have wholly unique and unilateral answers. The A scripturereceived in these terms makes for a total, impreg­ bewilderments and tensions of the modern mind, which some nable reliance on its contents, despite the crucial issues for Muslims see Islam escaping in splendid exemption or contrived thoughtful, believing scholarship in respect of prophetic experi­ immunity, are emphatically present among Muslims here and ence, history, and exegesis. Our Christian relationship to Mus­ now. Our best way into any study of a continuing Christian lims has vital and exacting tasks in this critical field. The first of ministry in this field will be first to explore what the bewildered these tasks is to know the measure of it. and the alerted say in their report of them.

October 1993 161 The Riddle of Man and the Silence of God It is significant how far classical Islam tends to discount such questions. As a confident and articulate exposition, it seems fair An outstanding example is that of the Egyptian Nobel Prize to take A Faith for All Seasons as representative, even though winner (for literature) Najib Mahfuz. In a recent story he has a ordinary Muslims might not express themselves in such forth­ character say: "God does not relate to us and I cannot relate to right terms. It is the more relevant for our present purposes Him. There is nothing but dead silence between us .... I have because Shabbir Akhtar, in writing it, is explicitly responding to always concluded that God-praise be to Him-has decided to Christian ministries of meaning such as we would always hope leave us to our own devices."! How clear it is that all the issues to bring. of what Christian theologians call theodicy, or "the justification of God," are in that sentiment. The Muslim writer is in line with Islam's Refuge in Inscrutability a recent Western writer remarking that he thought he could believe in God if he did not have to relate him to the world. "Muslims," Akhtar writes, "must ... refuse to concede the tragic No doubt Najib Mahfuz hides behind his fictional character failure of man on pain of having no theology left to articulate." and remains himself enigmatic or silent. Even so, we have to ask They must require and practice "an almost total freedom from why the author wants it said. When the story's character is the tragic instinct" and "be resolutely determined to guard against the temptation to tragedy" in which Christians indulge? There are very similar sentiments in all the writings of Isma'il al­ Faruqi. Akhtar also sees the Christian faith as taking the human Jews, Christians, and predicament too seriously; he charges Christians with falling Muslims have a common back romantically on ideas of divine pathos, of condescension concern for consecration of into suffering in order to avoid oppressive thoughts of a mere "spectator-God." Muslims, by contrast (so Akhtar states), have all knowledge. no right and certainly no need to affirm that God is love." "The capacity of a religion to excite pathos," writes Akhtar, "increases as faith declines, as practical piety and serious accep­ reproved for what is near to blasphemy, Mahfuz has him re­ tance reach a low ebb." Thus, Christian concepts of incarnation spond: "Belief in God demands belief in His lack of concern for and atonement are unhappy travesties of a really sovereign God the world, just as it implies that we are on our own." If that is so, whose authority is exercised in law and scriptured revelation, what has happened to Islam? No theism can long survive a exercised unimpeachably by him and adequately for us. At perceived lack of divine concern for the world. Indeed, the worst, Muslims here can fall back, as A Faith forAll Seasons does, ultimate question in all theism is how far such concern goes, on divine inscrutability. Its author notes Surah 82.8 about God needs to go, is competentto go. There can be no question of its not making man in whatever form he pleases. This may include the relating at all. very perversity that is our common problem. Even if the divine In his Faith for All Seasons, Shabbir Akhtar concedes that creating, however, has in fact made us for damnation, God is not Muslims must respond to modernity and be alert to "the riddle answerable to external, rational, or philosophical critique or of man" and "the silence of God." Yet he denies that we need to question. "To question further would be blasphemous." Surah register "riddle" and "silence" in the deep and tragic terms 95.4-5 refers to humans as "fairest and lowest of the low" in characteristic of Christian faith. He understands "being on our creation. There the puzzle of human perversity must rest. own" as being left with guidance and an inclusive shari'a, a By this logic, the burden of theodicy evaporates. We are blueprint for private piety and public order. The rest, in crude given the problem back as an answer. God remains Allahuakbar, language, is up to us. As Akhtar sees it, we are for the most part while idolatry, as well as shirk, zulm, and nifaq-perversity, adequate. "Menaccording to Islam are on theirownin this whole wrongdoing, and hypocrisy-remain. These, however, are only affair of life. If there is failure one accepts it patiently. The only problematic for "a certain kind of morally constrained sover­ cure for failure is success. Nothing succeeds like success is a very eignty," which has to be judged "always more or less helpless." Islamic sentiment.:"He continues: "We can imagine Muhammad The divine government of Islam, with this Islamic version of face to face with Pilate," unseating him by political action and, in human amenability, is not that sort of "morally constrained vigorous rulership, inaugurating what the Qur'an enjoins. It sovereignty."9 follows that "we are on our own" only in the robust terms of an A Faith forAll Seasons squarely demonstrates the vital areas infallible directive to which, via Din wa Dawlah ("religion and of Christian ministry in mind and meaning and shows how state"), we can readily be amenable and, within these terms, exacting they are. While adamant in his resistance to Christian perfectible. sentimentality, as he sees it, Shabbir Akhtar is also frank in his I think that for many contemporary minds, Muslim and recognition of "the shallowness of Muslim responses to the others, the "riddle" and the "silence" go much deeper into challenge of modernity." He acknowledges the need for urgent sharper measures of disquiet and perplexity. This is partly so by self-criticism and cites Surah 2.286: "Lord, do not burden us the evidence of Islam itself, the unloveliness of fanaticism, the beyond what we have strength to bear," applying the words to dishonesty of obscurantism, the political cynicism, and the vio­ "the silence of God being increasingly oppressive ... on the heart lation of human rights. Is there no Shirk,or "denigration of God," of every reflective believer." we must ask, in the violence done by our perversity to the design and intention of God? Is our human scene well diagnosed as The Gospel Response: God in Christ "getting along reasonably well despite a few disappointments"? Or are we not required to take our theology into a more radical In response to such sober Muslim reflections, any sense of the perception of what it must take for God to be God in the light of Christian "word in season" has to be aware of how patently short a radical honesty about the way humans are humans? is the Christian community itself in upholding it. The Gospel,

162 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Shabbir Akhtar remarks, "is in no better shape vis-a-vis recalci­ Dialogue is often elitist and exceptional, despite its popularity trance than Torah or Qur'an." But this is precisely why, accord­ and the spate of books about it. The masses of illiterate and ing to the ChristianGospel, the world needs God in human flesh, inarticulate believers, the growing number of merely formal or redemptively suffering on our behalf. bemused adherents, have little mental time or economic leisure A Faith forAll Seasons decides that "Islam has no human, or for theodicies. Yet they feel and know the human loneliness and, partly human reality that can correspond to Christ," adding in their own idiom, are no strangers to perplexity. cryptically: "If Islam has a Christ, it is Allah."Io Has the author One vital area of interfaith concern alongside the inter­ realized that this must mean there is a Christ-dimension in the theologywehavestudiedhereis the needfor commonpenitence, beingof God? The NewTestamentwitnesses to whatthatdimen­ the sense of suffering vicariously for one another." This would sion is. As Paul has it: "God was in Christ reconciling the world mean undertaking not only what is criminal in our own guilt but to himself" (2Cor. 5:19).It is preciselythis divinecapacityto have what is tragic for us all. Christians find the paradigm in the Christ which allows us to speak of "the Christ in God." The credallanguage concerning "theonlybegottenof the Father" has exactly this sense: the eternal nature of God, which enterprises One vital area of common and brings about all that we have historically in the person and the passionofJesus. This is understood as disclosing, in initiative concern is the need for and action, what is therefore index to the divine being. It is as if penitence, the sense of we are sayingthatGodis, thereby, IIcredentialled" as trulydivine in that he has truly come to grips with the wrongness of the suffering vicariously for human world in terms congruent with his own being and our one another. earthly need. On both counts God is known to be "most great." We Christians see in the insignia of redeeming love the very criterion God gives us both for our theology and our ministry to Christ, in the figure of one who undertakes to redeem evil by the others. Credential, character, and criterion are one and the same. worth of the love that bears it. Those who see their salvation in They answerblessedlyto whatweknowmostradicallyaboutthe and through the cross must be ready to read and apply its humanity we share, if sin is to be known for what it is and redemptive principle in every relationship of their own. Only so savingly forgiven. do we confess the forgiveness of sins as being both that which The foregoing has ended in a confessio fidei but one that has grace grants us as receivers and also what grace asks of us as wrestled on the way with Muslims in serious mutuality of givers. personal integrity. Ministry has always to be repossessing and Then our verdicts do not exonerate, nor idly accuse, nor clarifying what its content is. If it is truly "ministry," it must cynically scorn, the world as we see it. Rather they are to be bent surely bring us back to the daily world. Much of that world will always toward salvation, toward what salvation means and be oblivious of the treasures we have examined in theology. what salvation demands.

Notes------­ 1. Isma'il al-Faruqi, Islamization of Knowledge: General Principles and 4. The theme is developed further in my Mind of the Qur'an (London: Work-Plan (Washington, D.C.: International Institute of Islamic George Allen & Unwin, 1973), pp. 146-62. Thought, 1982). See also his "Islamic Critique of the Status Quo in 5. Najib Mahfuz, Fountain and Tomb, tr. S. Sobhy, E. Fartouck, and [. MuslimSociety," in ed. B.F. Stowasser, TheIslamic Impulse(London: Keuneson (Washington, D.C.: Three Continents Press, 1988,no. 73), Croom Helm, 1987),pp. 226-43.Reference should also be had to his pp.110-11. masterpiece (with Lois al-Faruqi): The Cultural Atlas of Islam (New 6. Shabbir Akhtar, A Faith forAll Seasons (London: BellewPubl., 1990), York: MacMillan, 1986), published just after his tragic death. See p.160. discussion in my Troubled by Truth (Durham, U.K.: Pentland Press, 7. Ibid., p. 160-61. Earlier quotations (after footnote 6) are on pp. 181 1992),pp. 126-46. and 207. 2. Gai Eaton: King of the Castle: Choice and Responsibility in the Modern 8. Ibid., p. 181. See also Isma'il al-Faruqi, Christian Ethics (Montreal: World (London: Bodley Head, 1977), p. 20. AI-Faruqi also was fond McGill Univ. Press, 1967), pp. 193-235. of the adjective. 9. Shabbir Akhtar, Faith for All Seasons, pp. 236, 157, 209, 213. 3. The one analogy is used by Shabbir Akhtar, see below; the other 10. Ibid., pp. 157 and 187. comes in Discourses of Rumi, trans. and with commentary by A. [. 11. I tried to develop this theme of a collective penitence as a vital area Arberry (London.]. Murray, 1961),pp. 51-52.For Akhtar, see also Be of interreligious concern in To Meet and to Greet (London: Epworth Careful with Muhammad (London: Bellew Publ., 1989), section on Press, 1992), pp. 63-80. "The Qur'an."

October 1993 163 Can a House Divided Stand? Reflections on Christian-Muslim Encounter in the West Lamin Sanneh

he Muslim challenge in asserting a religious interest in ship in the church was coterminous and interchangeable with Tgovernment and education may be considered a chal­ territorial location, with territorial rule established on, and made lengealso to theprevailingWesternattitudeof secularaccommo­ legitimate by, the ruler's professed religion.' Conversely, believ­ dation, or even abdication. Consequently behind the back of a ers living in a territory ruled by a nonbeliever were considered Christian religious retreat from the public square comes a rising resident aliens, even though prevailing conditions of peace and tide of Muslim demands for a role for religion in public affairs. tolerance might ameliorate the necessity for embarking onacts of Islam has always conceived a political role for religion, whatever conscientiouswithdrawal,whatMuslimsourcesreferto as hijrah? the ambivalence of individual Muslims. However, what is new As an arrangement, Christendom would work only if there and different nowis that the Muslim pressure is beingbrought to continued to be a more or less homogenous, cohesive society bear in the West itself,' and is not simply a matter confined to apportioned into more or less stable social classes.Suchhomoge­ distant and exotic societies. neity and cohesion became increasingly difficult to maintain in The present Western context of Muslim political activism means Muslims will demand "rights" that are not simply reli­ gious, narrowly defined, but educational, legal, political, eco­ nomic, social, and medical, including public health matters con­ Muslim activism demands cerning slaughterhouses, matters that the Western rank and file rights that are not simply have left in the hands of state and secular institutions. Conse­ quently, Westerners are caught in a bind in the face of Muslim religious but educational, demands; the logic of religious toleration, not to say of hospital­ legal, political, social, ity, requires making concessions to Muslims, while the logic of privatizingChristianity,of taking religionoutof the publicarena, economic, and medical. disqualifies Westerners from dealing in any effective sense with Muslim theocratic demands. In view of the different positions of the two religions concerning the public realm, is a meeting the face of growing pluralism and social mobility. Finally with possible between them? If so, on what grounds and to what end? the rise of national ethnic consciousness, fueled by the drive for Part of the answer to this question depends on what reasons religious freedom, the formal structures of the empire collapsed, led Westerners to reject a territorial and theocratic role for reli­ to be lost irretrievably in the rubble of Napoleonic Europe, and gion,and whetherthose reasons arevalid and relevant to Muslim Christendom as a territorial reality broke up into its constituent demands. Let us deal with the issue in two stages. parts.' For leading Christian thinkers of the time the demise of Christian Territoriality Versus Voluntarism Christendom was a consummation the godly had devoutly wished for, because it allowed religion to become a matter of The church was never more involved in politics than during the personal experience rather than of membership in a divinely era of the Holy Roman Empire, when faith and territory were designated race or church. Thus was the church transformed joined as a principle of membership in church and state. Under from territoriality to voluntarism. As John Locke forcefully, and the empire, Christianity became Christendom, and the political perhaps excessively, expressed it in his LetterConcerning Tolera­ ruler was seen as God's appointed agent, the earthly counterpart tion(1689), Christians as members of a "voluntary society" were to the heavenly sovereign. In that scheme political affairs and those who came together for "the public worshipping of God in religious matters were two aspects of one and the same reality. It such a manner as they judge acceptable to Him, and effectual to follows from this that church and state were united for the same the salvation of their souls." The overriding concerns of such a purpose, even though as institutions they represented different society, he felt, ought to be spiritual and moral, "and nothing functions. While the church reserved to itself custody of the ought nor can be transacted in this society relating to the posses­ absolute moral law, the state was concerned with enforcing the sion of civil and worldly goods." rules of conformity that gave practical expression to the higher Between this conception of religion and of the state Locke spiritual law. Conformity rather than personal persuasion was drewa neat, if overly formal, distinction. He gave to civil govern­ the chief end of religious activity under this corporate arrange­ ment the responsibility for ordering our material well-being, ment. which includes "life, liberty, health, and indolence of body," as Christendom identified itself with territoriality in the sense well as "possession of outward things, such as money, lands, of making religiona matteralso of territorial allegiance. Member- houses, furniture, and the like." Just as the church should not concern itself with the amassing of wealth and material posses­ sions, so should governmentnotconcern itselfwith the salvation of souls. Lamin Sanneh, a contributing editor, is the D. Willis James Professor of This distinction between the nature of religion and of the Missions and World Christianity at Yale Divinity School, and Professor of state is not satisfactory either in detail or in principle, as Locke History, YaleUniversity, New Haven, Connecticut. recognized, for he went on to observe that government should

164 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH not be given authority over religion because "it appears not that in this kind of compulsion is a prejudice to the LordJesus, and the God has ever given any such authority to one man over another provision he has made for the propagation of the Church and as to compel anyone to his religion." For Locke, as for many truth."" Such teachings are the foundation on which we have Puritan divines, religion was incompatible with state coercion, built the modern ideas of democratic pluralism and religious not simply because the state is a pretty blunt and oppressive freedom and in terms of which we have conceived all human instrumentto usein delicatemattersof faith, butbecause"though history as tending toward what R. G. Collingwood has called the rigor of laws and the force of penalties were capable to "the general development of God's purpose for human life."? convince and change men's minds, yet would not that help at all These are all timely words in our fiercely secular world. to the salvation of their souls." These are some of the reasons why religious territoriality Locke reasoned like this because theological issues were became unacceptable to Christian thinkers, and they explain the paramount for him in the following sense: a soul that was ambivalence of many Westerners who find difficulty with the compelled was a soul that had lost its religious worth, so that it claims of territoriality in Islam butwho nevertheless feel encour­ would not be a legitimate subject for spiritual regeneration. aged by Islam's witness to divine sovereignty in human affairs. Similarly, the political commonwealth would be a tyranny if nothing beyond compulsion held it together. Such a religious Islamic Territoriality-A Contested Concept conception of the moral integrity of the human person was necessary to Locke's conception of the tool-making character of The late Ayatullah Khumayni" of Iran once complained that civil government. Religion and civil government, Locke contin­ Muslims have been robbed of their heritage through the conniv­ ued, have an overlapping legitimate interest in "moral actions" ance of the West. Western agents, he charged, "have completely that belong "to the jurisdiction both of the outward and the separated [Islam] from politics. They have cut off its head and inward court; both of the civil and domestic governor; I mean [given] the rest to US."8 The reference is to the creation in Muslim both of the magistrate and the conscience." In other words, countries of the secular national state as the successor to the religion as a voluntary society made possible the birth of the transnational Islamic caliphate. A similar complaint was made theory of limited state authority. In this complementarity of by Sadiq al-Mahdi, the Sudanese political leader who pilloried church and state we find the "good life" wherein "lies the safety the secular national state by declaring: "The concepts of secular­ both of men's souls and of the commonwealth." ism, humanism,nationalism,materialismandrationalism,which The Muslimchallengewasnotfar from Locke's mind,andhe are all based on partial truths, became deities in their own right: considered how Muslims and others might be integrated into a one-eyed superbeings. They are responsible for the present society where religion was not enforced or enforceable. That Euro-American spiritual crisis. The partial truths in all these form of Islam, he said, that represented a rupture with the powerful ideas can be satisfied by Islam."? It was in respect to tradition of voluntarism would be difficult if not impossible to such sentiments that Kenneth Cragg wrote: "The renewed and assimilate. Similarly, atheism would present a no less troubling effective politicization of Islam is the most important single fact challenge. "Those that by their atheism undermine and destroy of the new [Islamic] century."!" all religion, can have no pretense of religion whereupon to All these views have their roots in the Prophet's own per­ challenge the privilege of toleration." This statement shows sonallegacy in Medina and Mecca, where he established territo­ Locke is aware that the argument for religious toleration itself riality (daral-lsldm) as the handmaid of religious faith." It was not rests on a religious idea, and that it is a contradiction in terms for long before the early Muslims were rallying round the political people to repudiate religion while supporting tolerance and standard 'Ia hukm illa bi-lldhi' ("no government except under inclusiveness. That is why Locke insisted that neither atheist nor God").12The words have echoed down to our day, refined and Muslim or any other "ought to be excluded from the civil rights mediated bythe medieval theologian, Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328), as of the commonwealth because of his religion." We may summa- a stringent theocratic credo. It is from Ibn Taymiyya, among others, that modernist Muslim reformers in the last two hundred years have received their marching orders, from [ala! al-Din Locke reasoned that a soul Afghani to Sayyid Qutb and Ayatullah Khumayni. In view of Ibn Taymiyya's influence on modern critical compelled was a soul that Muslim assessments of the West, a few words are in order on his had lost its religious worth. ideas. He spoke about the indispensability of God and the Prophet in political affairs, what he calls siyasah ilahfya wa indba nubuwfya ("divine government and prophetic vicegerency"). He contended: "To govern the affairs of men is one of the most rize Locke's reasoning to the effect that, on the one hand, moral important requirements of religion, nay, without it religion integrity requires us to reject the use of political instruments of cannot endure .... The duty of commanding the good and Christendom in securing religious ends; on the other hand, we forbidding the evil cannot be completely discharged without cannot surrenderthe religious groundconcerningtheprimacyof power and authority. The same applies to all religious duties consciencewithoutmaking civil governmentin the narrowsense (holy war, pilgrimage, prayer, fast, almsgiving), to helping those and religious toleration broadly conceived ultimate casualties. who are wronged, and to meting out punishment in accordance Numberless other Western religious thinkers have given with the legal penalties . . . The purpose of public office is to similar attention to the proper relation of religion and politics. further thereligion and the worldlyaffairs of men (islalJ ...dfnahu They separated the two by repudiating territoriality without wa-dunyahu) .... when the pastor exerts himself in proportion to jettisoning the religious ground of the repudiation. One seven­ his ability to further both, he is one of the most excellent fighters teenth-century theologian insisted that religious persons of con­ on the path of God." "The exercise of authority," he concluded, science cannot allow "a secular sword [to] cut in sunder those knots in religion which [it] cannot untie by a theological resolu­ "Ed. note: Or, as commonly transliterated in the Western press, Ayatollah tion.:" The reason for this is that "to employ the [civil] magistrate Khomeini.

October 1993 165 "is a religious function and a good work which brings near to obedience. We could not find revealed truth in the blinding God, and drawing near to God means obeying God and his flames of fanaticism. Prophet."13 A whole religious vocation has developed among certain These are uncompromising words that impute territoriality groups of Muslim West Africans on rejecting political and mili­ to religious orthodoxy, words that would make Muslims tary means for spreading and maintaining religious faith and uncontented witha merely utilitarian political ethic. Yet they are institutions. One such group are the [akhanke people, whose words that also make it difficult to coexist in a pluralist society. clericalroots go backto medievalAfricathrougha cleric called al­ Onewayoutof therestrictiveconfinesof IbnTaymiyya's thought :E:!ajj Salim Suware (hence the appellation "Suwarians" in some is to make "thedutyof commandingthegood and forbidding the sources). In received traditions al-Hajj Salim is described as evil" (amal bi-ma'rui wa nahy 'an al-munkar) a condition of the handing down teachings that represent a scrupulous disavowal religious interest in politics rather than the justification for a of political and military coercion in religious matters, and the theocracy, especially when a theocratic state may itself flout the repudiation of secular political office for the professional cleric, divine law. an astonishing position given the unambiguous rulings of the A similar consideration has led many other Muslims to Qur'an and the jurists. Yet equally astonishing is the durability question whether even under Islamic territoriality it is wise to of this pacific strain in Muslim West Africa, whose antiquity and employ force and coercion to propagate religion. One early dispersed, mobile character have led scholars to offer a Semitic caliph, for example, agonized over the safety of religious truth hypothesis as its origin. Indeed [akhanke chronicles identify when upheld by the instruments of the state. This was theCaliph them as Banilsrd'ila("children of Israel"), which appears to lend al-Ma'mun, who declared in a public meeting in A.D. 830 that at least a conjectural credence to theSemitic theory." At any rate, although many under his rule had converted to Islam for purely as professional clerics the [akhanke people established educa­ religious reasons, many others had done so from less honorable tional centers as cells of influence among diverse ethnic groups, motives. "They belong to a class who embrace Islam, not from a clerical cordon sanitaire of mobility and dispersal from where any love for this our religion, but thinking thereby to gain access theywafted the felicitous breathof pacific counsel. So distinctive to my Court, and share in the honour, wealth, and power of the was this tradition that local religious militants who defied it Realm; they have no inward persuasion of that which they found themselves exposed to the virus of religious mutiny from within. Local populations that had come under the influence of clericalpacifismwereso deeplyaffected thattheyfelt a theocratic When religion looks to state was more disconcerting than the prospects of continuing pluralism. political power for its This is not to say that pacific Muslim clerics did not clash ultimate defense, it will with unamenable secular strongmen, for they did, but that clerical pacifism undermined the extreme program of a corpo­ soon find there its sole rate theocratic state. The attempt was made many times in the vindication and reward. nineteenth and twentieth centuries to create theocratic govern­ ments in Muslim West Africa, and each time it failed from the prevailing unfavorable quietist climate of opinion. Even the outwardly profess.v " This anticipates Locke's notion of the effort by European administrations to co-opt into the colonial jurisdictionof the "outward and inward," and why territoriality brand of political committedness such pacific clerics by giving is as repugnant to conscience as it is inimical to democratic them chieftaincies foundered on the same pacific rock, with the pluralism. When religion looks to political powerfor its ultimate clerics offering their sympathy, or even cooperation, but stop­ defense, then it will soon find in the same source its sole vindica­ ping short of becoming collaborators and active allies. In the era tion and reward. We would, like the agonized caliph, be unable of total political mobilization that some colonial regimes pre­ to determine the true from the spurious, sincerity from self­ ferred, such clerical independencewas deemed an affront, and it interest, or commitment from opportunism. brought on the collision it was designed to avert, forcing the In an instructive piece of debate betweentwo Muslim schol­ clerics to reassess the heritage in the light of new realities. In the ars on the need for a theocratic state, we find identical issues exampleof onesuchstock-takingin 1911, theclericalleaderwho, being raised. One of the scholars in question, Muhammad al along with his followers, was arrested at the point of a gun and Kanemi (d. 1838), the ruler of Kanem-Bornu in West Africa, sent into humiliating exile and imprisonment spoke eloquently challenged the jihad leader 'Uthman dan Fodio (d. 1817) with of clerical pacifism not simply in terms of personal survival but regard to the use of the sword for religious ends. Al-Kanemi said in terms of a long, self-consistent vocation. The French adminis­ the sword is too rough-and-ready a weapon to use in settling trator and scholar Paul Marty, who saw the relevant document, religiousquestions,especiallyquestionsbetweenMuslimsthem­ found it difficultnotto be impressedbytheargument. Martysaid selves, since they would attempt to resolve by force majeure the leading cleric in question "formulated conclusions, stamped what might be substantial matters of theology, or even only with the indeliblemarkof loyalty, and remarked thathis fidelity, differences of opinion. He insisted that Muslims must either had it not been born of natural sympathy, would have been for settle for tolerance and mutual acceptance or else unleash a him a necessity of the logic of history."17 Marty described the smoldering permanentwarthatwould exempt, in his words, not attack on the pacific clerics as the St. Bartholomew's Massacre. even "Egypt, Syria and all the cities of Islam ... in which acts of Such conflicts were clearly painful personal setbacks, but they immorality and disobedience without number have long been were scarcely a fatal loss for pacific credibility or mobility, since committed." "No age and country," al-Kanemi cautioned, "is the clerics conducted themselves with dignified restraint under free from its share of heresy and sin.?" and any rigid notion of violent provocation and then subsequently emigrated as haven­ Muslim territoriality that flies in the face of this reality would seekers. reduce to ashes all sincere but inadequate attempts at truth and I myself was present when the Maliki mufti of the Republic

166 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH of Senegal, a seasoned child of theJakhankeperipatetictradition, Conclusion was invited from his country retreat in Casamance by the presi­ dent to travel to the capital to meet the king of Saudi Arabia. He The Muslim challenge and tradition we have thus examined in at first refused because he had in principle avoided political this brief account bring up the issue of how the Western under­ sponsorship and was unwilling to place himself at secular dis- standing of the limits and liability of territoriality may comple­ ment or otherwise amend and alter demands of political immu­ nity for religious groups that have entered the West. It is impor­ Muslims and Christians tant, therefore, to recognize the new context in which Muslims have encountered the West, not as a subjugated people of a can support a public role colonial empire but as immigrants looking for opportunities in for religion without the West. However, in spite of differences of culture and lan­ guage, and in spite of a common desire to succeed economically, making territoriality a such religious groups are, in the words of the legal manuals, necessity for faith. "bound together by the common tie of Islam that as between themselves there is no difference of country, and they may therefore be said to compose but one dar [i.e., daral-lsldm, or the posal. When he finally yielded, it was as a courtesy to the royal abode of fraternal Islam]' And, in like manner, all who are not visitor rather than a concession of collaborating with political [Muslims], being accounted as of one faith, when opposed to office. He and clerics like him are happy to make their peacewith them [i.e., Muslims], however much they may differ from each political territoriality but are less willing to collapse religion into other in religious belief, they also may be said to be one dar [i.e., such territoriality. Admittedly, religious withdrawal, even with daral-harb, "the sphere of war and enmity"]. The whole world, the clerical pacific principle at its heart, may notdeal wellenough therefore, or so much of it as is inhabited and subject to regular with the problem of the doctrinaire ideological secular state, but government, may thus be divided.?"? At least such is the insis­ it does sustain the moderate pacific counsels by which Muslim tence of radical religious activists. Africans have extended and deepened the tradition of genuine The Western comprehension of this new reality must keep pluralism. abreast of moderate Muslim counsels concerning the dangers of There is thus a large body of material in religious sources, territoriality, and both sides need to come to a common mind Muslim and Christian, to support a public role for religion about freedom in religion, whether in Manchester or in Medina. without requiring us to make territoriality a sine qua non of faith. It would be wrong for Westerners to think that they can preserve Sufyan Thauri, a classical Muslim writer, has a witty aphorism religious toleration by conceding the extreme Muslim case for that may be apt on this point. He wrote, "The best of the rulers is territoriality, because a house constructed on that foundation he who keeps company with men of [religious] learning, and the would have no room in it for the very pluralist principle that has worst of the learned men is he who keeps the society of the made the West hospitable to Muslims and others in the first king."ls That is to say, religion and worldly affairs prosper place. The fact that these religious groups have grown and together when political rules are qualified by moral principles, thrived in the West at a time when religious minorities estab­ and they suffer when moral principles are qualified by political lished in Islamic societies have continued to suffer civil disabili­ expedience. In the first case we would have Locke's notion of ties shows how uneven are the two traditions. limited state sovereignty, and in the second, echoes of the Vicar We risk perpetuating such a split-level structure in our of Bray's ballad in which the morality of taking the king's shilling relationship, including the risk to the survival of ourgreat public is set at the king's bidding. institutions, unless we take moral responsibility for the heritage Noteworthy

Andrew F. Walls, a contributing editor of this journal, Theological Seminary, South Hamilton, Massachusetts, effec­ received an honorary Doctor of Divinity degree from the tive July 1993.Kuzmic had been president of the Evangelical University of Aberdeen, Scotland, on July 8,1993.The citation Theological Seminary in Osijek, Croatia, since 1972. given with the degree described him as "a prolific contributor The First Presbyterian Church in Houston, Texas, has en­ of articles, with the gift of always offering an exciting, if at dowed the John William and Helen Lancaster Chair of Evan­ times unsettling interpretation of the onward march of Chris­ gelism and Missions at Austin Presbyterian TheologicalSemi­ tian expansion, seen in terms of the penetration of successive nary, and John R. Hendrick has been inaugurated as the first culturesand each culturecontributingboth to the survivaland incumbent. Dr. Hendrick has also been elected to chair the the diversification of the faith." Worldwide Ministries Division of the Presbyterian Church Peter Kuzmic has been appointed Distinguished Professor (U.S.A.). of World Missions and European Studies at Gordon-Conwell

October 1993 167 of the West, including tolerance for religion. Such tolerance for identical. Truth is no less so even if it is politically inexpedient, religion cannot rest on the arguments of public utility but rather while political expediency may serve the higher end without on the firm religious rock of the absolute moral law with which turning into the end itself. Similarly, Locke is right when he our Creator and Judge has fashioned us. Ibn Taymiyya is right argues for the "outward" and "inward" jurisdiction, with reli­ that "the exercise of authority is a religious function" in the sense gion at the center, but mistaken if he thought that his separation of accountability and subordination to the higher moral law, but removed religion from any role in the political economy. A theocratic state is no better than an ideological secular state, for in both God and obedience to him would be reduced to tools of In view of Muslim pressure authority, with truth-seeking becoming a strategy for self-inter­ and the sterile utilitarian est, and vice versa. In view of growing signs of Muslim pressure for religious ethic of the secular state, territoriality, often expressed in terms of shari'ah and political Westerners must recover power, and in view of the utter inadequacy of the sterile utilitar­ ian ethic of the secular national state, Westerners must recover responsibility for the responsibility for the Gospel as public truth and must reconsti­ Gospel as public truth. tute by it the original foundations on which the modern West has built its ample view of the world. The continuing disregard of this spiritual heritage is damaging to the tolerance and open­ he is mistaken when he makes this the territorial principle of mindedness that have been the safety net averting the penalty of orthodox rectitude. The political community is also the moral suppression from religious differences and allowing for the community, except that the political and the moral are not preservation of minorities in our midst.

Notes------­ 1. See, for example, Larry Poston, Islamic Da'wah in the West: Muslim 12. An authoritative Muslim political tract put it as follows: "The [reli­ Missionary ActivityandtheDynamics ofConversion toIslam (New York: gious] law of the sultan is the [political] law of the country," in U~ul Oxford Univ. Press, 1992). ul-Sivaean (On the fundamentals of government), reproduced in B.G. 2. For a succinct, lucid summary, see Sir Ernest Barker, Principles of Martin, "A Muslim Political Tract from Northern Nigeria: Social and Political Theory (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1951). Muhammad Bello's U~ul al-Siqdsa,' in Aspectsof West AfricanIslam, 3. The Muslimjihadist 'Uthman dan Fodio (d. 1817),wrote an exhaus­ vol. 5, ed. Daniel F. McCall and Norman R. Bennett (Boston: Boston tive treatise on the legal and doctrinal foundations of hijrah. See his Univ. Press, 1971), pp. 82-83. Baudn Wujub al-Hijrah 'Ala-l- 'Ibdd, ed. and trans. F. H. El-Masri 13. Cited in E. 1.J. Rosenthal, Political Thoughtin Medieval Islam (Cam­ (Khartoum: Khartoum Univ. Press and New York: Oxford Univ. bridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1958), pp. 51f£. Press, 1978). 14. 'Abd al-Masih ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, The Apology, ed. and trans. Sir 4. In his Habsburg Monarchy: 1808-1918 (reprinted London: Penguin William Muir (London: SPCK, 1887),pp. 29-30.AI-Kind!, himselfthe Books, 1990),A. J. P. Taylor examines some of the deeper social and supreme controversialist, added that people turned to Islam in these political ramifications of the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, circumstances, "some by fear of the sword, some tempted by power 5. A. S. P. Woodhouse, ed., Puritanism and Liberty: The Army Debates and wealth, others drawn by the lusts and pleasures of this life." (1647-9) from the Clarke Manuscripts (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 15. Text reproduced in Thomas Hodgkin, ed., Nigerian Perspectives: An 1974),p. 256.Richard Overton, another seventeenth-centuryPuritan Historical Anthology(London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1960), pp. 198f£. thinker, expressed similar sentiments about the use of "human 16. For a detailed study of the subject, see Lamin Sanneh, TheJakhanke compulsive power or force" in religion (ibid., pp. 332f£.). Muslim Clerics: A Religious andHistorical Study ofIslam in Senegambia 6. Ibid., p. 256. (Lanham, Md.: Univ. Press of America, 1989). This is the first and 7. R. G. Collingwood, TheIdea ofHistory(London: Oxford Univ. Press, only book-length study in any language. 1946), p. 49. 17. Ibid., pp. 132-33. 8. Cited in A. Rippin and J. Knappert, eds., Textual Sources on Islam 18. Cited in Nizam al-MuIk, The Book of Government for Kings (Siyasat (Manchester: Manchester Univ. Press; Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Nama) (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1960),p. 63. This work Press, 1986), pp. 191-92. was written in the eleventh century. 9. Cited in G. H. Jensen, Militant Islam (London: Pan Books, 1979),pp. 19. Digestof Moohummadan Law: Containing the Doctrines of the Hanifeea 126-27. Code ofJurisprudence, ed. and trans. Neil B.E.Baillie (1869-75; reprint, 10. Kenneth Cragg, TheCall oftheMinaret(Maryknoll, N.Y.:Orbis Books, Lahore: Premier Book House, 1974), pp. 169-70. 1985),p. 8. 11. SeeW. MontgomeryWatt, Muhammad atMedina (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962), still regarded as the definitive study of the subject.

168 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH The Challenge of Islamic Fundamentalism for Christians

David A. Kerr

brief visit to Egypt in the late 1970s, en route to a WCC­ Islamic Stereotypes in Recent Literature A sponsored meeting on Christian-Muslimdialogue, gave me the opportunity of visiting Coptic friends in el-Faiyum, a Since the Iranian revolution of 1979 there has been a spate of town some fifty miles southwest of Cairo where about a third of journalistic-cum-academic literature on Islamic fundamental­ the population is Christian. Their quizzical interest in the confer­ ism." Critical appraisal of a selection of these books makes it ence I was about to attend revealed a measure of skepticism. Is abundantly clear that Christians have no monopoly on the ste­ there any possibilityof dialogue withMuslims, they asked, when reotyping of Islam. The repertoire of conceptual interpretations the sheikh of their local mosque was preaching fire and damna­ has become standardized around the themes in the following tion against the Egyptian government, Christianity, and the sections. West?' The name of this feisty preacher meant nothing to me at Islamic Fundamentalism's Immanent Hegemony the time. But in recent months he has been bandied around the Western press as "Egypt's Khomeini ... fromJerseyCity": Sheikh An early example of prediction that Islamic fundamentalists are OmarAbdel Rahman, spiritual leaderof theAl-Salarn Mosque in poised to take over the Muslim world is found in Militant Islam Jersey City," allegedly the ideologue behind the bomb outrage in by the Indian-born British journalist Godfrey Jansen. Writing in New York's World Trade Center. the shadow of the Iranian revolution, he portrayed fundamental­ Since the early 1970sSheikh Rahman has beenan outspoken ism as the most potent force within the contemporary Muslim critic of successive Egyptian governments-likening Nasser to world, rooted in its Islamic past, successful in Iran and Pakistan, Pharaoh, condoning Sadat's assassination, and condemning and "well placed to come to power ... in Egypt and the Sudan in Mubarak as a pawn of U.S. interests. As an amir' of the radical the near future, and in Indonesia in the not too distant future."!" [ama'at al-Muslimin group/ he justified militancy against Mus­ At the time of publication many people found these proph­ lims whom he judged to be unbelievers." He was arrested several ecies credible, buta decade of hindsight shows themto havebeen times in Cairo, was refused permission to enter Saudi Arabia, and, after a year's haven in Sudan, finally came to the United States. A decade of hindsight has My Coptic friends' questioning of what kind of relationship they can foresee with Islam in light of the sheikh's fulminations shown that predictions of is but one example of apprehensions Widespread among Chris­ Islamic fundamentalism tians living in Muslim-dominated societies in the Middle East taking over the Muslim and in other parts of Asia and Africa. Similar questions are being asked by Christians in the West, nervous that what is termed world were exaggerated. "Islamic fundamentalism" will take root in Western societies where Muslim communities are growing." The continuing Rushdie affair is a reminder that our "global Village" is full of overstated. Indonesia, the countrywiththe largestMuslimpopu­ contradictions that make it an uncertain and dangerous place to lationin the world,remains committedto a constitutionbasedon live." the pancasila principles of socioreligious pluralism." Though It is the concern of this essay to wrestle with these questions Egypt is the home of the Muslim Brotherhood, arguably the in search for a sense of Christian relationship with Islam that will strongest ideological force behind contemporary fundamental­ be realistic as well as optimistic. In this regard the cautionary ism,"the governmentcontinues to proscribeits activities and has advice of an international group of Reformed Church Christians so far resisted falling prey to the more extreme groups spawned may help orientate our perspective: "Contemporary Christian by the brotherhood."The civil warin Sudanhasin partto do with stereotypes of Islamization reflect three tendencies which mili­ the constitutional future of the country's predominantlyMuslim tate against dialogue: sensationalism particularly in the mass north and Christian south, but it is important to remember that media which oversimplifies complex realities; essentialism which the main advocate of Islamization, President Nimeiri, was re­ tends to cast Islam as a monolithic religion and view all Muslims moved from power in 1985. Pakistan's Islamization campaign, as the same; and extremism which regards all Muslims as funda­ closely identified with the military government of Zia al-Haq, mentalist with the implication that they are dogmatic, reaction­ now seems caughtbetween the contending programs of political ary, and anti-modernist.?" parties in a restored democratic process. Even in Iran, where fundamentalism contributed to the successful Islamic revolu­ tion, the ideologically heady days of the 1980s are giving way to more sober and compromising counsels in the revolution's sec­ DavidA. Kerr is Professor ofIslamic StudiesandChristian-Muslim Relations ond decade. Iran, as we shall see below, is a special case and, at Hartford Seminary, Hartford, Connecticut, where he directs the Duncan Black Macdonald Center and edits the Muslim World. Prior to taking this along with the radical movements it protects in southern Leba­ appointment in 1988,hefounded andforfifteen years directed theCentre forthe non, is unique among Muslim societies. Study of Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations in the Selly Oak Colleges, Fundamentalism as Islam's Wrath Against the West Birmingham, U.K. He is currentlyconducting a research project funded by the Association ofTheological Schools in theUnitedStates andCanada in Jewish­If Jansen illustrates an element of extremism in much of the Christian-Muslim relations. recent literature, there are abundant examples of sensationalism

October 1993 169 in the sense of reducing complex realities to single causes. The case for an intrinsic fundamentalism has beenarguedby Turning to the popular genre of travelogues, V. S. Naipaul, a several scholars, for example, Bernard Lewis, who traces it to the Trinidad-born British novelist of Indian background, published traditional Muslim doctrine of the Qur'an as kalam Allah, the his immensely readable Among the Believers: An Islamic Journey literal Word of God.ls At a popular level Dilip Hiro's Holy Wars: (NewYork: Knopf, 1981).Through Iran, Pakistan, Malaysia, and The Rise of Islamic Fundamentalism (London: Routledge, 1989) Indonesia he introduces the reader to a panorama of contempo­ finds evidence of fundamentalism not only in Muslim attitudes rary Muslim contentions with a world that many feel is neither to their sacred text but in the life of the Prophet Muhammad and of their making nor of their hope. Anger against the West-its throughout the later developments of Islam. imperial history, its monopoly of resources, its political manipu­ With greater discrimination, however, the British doyen of lations ensuring that Muslims' "half-made societies are doomed Islamic scholarship, William Montgomery Watt, cautions that to to remain half-made"-is Naipul's recurrent theme, and the assess Islam as fundamentalist by nature is to disregard the wide prismthroughwhich he attempts to interpretIslamicfundamen­ variety of religious, social, and political manifestation of Islamic talism. "Rage was what I saw." identity throughout history." It is, in fact, to play to the funda­ mentalists' own methodology and rhetoric, which seek to im­ Fundamentalism and Terrorism pose a particular view of Islam upon Muslims as a whole. Watt Sacred Rage: The Wrath of Militant Islam (Sussex, U.K.: Linden urges liberal scholars, Muslim and non-Muslim, to rectify this Press, 1985) is Robin Wright's journalistic foray into fundamen­ image by honoring the rich diversity of Islam's historic and talism through the Iranian revolution." She focuses upon terror­ contemporary experience. ism as a particular manifestation of anger. Tracing the develop­ ment of conflict between Iran and the United States before and Defining Islamic Fundamentalism: Egypt after the Khomeini period, she shows how both sides proceeded largely on the basis of ignorance of the other. Critical as she is of Arabic has no equivalent for the English word "fundamental­ U.S. failure to develop a consistent policy toward Islamic funda­ ism." We needto attempta definitionof thephenomenonthrough mentalism, she portrays the latter almost entirely in militant the concepts and actions of Muslims themselves, beginning with terms, falling back on the cliche of fanaticism. This is yet more fundamentalist groups in Egypt. crudely the case in John Laffin's Holy War,Islam Fights (London: Islamic Fundamentals of Religion Grafton Books, 1988). The concept of fundamentals certainly exists in Islamic thought, Fundamentalism and Oil and centrally so in the importance of the usul ("roots," or "foun­ A further example of single-issue sensationalism is to be noted in dations") of religion. The roots of Islam lie in the Qur'an, the the perceived linkage between Islamic fundamentalism and oil. Hadith, and the shari'a. The Qur'an is held to be the very Word This thesis was first advanced by the American political scientist of God (kalam Allah). The Hadith, embodying the sunna, or inspired example of the Prophet Muhammad, serves to interpret and amplify the meaning of God's Word. Together, the Qur'an and Hadith constitute the sources of shari/a, which, by a process Sensationalism is seen in of juristic discernment (figh), provides ethical instruction and guidance for Muslim communities and individuals. Traditional the perceived linkage Islamic theology gives first place to these three fundamentals of between Islamic religion, distinguishing them from everything else, which is fundamentalism and oil. derivative and therefore classified as "branches" (furu'). Islah as the Means of Renewal Of the several Arabic terms that designate renewal, one that has Daniel Pipes, who argues in a study entitled In the Pathof God: enjoyed wide currency through the past century is islah-a word Islam and Political Power (New York: Basic Books, 1983) that the that has no precise English equivalent but that conveys the idea OPEC oil boom from the early 1970s fueled Islamic movements of making righteous. It was used particularly by Muslims from that opposed Western economic power. Tying Islamic funda­ the second half of the nineteenth century who wanted to restore mentalism closely to OPEC's fortunes, he predicted that the the identity of Islamic society (at the time largely controlled by former could notsurvive thelatter's decline. However, theactual European empires) by returning to the precedent of the Prophet politics of oil over the last ten years have seen a strugglebetween Muhammad and his companions (salaj). Known as the Salafiya four major oil-producing states-Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, movement," it eschewed anachronistic historicism by advocat­ and Iran-whose mutually competitive socioeconomic policies ing a renewed use of reason ('agl)as the means of interpreting the (including wars between Iran and Iraq [1979-89] and more re­ fundamentals of religion over against centuries of imitative cently between Iraq and Kuwait/Saudi Arabia) have greatly tradition (taglid). weakened OPEC. Meanwhile the phenomenon of fundamental­ The classic exposition of this form of islah is found in the ism seems not to abate. writing of the late nineteenth-century Egyptian Muhammad Abduh (d. 1905), whose most systematic treatise is available in Fundamentalism as the Intrinsic Nature of Islam English translation under the title Theology of Unity.18 It repre­ These reductionist interpretations of Islamic fundamentalism sents a milestone in the exercise of a modern ijtihad, or "personal are misleading in that they adhere to a single account of funda­ reasoning" upon the usul of religion. mentalism that, uponcloser analysis, is shownto be untenable as The Shari'a as the Framework of an Islamic State a total explanation. They address symptoms more than causes. Does this suggest that fundamentalism is more deeply rooted in Abduh was a thinker who applied his ideas of islah to the the very nature of Islam as a historic religious experience? development of educational and legal reform in Egypt. It fell to

170 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH the next generation, inspired by his writings, to wrestle with ies in the brotherhood, Muhammad al-Ghazali, referred to it as wider issues of social renewal. Hassan al-Banna (1906-49) was "the neglected duty," which is the title of a book devoted to the not trained (as Abduh had been) in traditional Islamic learning. subject (see n. 5). But if Muslim fundamentalists all commit But in 1926 he founded a populist movement called the Muslim themselves to spiritual,propagandist,andsociallyactivestruggle Brotherhood (al-ikhwan al-muslimun), largelyin opposition to the for the faith, there are different answers to the question of when, secularizing nationalism of the political party (Wafd) that spear­ and against whom, militant struggle is justified. headed the struggle for independence from Britain. He accepted the framework of a Western-originated nation-state but advo­ Militant Rebellion cated the necessity of its being constituted according to the Qutb was executed in 1966, having been found guilty of plotting shari'a for the preservation of Islamic integrity and order. The armed rebellion against Nasser's government. The legacy of his brotherhood streamlined their concept of shari'a into broad moreextremeteachinghasbeencontinuedby clandestinegroups principles of public order (maslaha),within a social ideology that that have adopted revolutionary strategies of change in contrast preserved the unity of religion and public life against Western to the brotherhood's more evolutionary approach. Two main and nationalist distinctions between state and religion. groups can be identified that have taken up acts of public After Egyptian independence the brotherhood quickly be­ violence: Al-Iihad, which traces its origins to a failed coup d'etat gan to oppose Nasser, who in turn proscribed their activities. in the 1970s, some of whose members were responsible for Their influence has nonetheless been widespread, especially Sadat' s assassinationin 1981;andJama'at al-Muslimin,thegroup among the social classes of the petit bourgeois shopkeepers and linked to the World Trade Center bombing and that claimed artisans and the young, mainly unemployed, intelligentia. responsibility for the assassination of the Egyptian minister of Generally considered to be the first "fundamentalist" move­ religious affairs in 1977. ment in the Muslim world, the Muslim Brotherhood enables us The difference between the two groups lies not in principle, to identify the phenomenon (1) as the social application of for both justify the use of violence against those whom they Islamic principles, (2) as a counterideology to the ruling elite, (3) denounce as unbelievers (kuffar), whether Muslim or not; they with leaders emerging from outside the ranks of religious differ only in their judgment of who the kuffar are. For Al-jihad professionals ('ulema), and (4) as attractive to people who feel they are the government, whereas the[ama'at al-Muslimin con­ themselves alienated from bothtraditional Islamic authority and demns the whole of Egyptian society for unbelief, regarding secular rulers. themselves to have "migrated" spiritually and in some cases physically/0in orderto createa pureIslamic community thatcan Jihad as the Means of Social Transformation eventually defeat the ungodly nation. After Hassan al-Banna's death in 1949 at the hands of the secret Although we may take these groups as examples of extrem­ police, ideologicalleadershipof thebrotherhoodpassedto Sayyid ist fundamentalism in Egypt, onthe criterionof their justification Qutb (1906-66). Two years' study in the United States (1949-51) of violence against other Muslims (whom they declare to be left himprofoundlydisillusionedwithWesternsociety,andback unbelievers), it is important to emphasize that they do not stand in Egypt he devoted himself to the struggle to realize an Islamic in the mainstream of Islam. Ideologically they represent a tiny alternative. faction that has effectively seceded from the much broader Centralto his writing is the conceptof jihad, the Arabic word movement of the Muslim Brotherhood. Theologically they have for"striving," in whichit is thedutyof all Muslimsto engage. The crossed an ethical Rubicon that has few precedents in Islamic history, the Sunni mainstream having always maintained the doctrine thatGod alone is judge of a person who has testified the Disillusioned with Western faith of Islam." society after two years' study in the United States, The Case of Iran Sayyid Qutb devoted The focus of so much media attention on Iran since its Islamic revolution of 1979 has linked the name of Ayatollah Khomeini himself to an Islamic withIslamicfundamentalism in theWestern mind. The resulting alternative. generalizations ignore the specific character of the Iranian situa­ tion in both religious and political terms and reduce the variety of Islamic fundamentalisms to a single model. Prophet Muhammad taught that jihad is engaged at four levels: While factors of Persian history and culture contributed to in the heart, as the place of spiritual striving;bythe tongue, as the the development of Shi'ism in the early centuries of Islam, it was means of preaching and teaching the message of Islam; by the not until the sixteenth century that Shi'ism was instated as the hand, as the means of its social application; and finally by the official form of Islam under the ruling dynasties of the shahs. It sword, as the implementof its defense and confrontationagainst differs from Sunni Islam in its location of religious authority in ungodly forces. This last meaning of militant struggle was exem­ the figure of the Imam, directly descended from the Prophet plified in the Prophet Muhammad's strategy against pagan Muhammad's household, through the union of his cousin Ali forces of Mecca from his homebasein Medina. SayyidQutbdrew with his daughter Fatima. As distinct from Sunni Muslims, the an analogybetweenthisandthesituationin Egyptunderthecold Shi'ites add the institution of the imamate to the trilogy of war pressures of Soviet and American influences. He declared religious fundamentals described above. Egypt to be in a state of pagan ignorance.'? thus he justified the Since the ninth century C.E. the majority of Shi'ites believes use of force to bring about change. that the twelfth imam in succession to Ali exists in the invisible The revived commitment to jihad is another defining at­ state of occultation (rayba), hidden from sight as the sun behind tribute of Islamic fundamentalism. One of Qutb's contemporar- a cloud,butno less the source of lightand spiritualguidance. The

October 1993 171 theory of Shi'ite religious leadership involves a hierarchy of is not monolithic. There are striking differences between the "clergy" who receive and apply the guidance of the Hidden Iranian and Egyptian varieties, and within Egypt, where the Imam as the infallible source of quranic interpretation for the phenomenon has a longer history than anywhere else in the direction of the Muslim community. This will pertain until the Muslim world, we find a broad spectrum of theory and praxis. coming messianic age, when the Imam will return to earth to This is why many scholars refuse to use the term "fundamental­ establish a truly righteous society before the arrival of the Last ism," deeming it too imprecise to identify the complexity of Day. trends that are actually involved. If we choose to retain the term, At the head of this clerical hierarchy, for which Sunni Islam we need to think of fundamentalisms in the plural and to avoid has no equivalent, stand the ayatollahs-the "signs of God" generalization from the perspective of anyone of them. upon the earth. The most senior ayatollahs reside in the Shi'ite Backto where this inquirybegan. My Coptic friends in Egypt holy places in Iraq, associated with the martyrdom of Ali's son understandably expressed moral condemnation of the extremist Hussain, killed by a Sunni army. It was during his exile in Iraq violence of groups like the [ama'at al-Muslimin. They are con­ that Ayatollah Khomeini gave a famous series of lectures in demned by mainstream Muslims as well. While the Muslim which he developed his politicojuristic doctrine of the vilaya al­ Brotherhood movement remains illegal, it continues to have [agih, or "authority of the religious jurist," in which he advocated widespread influence in that it addresses issues that concern the subordination of political leadership in Iran to the spiritual many younger Egyptian Muslims, women and men alike: issues authority of the religious scholar (fagih).22 His later success in of religious identity, cultural destiny, economic disparity, and marshaling Iranian resentments in revolution against the shah social organization. Raising suchconcernsfrom the 1930s,Hassan returned him triumphantly to Iran in 1979, and the new Islamic al-Banna sometimes addressed Coptic Christians as well as constitution established this doctrine at its core. Egyptian Muslims, recognizing that Egyptian society of his Analysts of the Iranian revolution question the degree to utopian vision would rest on coexistence between the two reli­ which it was purelyIslamic in the sense of being motivated solely gious communities, as it has in the past. Before him Muhammad by religious factors. A potent variety of political and economic Abduh had done the same, to the point of drawing favorable elements was involved. As the only major institution during the comparison between the self-reformist movements in Christian­ ity and the Islamic islah. 23 Christian dialogue with Islamic fundamentalists is not an a The problem facing Iranian priori impossibility. It needs to be discriminating in terms both of fundamentalists is the partners and of issues. It will be pursued differently by Chris­ tians living within Islamic societies than by Christians meeting difficulty of translating Muslims in the West. Conditions and priorities vary from place religious generalizations to place, but we need to be in mutually supportive communica­ tion. For example, the issue of the religious and human rights of into viable governmental Christian individuals and communities in relation to shari'a law programs. is different from, but by no means unrelated to, issues and individuals in Euro-America. There can be no doubt that it is within the sphere of social ethics that Muslims put their priority Pahlavi monarchy that successfully resisted state control, it was in terms both of their internal religious discourse and for such the clergy, under Khomeini's uncompromising leadership, who dialogue as may be entertained with and by Christians. were able to articulate popular grievances against the Western­ Vigilance in matters of human rights was highlighted in the izing trends of the shah's Iranian nationalism, eventually to the recommendations of the internationalgroupof Reformed Church point of directing and "Islamizing" the forces of opposition. Christians dealing with Christian-Muslim relations, already Now into its second decade, and deprived of Ayatollah quoted in the introduction to this essay. The whole thrust of their Khomeini's leadership, the Islamic Republic is moving into a recommendations wasframed withinan emphasisonthe needto new phase colored by ideological compromise, internal power develop a theological understanding of power. Their paragraph sharing, and reconciliation with the United States. In terms of a on this issue is a fitting conclusion to the present discussion: descriptive definition of fundamentalism, this current status underlines two features: the strength of the fundamentalists lies Islamization is deeply concerned with the social and political in their defining, through religious symbols, the opposition to a expression of religion in search of an Islamic society or state. The ruling regime; the problem facing the fundamentalists is the danger of religion becoming a tool of nationalism, or being ex­ difficulty of translating their religious generalizations into sus­ ploited by a government or party for narrow political ambition is tainable governmental programs. evident. Too easily, however, have Christians interpreted Jesus' teaching to "render to Caesar the things of Caesar, and to God the things of God" as implying an absolute separation between reli­ Conclusions gion and politics. While this view is powerfully challenged by liberation theologians, many Christians have yet to develop a Ifthe foregoing analysis has helped develop a descriptive profile theological understanding of political power which enables them of the phenomenon of Islamic fundamentalism, it becomes clear to critique Islamic as well as secular ideologies, while at the same that no simple definitions, as have been offered in much of the time seeking to cooperate with Muslims in the struggle for justice Western literature of the 1980s, are sufficient. The phenomenon and peace."

172 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Notes------­ 1. The Arabicword sheikh denotes onewhose maturity qualifieshimfor (5) social justice for the whole of the people of Indonesia. It is to be leadership (sheikha in the feminine). Originallyused of an Arab tribal noted that the 1945 Jakarta Charter, which contained a special leader, the term applies to leadership of various sorts, including, as proviso for Muslims (belief in the one supremeGod with the dutyfor in this case, religious leadership by qualification as a graduate from all Muslims to follow the syaria [= shari'a, or holy law]), has so far Islam's most ancient university, al Azhar in Cairo. been resisted by the constitution makers. 2. Arabic for "peace," salam derives from the same Arabic root (slm) as 12. The most authoritative study, though lacking contemporary per­ islam, a causative verbal noun that signifies "making peace" through spectives, is Richard Mitchell, The Society of Muslim Brothers (New obedience to God, the source of peace tal-Salam), cf. Surah 59:23. York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1969). 3. Meaning "leader," a term derived from the Arabic word for "com­ 13. Including the [ama'at al-Muslimin (Muslim Society), linked to AI­ mand." Jihad, some of whose members have been on trial in Cairo for their 4. Meaning "Society of Muslims," for discussion of which see below; alleged campaign of violence against foreign tourists. the sheikh is also said to have been associated withthe Al-Iihad group 14. Cf. her later book In theNameofGod: TheKhomeini Decade (New York: (discussed below). Simon & Schuster, 1989). 5. SeeJohannesJansen, TheNeglected Duty:TheCreed ofSadat's Assassins 15. See his Political Language of Islam (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, andIslamic Resurgence in theMiddleEast(London: Macmillan, 1986); 1988). EmmanuelSivan, Radical Islam: Medieval Theology andModern Politics 16. See his Islamic Fundamentalism and Modernity (London: Routledge, (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1985); Nemat Guenana, TheJihad: An 1988). Islamic Alternativein Egypt (Cairo: American Univ. Press, 1986). 17. The origins of this movement are associated with the religiopolitical 6. Yvonne Haddad, ed., Muslims of America (New York: Oxford Univ. activism of Jamal ad-Din aI-Afghani (1839-97).The British scholar of Press, 1991);[ergen Nielsen, Muslims in Western Europe (Edinburgh: IslamSir HamiltonGibb identified aI-Afghani as the majorinfluence Edinburgh Univ. Press, 1991). on "more recent popular movements which combine Islamic funda­ 7. Lisa Appignanesi and Sara Maitland, eds. TheRushdieFile (Syracuse, mentalism with an activist political program" N.Y.:SyracuseUniv. Press, 1991);DanCohn-Sherbok,ed., TheSalman (Muhammedanism [New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1949], p. 134). Bruce Lawrence Rushdie Controversy in Interreligious Perspective (Lewiston, N.Y.: E. suggests that this is the earliest use of the term "fundamentalism" in Mellen, 1990); Malise Ruthven, A Satanic Affair: Salman Rushdieand relation to Islam (Defenders of God, p. 272). the Rageof Islam (London: Chatto and Windus, 1990); Daniel Pipes, TheRushdieAffair: TheNovel, the Ayatollah, and the West (New York: 18. Muhammad Abduh, TheTheology ofUnity, trans. KennethCragg and Carol Publishing Group, 1990); M. M. Ahsan and A. R. Kidwai, Ishaq Musa'ad (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1966); the origi­ Sacrilege Versus Civility: Muslim Perspectives on the Satanic Verses nal Arabic title is Risala al-Tawhid (Cairo, n.d.). Affair (Leicester, U.K.: Islamic Foundation, 1991/1412). 19. For which he used the termjahiliyya, meaning"age of ignorance," the 8. My Neighbour IsMuslim:A Handbookfor Reformed Churches, JohnKnox Islamic term for Arabia prior to the revelation of the Qur'an. Series 7 (Geneva, 1990), p. 100.The presentauthor, being responsible 20. The original name of the [ama'at al-Muslimin group came from the for writingtheselineson behalfof theconference,wishesto acknowl­ Arabic words takfir, meaning "declaring someone an unbeliever," edge that the emphasized words are quoted from Tariq Mitri, the and hijra, meaning "migration" from an ungodly place to create a Lebanese Orthodox secretary for Christian-Muslim relations in the righteous community (modeled after the prophet Muhammad's World Council of Churches, Geneva Secretariat. hijra from Mecca to Medina). 9. The most recent comprehensive review is found in the bibliographic 21. Known as the shahada: "I bear witness that there is no god but God; essay of Bruce Lawrence entitled "Religious Fundamentalisms: A and I bear witness that Muhammad is the Messenger of God." For Bibliographical Survey, Part 1: Islam-Khomeini and After," in discussion of the classic Islamic debate about the standing of a grave Choice, February 1993, pp. 923-32. For Lawrence's own contribution sinner within the community of believers, see WilliamMontgomery to the comparativestudyof fundamentalism, see his Defenders ofGod: Watt, TheFormative Period ofIslamic Thought(Edinburgh: Edinburgh The Fundamentalist Revolt Against the Modern Age (San Francisco: Univ. Press, 1973), pp. 126ff. Harper and Row, 1989). 22. See Abdulaziz Sachedina, The Just Ruler (al-sulian al-tadil) in Shi'ite 10. GodfreyJansen,MilitantIslam(NewYork: Harperand Row, 1979),p. Islam: TheComprehensive Authority oftheJuristinImamiteJurisprudence 198. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1988). 11. The five principles of pancasila are (1) belief in the one supreme God; 23. In particularhis IslamWa'l-Nasraniya (Islamand Christianity) (Cairo, (2)justand civilized humanity; (3) the unity of Indonesia; (4)democ­ n.d.), which has yet to be translated into English. racy led by the wisdom of deliberation among representatives; and 24. My Neighbour Is Muslim, pp. 98-99.

October 1993 173 Book Reviews

Toward the Twenty-First Centuryin Christian Mission.

Edited by James M. Phillips and Robert T. Coote. Preface by Lesslie Newbigin. Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B.Eerdmans Publish­ ing Co., 1993. Pp. x, 400. Paperback $24.99.

James Phillips and Robert Coote have ed­ This exceptional volume contains es­ Samuel Escobar are particularly insight­ ited an excellent collection of essays in says by leading mission scholars, mostly ful. Other vital contributions are those on honor of Gerald H. Anderson, director of AmericanProtestantsofdiversetraditions, biblical modelsofmissionby DavidBosch, the Overseas Ministries Study Center, but also including some Catholics and a contextualization by Donald Jacobs, mis­ editor of the INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF good number of non-Americans. The es­ sion and affluence by Jonathan Bonk, and MISSIONARY RESEARCH, and preeminent says are of high quality. Of particular Christian-Muslimrelationsby DavidKerr. scholarof the worldmissionof the church. interest is the recent bibliography that An additional essay on the missiology of Toward the Twenty-First Century in Chris­ accompanies each essay. Just to have the so-called indigenouschurcheswouldhave tian Mission surveys the mission of the up-to-date thinking and references pro­ been helpful, but essays by Gary McGee churchfrom the perspective of ecclesiasti­ vided by outstanding missiologists is on Pentecostal missions and Paul Hiebert cal groupings, geographic areas, "foun­ worth the price of the volume. Notewor­ on popular religions address the issue dational disciplines," and current issues. thy features of the book include its inclu­ indirectly. An essay on mission as libera­ The volume contains a brief biography of sive approach toward theological differ­ tion written by a non-Westerner would Gerald Anderson as well as a select bibli­ ences among Protestants and its refusal to also have been valuable. Quibbles aside, ographyof his writings from 1958to 1993. drawartificial distinctionsbetween "West­ this volume will be a superb textbook for The breadth of the volume honors the ern" evangelism and "non-Western" mis­ stimulating discussion in seminary mis­ wide scope of Anderson's own involve­ sion. sion courses. ment, which has ranged from Philippine Especially helpful is the world sur­ -Dana L. Robert church history to mission theology and vey of Christian mission by region, with trends, mission history, publishing and key missiological issues highlighted from Dana L. Robert, a contributing editor, is Associate administration, and serving as president different parts of the world. The articles Professor of International Missionat Boston Uni­ ofboththe AmericanSociety ofMissiology on Oceaniaby DarrellWhiteman,the Com­ versity School of Theology. Shewasa visiting pro­ and the International Association for Mis­ monwealth of Independent States by J. fessor attheUniversityofCape Town,SouthAfrica, sion Studies. Martin Bailey, and Latin America by in 1992-93.

New Evangelization: Good News to image of God with God, is idolatry. the Poor. The first evangelizationfailed, accord­ ing to Boff,because it was not really suffi­ By Leonardo Boff. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis cientlyChristianandevangelical.The new Books, 1991. Pp. xvi, 128. Paperback $13.95. evangelization must involve letting the "evangelized" evangelize the"evangeliz­ With this concise volume Brazilian and text, Chilam Balam, describes poignantly ers." "The Church stands ever in need of former Franciscan Leonardo Boff contin­ the Mayan shock and grief over the "Gos­ evangelization" (Paul VI, Evangelii ues his untiring struggle to renew the pel as anti-Gospel" during the conquest. Nuntiandi 15). church from below. The context for these Boff also quotes the infamous "Require­ Specifically, Boff argues that the Ro­ pages was the controversial"celebration" ment" read to the Indians (p. 100) and a man Catholic Church-especially the hi­ of the five hundredth anniversary of the chilling catechism (Santo Domingo, c. erarchy-must be willing to be evange­ arrival of Columbus on American shores. 1510)thatblithelyinforms the natives that lized by other Christians (Protestant, Pen­ Very sagely,Boffcorrelatesthis eventwith all their parents and ancestors are in hell tecostal, Orthodox) and by the cultures to a second major theme: Pope John Paul's (p. 15). On new currents in missiology, which it presumes to take the good news call for a "new evangelization" (p. xii), Boff quotes basic passages from Vatican (pp. 44-47). Boff argues forcefully for the Bofftakes the pope at his word and spells Council II, Evangelii Nuntiandi, Medellin, dismantling of European Christendom out clearly and boldly the shape of this and Puebla. and the emergence, through the Spirit, of challenge for Latin America, in sharp con­ Boffargues eloquentlythattrueevan­ a genuine "Cornrnunitarian Christianity" trast to the "first evangelization" carried gelism must occur within a sincere, open (p. 118) that will be a culturally authentic out by the Spaniards and Portugese dur­ dialogue with the culture being evange­ incarnation of the good news. ing the colonial period. lized, including its religion. The triune -John Starn For this doubleagenda,Boffprovides God is present in the culture long before a wealth of valuable documentation that the missionary arrives; native religions John Stam,amissionary inCentral America forover makes his book an excellent primer on revealdivine grace as well as humansin­ thirty-fiveyears, is Professor ofHermeneutics and both Luso-Hispanic colonialism and on which is also all too present in European Theology at the National Universityof Costa Rica current Roman Catholic missiology. An Christendom. To confuse the Gospel with and the Nazarene Seminary of the Americas, San opening quotation from a Guatemalan one of its inculturations, or to identify one Jose, Costa Rica.

174 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH NeitherBangnorWhimper: The End Prominent among the last item are of a Missionary Era in China. works by the late David Paton, respected among church-related sinophiles world­ ByGeorge Hood. Singapore andLondon: Pres­ wide. Among the two camps (conserva­ byterian Church in Singapore and Friends of tives and liberals), he took the position the Church in China (U.KJ, 1991. Pp. xviii, "God is at work" rather than "the Lord 288.£8.50; paperback £5.00. will overrule." Paton's various writings, and particularly his Christian Missionsand George Hood, author of Mission Accom­sons to be learned. His sources, drawn the Judgment of God (SCM Press, 1953), plished? TheEnglish Presbyterian Missionin largely from British mission board files, guided many former China missionaries Lingtung, South China (1988), brings a include reports of staff meetings, China to a broader theological and missiological wealth of credentials to this work. He was study groups, position papers by board understanding of what had happened, missionary for twenty-seven years in executives, and writings by former China paving the way for a whole new under­ South China, Malaysia, and Singapore; missionaries. standing of the "three-self" concept and one-time secretary for the Council for World Mission (U.K.); and missiologist and historian. The title is misleading. This is not a historical account of the end of the mis­ PROPOSALS INVITED FOR sionary era in China; rather, it is an ac­ count and appraisal of the end of British RESEARCH PROJECTS IN Protestant mission work in China and is based largely on the records of British MISSION AND WORLD CHRISTIANITY Protestant mission societies and leaders in the years following 1949. This is made clear in the author's preface (p. ix). Since, The Overseas Ministries Study Center, New Haven, Connecticut, by the author's own statistics, there were announces a Research Enablement Program for the advance­ only 14 British mission societies out of a ment of scholarship in studies of Christian Mission and Chris­ total of 109at workin China(and this does not include Catholic missions, which had tianity in Asia, Africa, Latin America, and Oceania. Grants will more than twice as many missionary be awarded on a competitive basis in the following categories: priests in 1949as ordained Protestant mis­ sionaries), this book is only a piece of the Fieldresearch for doctoral dissertations picture. One feels the constraints of the nar­ Post-doctoral book research and writing projects row focus set by the author. Important Missiological consultations (smallscale) ecumenicalstudygroups and conferences Translation ofmajorworksof mission scholarship on China that were convened both inside and outside Britain, but with the coopera­ intoEnglish tion and participation of persons from Oralmission/church history projects (non- Western world) Britain during the period covered by this Planning grants for major interdisciplinary book, are omitted or barely mentioned. Organized efforts and publications by research projects NorthAmericans and Europeans that par­ alleled the British studies, appraisals, and The Research Enablement Program is designed to foster scho­ projects go unmentioned. As it did for the larship that will contribute to the intellectual vitality of the secular community of China scholars, so Christian world mission and enhance the worldwide under­ for the missionary community the "China debacle" (p. 199) generated the greatest standing of the Christian movement in the non-Western world. burst of analysis and introspection ever Projects that are cross-cultural, collaborative and inter­ undertaken. disciplinary are especially welcome. The deadline for receiving George Hood's work is comprehen­ 1994 grant applications is December I., 1993. For further sive anddetailed. Chapters1and2briefly information and official application forms please contact: set the historical stage for Protestant mis­ sions in China, leading into the main sec­ tions, which deal with the response of Geoffrey A. Little, Coordinator British mission boards to the termination Research Enablement Program of mission efforts in China, the redeploy­ Overseas Ministries Study Center ment of British missionaries, and the les- 490 Prospect Street New Haven, CT 06511, U.S.A. Tel: (203) 865-1827 Donald MacInnisserved asaMethodist missionary in South China in the late 1940s, and later in Fax: (203) 865-2857 Taiwan. His most recent books are Religion in China Today: Policy and Practice (Orbis Books, ThisProgram is supported by a grantfrom 1989),and Religion Under Socialism in China The Pew Charitable Trusts. (Chinese original by LuoZhufeng,Shanghai Acad­ emy of Social Sciences; English translation with Zheng Xi'an, Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, 1991).

October 1993 175 principles of indigeneity now universally Christia nity in China" (p , 222). At pre­ A Violent Evangelism: The Political accepted . cisely the same time, Francis P. Jones, an and Religious Conquest of the Perhaps one important lesson learned eminent Ame rican mission ar y-scholar, Americas. was theneed for ecumenicalsharing.Hood was prepari ng just such a book,TheChurch tells of the sho rt-lived China Study Group in Communist China,which was published By Lu is N . Rivera. Loui svi lle, Ky .: of the IMC Resear ch Department, which in 1962 by the Friends hip Press. The 176­ Westmins ter/John Knox Press, 1992. Pp.xoii, held a final meeting in London in 1959, page book was used as a major study 357. Paperback $19.99. adjourning after failing to agree on the resource by North American churc hes that format for a China study book. One gro up year and remains tod ay an important ref­ This book, which first appeared in Span ­ member later wrote of the "crying need erence book. ish in 1991, joins the heated debate ove r for an inexpensi ve book [on] Protestant -Donald MacInnis the quincentennial. The au tho r, who is associate professor of humanities at the University of Pue rto Rico, opens a wi n­ dow upon the argu ment that raged in fifteenth- and sixtee nth-century Spain between (1) adventurers, conquistadores, and their ecclesiastical defende rs and (2) prophetic ch u rch men, such as Fr. Bartholomew de las Casas. The book has thr ee parts. The first four cha pters deal wi th the historical con­ text in w hic h papal bulls, re ligious messian ism,and imperial providentialism all played a part. No one at the time ques­ tioned Spain's right to the new lands, but opinio n was stro ngly divide d on the d i­ vine purpose of it. The followi ng six cha p­ ters present the heated debate over the right of Spain to evangelize and civilize or to enslave its newly conquered peoples. The book provides firsthand insights into the encomienda sys tem (a form of inden­ tured slavery); the d estruction of enti re peoples, cultures, an d religions (a "holo­ caus t of natives . . . possibly the greatest dem ogr aphic catastrophe in history" [pp. he list of suggested readings add 169, 174]); and the int roduction of black f the twenty-eight essays is the slavery to take its place. The final four cha pters offer "a theo­ I!t~b l i og rap hy of current viewpoi logical critique of th e con qu est" fro m mIssions that I have seen, and within colonialSpain. Did the nat ives have enough to recommend the bo rights to land, culture, and religion? Did , and anyone else wh they, in fact, have souls? Could they ac­ cept or reject the Christian God? On one ns.. regard their glo side we re ran ged the defenders of Spa n­ . -SAMUEL HUGH MOFF ish hegemon y and th e Ca tho lic fait h again st external enemies (he retics and suc h), and on the other side stood auda­ ciou s prophets who denou nced the injus­ tices perpetrated by the conquis tadores as sin and heresy. For all the cruelties of the e21st Centu conquisia, it is to Spain's credit that there were authentic Christians who spo ke out again st the sys tem. They, says Rivera, are an Mission the pr ogenitors ofliberatio n theology. His book mak es an indisp ensable contribu­ tion to our u ndersta ndi ng of cu rre nt SM. PHILLIPS • ROBERT T. COOTE • missiological issues in Latin America . -Guillermo Cook ISBN 0-8028-0638-4 Paper, $24.99 GuillermoCook writesandlectureson Latin Ameri­ can religious phenomena in North America, Eu­ rope,andAustralia.A member oftheLatinAmerica t your bookstore, or call 800 -253-7521 FAX 616-459-6540 Mission and a native Argentinean, he is currently 331 ~WM. B. EERDMANS PUBLISHING CO. engagedin researchon the Protestant churches,and _I 255 JEFFERSO N AVE. S.E. I GRAN D RAP IDS. MICH IG AN 4950 3 also on Amerindian religiosity in a Protestant con­ text. He resides in Costa Rica.

176 lNrERNA1l0NALB ULLETIN OF M ISSIONARY RESEARCH Juan A. Mackay: Un escoces con alma Sinclair reminds us that "Mackay con­ latina. sidered himself a child of three continents and three cultures: the Europ ean, the His­ By John H. Sinclair. Mexico City: Ediciones panicAmerican and the No rth Ame rican" Casa Unida de Publicaciones, 1990. Pp. 239. (p. 71). It is to be expected that children Paperback $12.00. from these three continents should con­ tribute to the study of this outstanding We welcome this first biograph y of John words and idioms to Spanish.This is to be Christian, whose life and thou ght have A. Mackay, the brilli ant Scottish mission­ regretted, especially because Macka y had had a global impact. Sinclair has done his ary-theologian. Itis well document ed and such a un iqu e comma nd of the Castilian part on behalf of North America. written with affection, clarity, and el­ language. - Pedro Arana Q. egance. John H. Sinclair has touched key Sinclair states that the name "wee aspects of the life of his subject, tryi ng to frees" was used to refer to cong regations set each moment of his story within the of the Free Presbyterian Churc h (p.44). As PedroAranaQ., General Secretaryof the Peruvian context of its timeand place.In this wa y he a gra dua te from the theological college of Bible Society, is a graduate from the Colegio San has been faithful to the spirit that was the Free Churc h of Scotland, this reviewer Andres , theschool thatJohn A. Mackay foundedin characteristic of Mackay himself, in his must clarify that actually the name "wee Lima, and presently chairs the board of directors of teachin g and wri ting. free" was used to dis tinguish the mem­ that school. Sinclair has not keptthis qu ality,how­ bers of the Free Churc h of Scotland from ever, in the chapters entitled "Peru from those of the established Churc h of Scot­ 1910 to 1920" and "The Southern Cone, land. Also in our view the success of Joh n 1926-1932." As they stand, for the average A. Mackay as headmaster of the Anglo­ Dissonant Voices: Religious Plural­ Latin American reade r they are little more Peruvian Co llege (lat er on known as ism and the Question of Truth. than a list of persons and eve nts, which Colegio San Andres) in Lima cannot be does not convey the unique historical cir­ justly understood apart from the invalu ­ By Harold A. Net/and. Grand Rapids, Mich.: cumstance s to which they refer. able cont ribution and the friendly loyalty Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1991 . Pp. Unfortunately the editors have been of W. Stanley Rycroft. Sinclair ment ions xii, 323. Paperback $17.95. careless in the proofreading and layout of him four times on pages 88 and 89, but the book. Several Spanish wo rds are in­ these references do not express adequately Harold Netland 's interest in religious plu­ correctly spelled, and there are too many Rycroft's workand influence, which have ralism turned seriously academic at inaccurate transliterations of Eng lis h lasted until today in that schoo l. Cla remo nt Graduate Schoo l under Pro -

IIAREOPAGUS " M A G A z N E You don't have to pronounce it.

Just read it.

God Comes to Hong Kong in a Leaky Boat· A T ibetan Monk Meets Christ· F inding Solace in the Life of a Saint· Prayers for Japan's W ater Children· Is Allah God? • The Humanism of Confucius· Can Zen B e Born Again ? • The Hindu .W a y to Christ· Escape from the Rajneesh Community· Children in Prostitution: What Can Be Done ? • Holistic Nutrition and the Holy Spirit· And More!

AREOPAGUS IS MISSION IN CONTEXT

Published quarterly. USS24/year; sample US$4. Check or money order payable to Tao Fong Shan Christian Centre, Dept. IB, P.O. Box 33, Shatin, N.T., 1I0ng Kong.

Oc tober 1993 177 fessor John H. Hick. Perhaps it wa s this contrast to Christia nity. Wh ether this is a tist Miss ionary Society (BMS) to mark the opportu nity joined to his form er mission­ substantive philosophical concern or sim­ first two hu ndred years of its life, this ary work in Jap an that motivated this ply a matter of havin g another perspec­ work will becom e the standa rd work on book. tive is not clear. At times Ne tland wants to the subject. In addition to being give n One might assume Ne tland to have say yes to wha t he finds in other religions, access to all the society's archives, includ­ evo lved some form of inclu sivist position and at other tim es he wa nts to say no. ing those not normally available to re­ wit hin the context of his study underJohn This is an important book for those searchers, Stanley has also used vari ous Hick. On the contrary, Netl and holds to interested in theology of religion s. pr ivate collections of lett ers from pr evi­ an exclusi vist position, which this book -Thom as N. Wisley ous missionar ies and officia ls of the soci­ defends. He approaches the issue ep iste­ ety, has visited a number of the areas mologically,seeking to deal withthe prob­ where the BMS has worked in the past or lem of conflicting truth claims. is currently working, and has conducted Among the str ength s of the book is The History of the Baptist Mission­ numerous inte rviews wit h retired and Ne tlan d's careful treatment of contrast­ ary Society, 1792-1992. serving missionaries. ing pos itions.A paucity of rhetoric is cha r­ The result is a wo rk that gives both a acteristic of Ne tland's writing style and By Brian Stanley. Edinb urgh:T. & T. Clark, broad ove rview of the activities of BMS his argume nts. He conside rs opposing 1992. Pp. xix, 564. $59.95. missionaries from William Ca rey up to views and, for the most part , handles th e present and grea t amounts of detailed them with skill and understanding. Brian Stanl ey, a British Baptist who lec­ information on projects, peopl e, discus­ Netland's persp ective on other reli­ tures on churc h history in Trinity College , sions,conflicts,successes, and failures tha t gions (Shinto, Bud dhism , etc.)seems to be Bristol, England, and who has already flesh ou t the broad outline and give a based up on what is lacking in them by written an excellent study on the top ic of balan ced pictureofthe contributions made Protestant missions and British impe rial­ in man y differentareas and kinds ofwork. ism in the nin eteenthand twenti ethcentu­ Read ers w ho wa nt the bro ad picture will ries (TheBibleand theFlag [Ap ollos, 1990]), necessaril y skim some of the detail, but Thomas N. Wisley is Professor of International has now produced an other fine volume to those who wa nt detailed informa tion on Christian Studies,TokyoChristian University.For­ mark the bicentenary of the first of the individua l persons, places, and projects merly,hetaught at SeattlePacificUniversity andat missionary socie ties that developed ou t of will find it. The autho r manages the vast theAllianceBiblicalSeminarq.Manita.Philippines. the Second Evange lical Awa kening at the amount of ma terial without losing sight of He also served as a missiona ry with the Christian beginning of the last century. the fores t for the trees. The autho r is to be and Missionary Alliance in Thailand. Officially commissioned by the Bap- complime nted on the excellent, scholarly, and interesting wo rk he has produced . - R. E. Davies

R. E. Davies is the Senior Tutor at All Nations Christian College, Ware, U.K., wherehehastaught forover twenty years.A Britishcitizen, hehas wide experiencein teaching theologyin variouscountries in Eastern Europe.

A History of Christianity in Asia. Vol. 1: Beginnings to 1500.

By Samuel Hugh Moffett. San Fra ncisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1992. Pp. xxui, 560. $45.00.

The ed itors of this journal chose A History of Christianity inAsia, volume 1,by Samuel I Hugh Moffett, as one of the "Fifteen Out­ f ( standing Books of 1992 for Mission Stud­ r ies." It is a mon umental, pioneering work, A repr esenting the fru it ofa lifetime ofschol­ arship on the subject. The author was born of Ame rican missionary par ents in Korea and was himself a Presbyterian mission ­ ary in China and Korea for most of his career u ntil he becam e the Henry W. Luce Professor of Ecume nics and Mission at I Princeton Theo logical Sem inary, where Admissions Director he is now professor emeritus . ~ WHEATON COLLEGE GRADUATE SCHOOL Kenneth Scott Latourette,in hisseven­ Wheaton, Illinois 60187-5593 Phone: 708-752-5195 volu me History of the Expansion ofChristi­ Wheaton College complies with federal and state requirements for nondjs cr imi n~t i.o? on the basis of handicap, sex, race, anity, focused on the missionaries and the color, national or ethnic origin in admissions and access to its programs and actitnties. very first nation al workers in the process of expa nsio n. Moffett is conce rned with

178 INTERN ATIO AI. B ULLETIN OF M ISSIONARY R ESEARCH that, but also with wha t expanded , how it Christianity in Asia: internal controversy, expa nde d, and wha t happened afte r it external persecuti on, missionary expan­ expanded . sion, and the growth and disappearance ."",.. Try our Moffett's project includesallof Chris­ of Christian communities . Moffett's last tian ity in all of Asia th rough all of history two chapters are entitled "The Eclipse of . World Mission since the Grea t Commission was given Christianity in Asia" and "The Church in Program. For "on a hill in Asia, at the far western edge the Shadows ." After fifteen centuries, he preparation, of the continent" (p. 4). It is not ge nerally says, "the story of Christianity in Asia updating or an recognized-esp ecially in the West-that beyond the Euphrates nearl y ends about advan ced Jesus was an Asia n, that the church began wh ere it began, in two sma ll circles of degree, in Asia.and tha tCh ristian missions started survival .. .. one in the northern hills of Catholic in Asia. The au tho r remi nds us that the eastern Syria, and th e other in India . . . all Theological Gospel reached China with mission aries that is left of an Asian church that once Union at from Persia as early as it reached Scotland sp read across the co n tinen t fr om Chicago offers withmissionari es from Ireland. "The seed Mesopo tamia to the Pacific " (p , 496). But contemporary was the same," he says,-"The goo d news volume 2, Moffett promises, will see Chris­ approaches to ofJes usChrist for the whole wo rld .. .. But tianity in Asia "revived and renewed , missionaries it was sown by different sowers; it was emerge fromthe shadows and begin again serving around plant ed in differentsoil;it grew a different to outpace the West in th e growth of the the globe . flavor; and it was gathered by different churc h and in mission to the wo rld" (p. Creative missiol og ists include: Claude-Marie reapers . ... It was a Christianity that has 509). Barbour , Stephen Bevans, SVD, Eleanor Doidge, for cen tu ries remain ed unashamedly --Gerald H. Anderson LoB , Archimedes Fornasari , MCCJ, Anthony Asian" (p , xiii). Gittins, CSSp, John Kaserow, MM, Jamie Phelps, As the autho r traces the waves of four OP, Ana Mari a Pineda, RSM , Robert Schre iter, empi res-Greco-Roma n, Iranian (Per­ Gerald H. Anderson is Director of the Overseas CPPS. Contact : sian),Chinese,and Indian-eertain themes Ministries Study Centerand Editorof the INTERNA­ dominate this first volume of A History of TIONA L B ULLETIN OF M ISSIONARY R ESEARCH CATHOLIC THEOWGICAL UNION John Kaserow, MM 5401 South Cornell - IBMR Chicago, IL 60615 USA (312) 324-8000 • FAX 324·4360 History of Christianity in India. Vol. 5, pt. 5: Northeast India in the Nine­ teenth and Twentieth Centuries.

By Frederick S. Downs. Ba ngalore, India: AFRICA Church History Association of India, 1992. Pp. xvi, 236. No price given. NYC/BOS ROUNOTRIPS FROM: This study by Frederick S. Downs, Profes­ of a caste-ridde n society; myths and leg­ ABIDJAN $ 990. sor of Church History at the United Theo­ ends similar to biblical accounts of the BAMAKO 990. logical College, Ban galore, is a substantial origin, fall, and red emption of man; the contribution to the history of Christianity abse nce of any long theological, philo­ BANJUL 990. in Ind ia.Itis a ver y objective and scholarly sophica l, historical, and liturgical tradi­ BRAZZAVILLE 1491. interpretation of the impac t of Christian­ tions and expressions in tribal religions; BUJUMBURA 1760. ity in Northeast Ind ia. and above all the person and figure of CONAKRY 924. The main thesis of the book is that the Jesu s Christ. Surprisingly, the nam e of COTONOU 1045. advent of Christian ity has helped the Jesu s Christ figures hardly ever in the text DAKAR 913. tribals ofNortheastI ndia to readjust them­ and not at all in the index. DOUALA 1375. selves to the new social, political, and Sociological interpretation of history, ENTEBBE 2101. cultural situation arising out of the intro­ though important, has also inherentweak ­ JOBURG 1474. duction of the British rule and subse­ nesses. Any religious phenomenon, such KIGALI 1760. qu ently the independent Indian adminis­ as the spread of Christianity in a given KINSHASA tration (p. 209). It may be disputed , how­ area, need s to be interpreted from di ffer­ 1496. ever, whether that is th e only or the main en t a ngles a nd with d ifferent LAGOS 1045. reason why the tribals embraced Christi­ hermeneutical tools. Downs seems to be LIBREVILLE 1536. anity in large numbers. aware of this pr oblem (p . 194). One wo n­ LOME 979. One could sugge st several other fac­ ders why he has not carried ou t his re­ LUSAKA 1496. tors that mayaccount bett er than Downs's sea rch more along these lines. NAIROBI 1386. hypothesis for th e Chris tia niza tion of -Seba stian Karot emprel NIAMEY 1001. Nor theast India, incl u ding the OUAGADOU 1001. conna turality of tribal and Christian va l­ ues; the sea rch for wholeness; the empha­ Sebastian Karotemprel, S.o.B., is Professorof Sys­ sis on community in Christian and tribal tematic Theology, Sacred Heart Theological Col­ Call RAPTIM TRA VEL ways of life; freedom in matt ers of food; lege, Shi//ong, India, and Editor of the Indian compa ratively democratic ways of func­ Missiological Review . 1·800·777·9232 tioning; emphasis on the basic dignity and equality of persons without the burdens

October 1993 179 Salvation Outside the Church? Trac­ ogy, ecclesiology, and missiology. cisive for the developing understanding ing the History of the Catholic Re­ Sullivan traces the history of the for­ of the axiom wa s the discovery,during the sponse. mulation "outside the church there is no age of European explora tion and colon i­ salvation" from its earlier usage among za tion, of the hu ge numbers of people to By Francis A. Sullivan. New York: Paulist the Fathe rs. It served to wa rn baptized whom the Gospel had never been Press, 1992. Pp. u, 224. Paperback. $12.95. Christian s against separating themselves pr each ed . In the face of this phenom enon from the churc h. In the cou rse of his his­ Ca tholic theologian s atte mpted to hold in Francis Sullivan brings to his work on the torical exposition he gives particular at­ balanc e four elements: the saving mercy question of salvation outside the churc h tention to the more rigid interpretation of God, the necessity of the churc h for the lucidity, balance, and insightfulness offered by Aug us tine, the nuanced treat­ salva tion, the importance of fidelity to that marked hi s earlie r work on th e ment by Thomas Aquinas, and the decid­ conscience, and the reality of inculpabl e magisterium. This current work will be edl y triumphal appropr iation cha racter­ ignorance. Vatican II represented a major welcomed and well used by all tho se in­ istic of Boniface VIII's Unam Sanctam and advance in testifying to the ecclesial real­ volved in the study of foundational theol- the decree of the Council of Florence. De­ ity of non-Catholic churc hes (thus their adherents are not outside the church), to the presence of God in non-Christian reli­ gions and, ind eed , in the lives of men and women of good will. This work is especially interesting as Announcing 1993-1994 a case study in the development of doc­ trin e.Sullivan skillfully demonstrates how a foundational teaching such as the neces­ sity of the churc h for salvation develop s as the cultural and historical contexts in which it must be understood change. The process manifests the delicate balanc e of fidelity and vitality that should character­ ize ecclesial life. There are, however, two areas in which the text is lacking. The first is a chapter, important for the ecume nical discussion, on the scriptural foundation for the teaching.The second is the absence of any references to theologians such as Pieris or Pannikarwho arestruggling with this issue from within cultures shaped by Phil Parshall Andrew Ross the great non-Ch ristian religions. Their voices need to be heard, as do es that of Fall 1993 Spring 1994 Francis Sulli van . -William McConville, a .F.M.

Senior Mission Scholars WilliamMcConville, a .F.M., is President ofSiena Collegein Loudonville, New York. Hewasformerly in Residence director of the Program in Mission and Cross­ Cultural Studies at the Wa shington Theological Pictured above are two of the many good reasons whyyou Union. will profit from your time at Overseas Ministries Study Cen­ ter in 1993-1994. In addition to sharing in the leadership of OMSC's Study Program, Phil Parshall and Andrew Ross will The Catholic Church in Peru, 1821­ offer personal consultation and tutorial assistance. Phil 1985: A Social History. Parshall, with SIM International, has had many years ofser­ By Jeffrey Klaiber. Washington, D.C: Catho­ vice in Bangladesh and the Philippines. He is known for his lic Univ. Of America Press, 1992. Pp xi, 417. work in contextualization of the Gospel among Muslims. $49.95. Andrew Ross, University of Edinburgh, is a former Pres­ byterian missionaryin East Africa.These seniorcolleagues in Latin American historians a nd missiologists we lcomed this book when it missionhave eachwritten and taught extensivelyin theirres­ first appeared in Spa nish, in 1988. Now pective fields of mission. we congratulate the publishers for mak­ ing it available in English. The evolution of the Catholic Church in Peru during the Overseas Ministries Study Center last tw o centuries illustrates well what happened also in other parts of Latin 490 Prospect St., New Haven, CT 06511 America. With this volume historian Jef­ Tel: (203) 624-6672 Fax: (203) 865-2857 frey Klaiber has accomplished well his intention "to fill a lacuna in contemporary Senior Scholars, Fall 1994: Drs. Ted Ward and Marc Spindler studies of that Andean republic" (p. ix). Since 1963 Klaib er has been a Jesuit mis­ sionary in Peru, where he is highly re­

180 INTERN ATIONAL B ULLETIN OF MISSIONARY R ESEARCH spected. This book reflects his immersion there is indeed an authentic biblical ex­ refers to Jesus' critique of the Pharisees' among the people, as well as his patient pression of the mission of God that is as mission (Matt. 23:15) and his desire not to work at church archives across the nation, valid and relevant today as in the days of negate its intention but to purify it of which has given him a unique grasp of the Jesus the Messiah and the first disciples.It legalistic and propagandistic features and social and cultural history of the country is that of a "messianic community" in rehabilitate it as a method of recruiting and the region. whose life the reign of God is actualized, disciples for God's kingdom. The volume Klaiber's work on the Peruvian living out the messianic ethic in this world, recognizes the inherent risk of distortion church covers the period after indepen­ and in hope anticipating the glorious con­ and co-optation in all missionary efforts. dence from Spain in 1821 up to the first summation of God's reign.While superfi­ Indeed, the claims made by the authors visit of the pope in 1985. Over forty pages cially bearing a resemblance to the recent for a "neo-Anababtist" messianic model of endnotes, bibliography, and reference conciliar emphasis on "Mission in Christ's rest not only on faithfulness to a biblical to sources give an idea of the amount of Way," this Mennonite vision of the mis­ basis (especially in the Synoptic Gospels) research on local, regional, and national sion of the Messiah is at once more solidly but equally on the fact that the model levels that has accumulated in recent years . grounded, uses more of Scripture to de­ represented has been tried and tested over Klaiber has incorporated it into ten very velop a consistent foundation, and es­ many centuries in "the history of that readable chapters. chews isolated emphases such as "mis­ Anabaptist messianic community which The book opens with a comprehen­ sion among the poor" or "mission at the knew the intense suffering, persecution sive summary of the development of the margins" in favor of a more comprehen­ and martyrdom of non-resistant power­ church in Latin America since the six­ sive description of the mission of Messiah lessness at the hands of the sacral teenth century. Following methodologi­ Jesus . Christendom" (p. 43), which it dared to cal insights from Ivan Vallier and Enrique The title TheTransfiguration ofMission challenge as antiChrist. A confessional Dussel, Klaiber pays special attention to the way in which "the church in Peru, as in any other place in the Catholic world, was influenced, molded and conditioned by the social milieu in which it exists" (p. 3). He has tried to recover the memory of bishops and priests who worked for the poor. He has documented the course of European and North American mission­ ary orders that brought renewal in our century, as well as the rise of laypeople to key leadership positions and movements as diverse as liberation theology and the Catholic charismatics. Klaiber does not spare criticism of structural weaknesses, and he does not hide the tensions brought by the applica­ tion of Vatican II. Ultraconservative Car­ dinal L6pez Trujillo, when he was still president of the Council of Bishops of Latin America (CELAM), attacked this Maryknoll School of Theology: book violently. That could be taken as a good indication of the quality of the re­ search and the pastoral courage of the YOUR NEXT STEP interpretative keys used by Klaiber. -Samuel Escobar Graduate and Professional Programs in: _ Justice and Peace _ Cross-cultural Ministry _ Moster of Arts in Theological Studies _ Moster of Theology Samuel Escobar, a Peruvian, teaches missiology at _ Advanced Certificate in Justice and Peace Eastern Baptist Theological Seminaryin Philadel­ phia and is Visiting Professor at the Orlando E. _ Advanced Certificate in Hispanic Ministry Costas School of Missiology in Lima, Peru. ------I I Please send me more Name _ I information about MST's I The Transfiguration of Mission: Bib­ I Programs: Address _ I lical, Theological, and Historical I 0 M.A. City _ I Foundations. I 0 M.Th, State Zip + 4 _ I Edited by Wilbert R. Shenk. Scottdale, Pa.: 0 Certificate in Justice I and Peace I Herald Press, 1993. Missionary Studies No. Tel. (day) (evening) _ 12. Pp. 256. Paperback $14.95. I o Certificate in Hispanic I I Ministry Dean of Admissions I o Ministers in the Vicinity "The model ofmission established byJesus I I Maryknoll School of Theology I the Messiah is the prototype for all faithful o Lecture Series ~n :' .'.Maryknoll. NY 10545-0304 U.S.A mission" (p. 12). The thesis of this book, I (914) 941-7590 ext. 229 I o Summer Session developed collaboratively by six Menno­ \ 18 9 3 10 J nite scholars over eighteen years, is that ..... _---­ ------

October 1993 181 undercurrentrunning th rou gh the bookis the ove rthrow of corru pt and unbiblical Christendo m mod els and the restoration 1994-1995 of ge nuine New Testament messianic Christianity. Doane Missionary Scholarships As a paradigm for mission that com­ Overseas Ministries Study Center bines ca re ful biblical reflection, a Trinitarian basis, an eschatological fram e­ New Haven, Connecticut work, positive ecclesiologicalalternatives, and a welcom e synthes is of evangeliza­ tion and ethi cs-all the while avoiding d estructive polarizing dichotomies-this nee-Anabaptist pr op osal deserves more extended commentary than the present space allows and can be profitabl y stud­ ied by any serious observer of mission. - James A. Scherer

Jam es A. Scherer is Professor Emeritus of Mission and Church History at the Lutheran SchoolofThe­ ologyatChicago, convenerofthe EditorialCommit­ tee of the American Society of MissiologyMission The Overseas Ministries Study Center announces the Doane Missionary Series,and Coeditor ofthe New Directionsin Mis­ Scholarshipsfor 1994-1995. Two $2,500scholarships will be awarded to mission­ sion and Evangelization series. aries who apply for residence for eight months to a year and wish to earn the OMSC Certificate in Mission Studies. The Certificate is awarded to those who participate in fourteen or more of the weeklyseminars at OMSC and who write a paper reflecting on their missionaryexperience in light ofthe studies undertaken at OMSC. Preferential Option: A Christian and Neoliberal Strategy for Latin Applicants must meet the following requirements: America's Poor. • Completion of at least one term in overseas assignment • Endorsement by their mission agency By Amy L. Sherman. Grand Rapids, Mich.: • Commitment to return overseas for another term of service Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1992. Pp. • Residence at OMSC for eight months to a year x, 230. Paperback $17.95. • Enrollment in OMSC Certificate in Mission Studies program "Opting for the poorin the 1990's, in sho rt, The OMSC Certificate program allowsample time forregular deputation and means opting for the neolib eral develop­ familyresponsibilities. Familieswith children arewelcome. OMSC's DoaneHall ment mod el as the best and most empiri­ offers fully furnished apartments ranging up to three bedrooms in size. Ap­ cally sound model available" (p , 35). In plications should besubmitted as farin advance as possible. Asan alternative to these words, Amy Sherman, editor of Stew­ application for the 1994-1995academic year, applicants mayapply for the 1995 ardshipJournal,succinctly states the book's calendar year,so long as the Certificate programrequirement forparticipation in thesis. at least fourteen seminars is met. Scholarship award will be distributed on a Th e book 's intended audience is monthly basis after recipient is in residence. Applicationdeadline: February 1, Christian nongovernmental organizations 1994. For application and further information, contact: (NGOs), which Sherman hopes will ad opt a neolib eral approach to devel opment, Gerald H. Anderson, Director based on "the free-ma rket model," rather Overseas Ministries Study Center than a statist approach in which "eco­ 490 Prospect Street nomic controls and the arbitrary rul es of New Haven, Connecticut 06511 gov ern me nt 'manage' econom ic pro­ Tel: (203) 624-6672 Fax: (203) 865-2857 cesses" (p , 24). Sherman contends that many Christian NGOs choose a statist m odel o f devel opment because of ov erdependence on th e dependency theory and outdated information that ig­ nores "the renaissan ce of democratic fer­ vor across the globe" (p. 14). The contents appearing in Sherma n draws her arguments in fa­ this publ ication are indexed by vor of a neoliberal stra tegy from several ~ i SlAMICA~1 sou rces. First, she pr esents five lessons I learned about development experiments For further information. please contact: in Latin Ame rica. Second, she ana lyzes Dr. Munawar A. Anees. Editor -in-Chief. Periodica lslarnica the impac t of stru ctural adjus tme nt on the world's poor in the last de cade. Third, she (1J BERITA PUBLISHING "takes her theory for a test drive" and exam ines three cou ntries-Chile, Bolivia, 22 Jalan Liku , 59100 Kuala Lumpur. Malays ia and Guatemala- which, to differing de­ Tel (+60-3)282-5286 Fax (+60-3)282-1605 grees, are implem enting the neoliberal

182 I NTERN ATIONAL B ULLETIN OF M ISSIONARY R ESEARCH strategy for d evelopment. (p. 39). Sim ilarly, her primary aut horities The strength of the book lies in the on religious mat erial ar e neoliberals economic material, which is well docu ­ Micha el Novak and Joseph Card ina l mented by statistics and scena rios from Ratzinger, both strong critics of libera tion many less-developed countries.Unlike the theology, while her bibliograp hy con tains economic mate rial, however, the religious no refere nces to any liberation theologian . material is poorly researched and insuffi­ -Priscilla Pop e-Levi son cien tly docu m en te d. For in stance, Sherma n makes a claim about wha t "bib­ PriscillaPope-Leoison is CampusChaplainatNorth lical teaching on public order suggests" Park College andAssistant ProfessorofContextual bu t fails to cite one Scripture reference or Theologyat North ParkTheological Seminary, Chi­ one bibli cal scholar to support the claim cago.

Striving Together: A Way Forward in Christian-Muslim Relations.

By Charles Kimball. Maryknoll, N .Y.: Orbis This January seminarians from Books, 1990. Pp. xv, 132. Paperback $10.95. many backgrounds, joined by missionaries and overseas church leaders, will explore If you are looking for a single volume that of civility to neighborl y relations, even ad equa tely introduces the cru cial issue of cooperation " (p. 109),and he is rightwhen contemporary issues in the Ch ris tian-Musli m rel at ions, Charles he sug gests that "practical wa ys to con ­ world Christian mission. Come Kimball's Striving Together is for you. A nect . . . with Mu slim neighbors are all for the weeks of your choice Southern Baptist and professorof religion aro u nd " (p. 120). and earn credit from participat­ at Furman Univ ersity, Kimball earned his This is a balanced and intelligent work ing schools. Cosponsored by doctorate in Islamic Studies at Ha rvard that uses simple language and has a prac­ 25 seminaries. and served as Midd le East director of the tical bent. Because of its broad swe ep the Contact James M. Phillips Na tiona lCouncilof Churc hes.His knowl­ study is necessaril y introduct ory, but it OVERSEAS MINISTRIES STUDY CENTER edgeable book is ad dressed to Christians well meets the cur rent pressing need for a 490 Prospect St., New Haven, CT 06511 who recogni ze the importance of under­ volu me of this type and can be warmly 203-624-6672 FAX 203·865-2857 standing Muslims an d coope rative rela­ recommend ed to reade rs at all levels. tions and who "need resources to facili­ - Roland E. Miller tate constructive engagement with the is­ sues" (p. xiii). To help meet that need, he Roland E. Miller, a Canadian, is Professor of Islam U~e star ts by providing a sound thou gh cur­ and World Religions at Luther College, University and Learn sory introduction to Islam and the history of Regina, and is Director of the university's Reli­ at the of Christian-Muslim relations. He then gious Studies Program. He was a missionary for describes Chr istian theological options twenty-three years in a Muslim area of southwest related to the heated issue of religious India. o.erseas Ministries pluralism,ut ilizing the now-familiar para­ digm s of exclusivist, inclusivist, and plu­ Study Center ralist. Kimball is carefully descriptive, bu t in summarizing Hans Kung's views, he indicates his own desire for "new re­ Gesandt zuheilen! Aufkommenund sponses" that are "informed by more ac­ Entwicklung de r arztlichen Mission curate and appreciative knowledge of the im neunzehnten Jahrhundert. religious trad itions" (p. 84). Kimb all's "way forward" in Chri s­ By Christoffer H . Grundmann. Giitersloh: tian-Mu slim relations emphas izes educa t­ Giitersloher Verlagshaus Gerd Mohn, 1992. ing Chr istians to understand Islam , delib­ Pp. 395. Paperback OM 54.00. erate dia logic encounter between Chr is­ -and find renewal for tian s and Mus lims, and engagement in This scholary book pion eers in writing the coop era tive social action. He makes help­ history of med ical mission in the nin e­ world mission ful comments on the possibility of under­ teen th century. The author is theological standing another religious trad ition, the consultant of the German Institu te for Fully furnished apartments importance of recogn izing internal variet­ Med ical Missions in Tiibinge n, Germany, and Continuing Education iesamong believers,and the risksofchange and conve ner for the study project on imp licit in learning. His major attent ion is healing spo nsored by the International program of weekly seminars given to dialogue. Altho ug h the qu ality of Assoc iation for Mission Studies. To com­ Write for Study Program and interfaith dialogue va ries grea tly, its be­ pile this comprehensive compe nd iu m, he Application for Residence ginning marks "a new chapter in the his­ not only studied a great man y books (as tory of interfaith relati ons" (p, 85), and its the sixty two pages of bibliograph y indi ­ Overseas Ministries value for friendship crea tion cannot be cates) but also spe nt years of research in Study Center overestimated.Finally he advocates "mov­ allthe major missiological archive saro und 490 Prospect Street ing beyond toleration and minimal levels the globe. New Haven, Connecticut 06511

October 1993 183 Becau se of its int erdisciplinar y char­ nati on s together in this ve nture. This ated by a critical inquiry into the motiva­ acter, medical mission is one of the most movem ent spread soon, at first among tions for th is healing ministry, which per­ interesting phenom ena of mod ern mis­ Pro testant missions, and in the twentie th hap s are as many as there were med ical sion history. While mission ari es of vari­ century also in Roman Catholic orders. missionari es. In the light of discussions ous age ncies ear lier suppleme nte d their This study traces the origins of medical between med icine, theology, and mission evangelistic ministr y with compassiona te mission, outlines the rise of med ical mis­ in the twentieth centu ry, pr eviou s strate­ care and medical activities, the idea of sionary centers in the West, and su rveys gic and method ological argume nts are medical mission as a method was con­ the practical application of this concept in discarded in favor of a holistic approach ceived by a group of physician s, mission­ different continents of th e Thi rd World. in imi tation of Christ in the intercultural aries, and merchants in China, who in Attention is paid to famo us mission ary context of mission. 1838 founded the Med ical Missionary So­ physicians but also to the work of wom en - Hans-Jiirgen Becken ciety at Canton. Medical,charitable, eva n­ doctors and nurses and to the role of in­ gelistic, and also comme rcia l mot ives digenou s med ical workers. Hans-lurgen Becken is a retired Lutheran minister brought members from different denom i­ This historical pr esentati on is eva lu­ who worked from 1951 to 1974 as missiona ry and theological lecturer in South Africa. Later he was secretary in the Association of Churches and Mis­ sions in South Western Germany (EMS) in Stuttgart, Germany.

Called and Empowered: Global Mis­ sion in Pentecostal Perspective.

Edited by Murray A. Dempster, Byron D. Klaus.and Douglas Petersen.Peabody,Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1991. Pp. xix, 321. Paperback $14.95.

Being more "escha tologica lactivists" than academicsys tema ticians, Pentecostal mis­ siona ries have typically "preached now and published later ." This tendency has MISSIONARY GOLD been joined by a trend emerging since the INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, 1989-92 mid-1980s: a budding Pentecostal / cha r­ 257Contributors· 260Book Re vie ws» 175 Doctoral Dissertations isma tic missiology. Called and Empowered is an important interpretive contribution Here is more gold for every theological library and exploring scholar to a movement that has its roots in the of mission studies-with all 16 issues of 1989-1992-bound in red nineteenth-century "s po ntaneous mis­ buckram, with vellum finish and embossed in gold lettering. It matches siologyoft he Spirit" articulated by Roland the earlier bound volumes of the Occasional Bulletin of Missionary A llen a nd A. B. Sim pson . Their Research, 1977-1980 (sorry, sold out), the International Bulletin of missiological thou ght and method ology Missionary Resea£9h. 1981-1984 (sold out), and 1985-1988 (a few had mu ch influe nce on the theology and copies left). At your fingertips, in one volume: David Barrett's Annual practice of early twentieth- century Pente­ Statistical Status of Global Mission, the Editors' selection of Fifteen costals, whose activism was eventually Outstanding Books each year, and the four-year cumulative index. dis tilled int o publicati on by the dean of INTERNATIO~~~BuLLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, 1989-92, limited edi­ Pentecostal missiologists, Melvin Ho dges tion. Only~ bound volumes available . Each volume is individually of the Assemblies of God, who wrote The Indigenous Church (1953) and A Theo logy of numbered and signed personally by the editors. the Church and Its Mission: A Pentecos tal Special Price: $49.95 until WHILE Perspective (1 977). December 31,1993 THEY LAST Called and Empowered rep resents the $56.95 after January 1, 1994 1985·88 volume for $45 .95 wo rk ofa new gene ration ofAssemblies of God scholars in mission . A total of twelve essays are presented under the umbrella of four perspectives: bibli cal / theological Send me bound volume(s) of the INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF M,SSIONARY RE SEARCH, 1989-92 at $49 .95 and bound volu me(s) of 1985-1988 at $45.95. dimensions, the integ ration ofGos pel and Enclosed is my check in the amount Name _ cu lt u re, response to non-Christian of $ made out to world views, and missiological strategies. ~~~;~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ r~~~: ~~ ~i :i ~~: ~~i A . Address ------­ A concluding section includes three re­ add $4.00 per vel. for postage and spo nse s from outside the Pentecos tal tra­ handling . Paym ent must accompany all orders. Allow 5 week s for delivery dition .The editors are professors at South­ within the U.S.A. ern California College in Cos ta Mesa,Cali­ Mail to : Publications Office. Ove rseas Ministries Study Center, 490 Prospect St., New Haven, CT 06511-2 196 fornia (Assemb lies of God) . The streng th of such a collection is in its diversity an d applicability as a class-

184 I NTERN ATIO NAL B ULLETIN OFM ISSIONARY R ESEARCH room text. As such, it is a strong addition however, is rich enough in content to pro­ in this bookare linguistic .... The simplest to the growing number of works that seek duce responses and expansions of themes way to state the concern of this book is to to define a distinctive Pentecostal for years to come. Missiologists will wel­ say that it is about the meaning of words" missiology. come the beginnings of a well-researched (p.9). It is hoped that the book will be re­ self-definition by Pentecostals that effec­ The reader may be tempted to con­ vised and expanded beyond the tribe of tively opens a window to this growing clude that Moran is committed to a school one denominationand eventuallyinclude segment of the world Christian family. of linguistic analysis discredited a genera­ more essays from authorsotherthanNorth -L. Grant McClung, Jr. tion ago, but this he denies. "Meanings Americanmiddle-class Pentecostals (only spread out in all directions . . . . The three of the twelve essays are by authors L. Grant McClung, [r., is Coordinator of Research meaning of a word is constituted by its from outside the United States) and will and Strategic Planning for Church of God World use, by the particular context in which it is be more representative of women in Pen­ Missions and Associate Professor of Missions and found" (p. 10). tecostal/charismatic mission (all fifteen Church Growth at the Church of God School of The book seeks to argue that each articles are written by men). The book, Theology in Cleveland, Tennessee. faith can claimuniqueness, rightly under­ stood, without denying the claims of the other. But we have to say that the argu­ ment about the meaning of words is given such prominence that is becomes more of a philosophical excursion on this theme, For All The Peoples of Asia: Federa­ using the Jewish and Christian traditions tion of Asian Bishops' Conferences as illustrative material, rather than mak­ Documents From 1970 to 1991. ing the word elucidate the problems and paradoxes of the two faiths. This defect Edited by Gaudencio B.Rosales and Catalino comes through particularly in the second G. Arevalo. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, chapter, "Is the HolocaustUnique?" where 1992.Pp. xxx, 356. $39.95. the debate about words seems almost to bury the awesome subject matter. We are at the brink of the twenty-first overviewand framework for situatingthe Moran rightly intends to highlight century, and some maintain that it will be FABC in the world of Asia and for com­ some of the abuses that glib uses of the "the Asian century." In this perspective, prehending specific documents. An ex­ word "unique" have led to. One cannot the aspirationsand initiatives, the pains of tensive index is truly helpful in locating but feel that if more emphasis had been growth, and movements of Asian Chris­ commonthemesdispersed throughout the given to the subtitle, and the exploration tiancommunities invite--evendemand­ fifty individual items collected in this vol­ of the meanings of "unique" madeto serve the interest and reflection of thoughtful ume. rather than dominate this aim, the book Christians throughout the world. This Some minor deficiencies and incon­ would have served a wider readership. volume of texts provides a privileged re­ sistenciesappear. Yet,theremarkabletheo­ -John H. Fieldsend source for such a reflection. logical vision that emerges from these Edited by two prominent Asians, G. documents is filled with great breadth, B.Rosales (Filipino bishop-theologian) and hope,andcourage. Hereisan"ecclesiology John H. Fieldsend, aMessianicJewfromCzechoslo­ C. G. Arevalo (Jesuit systematic theolo­ of the Asian churches" arising from the vakia,is Minister-at-Large of the Church'sMinis­ gian and missiologist),ForAll thePeoples of life, experience, and reflection of Jesus' try Among the Jews, St. Albans, U.K. Asia assembles the most important texts disciples in the part of the world that in issued by the conferences, consultations, previous centurieswas called the Far East. and assemblies of the Federation of Asian Reading this collection will be joining the Bishop's Conferences since its inaugura­ journey that the Roman Catholic commu­ tion by Paul VI in 1970 in Manila. This nities in Asia have made in the post­ Faces of Jesus in Africa. compendium serves as a sourcebook for Vatican II era. comprehending the dynamic develop­ -James H. Kroeger, M.M. EditedbyRobert J. Schreiter. Maryknoll,N.Y.: ment of mission, theology, church, dia­ Orbis Books, 1991. Pp. xiii, 181. Paperback logue, and evangelization in Asia's local $18.95. churches. James H. Kroeger isaMaryknollmissionaryandhas The book contains the uniquely sig­ worked in Asia (Philippines and Bangladesh) for This bookis a collectionof elevenessays of nificant documents of the five FABC ple­ overtwo decades. Since1991 hehas been the Asia­ African theologians, edited by Robert J. nary assemblies held in Taipei, Calcutta, Pacific Assistant on the Maryknoll General Coun­ Schreiter, professor of historical and doc­ Bangkok, Tokyo, and Bandung. In addi­ cil. trinal studies at Catholic Theological tion, it also contains twelve documents on Union in Chicago. interreligious and dialogic matters, seven The first part gives a broad survey of on social action, and four each on the African Christologies. In the lead article, missionary and lay apostolates. Collec­ Uniqueness: Problem or Paradox in CharlesNyamitiexaminestwo approaches tively, they constitute the resources for a Jewish and Christian Traditions. of Africantheologians in doingtheology­ perceptive look at the Asian church. moving from the Bible to African cultural Many topical items are presented: By Gabriel Moran. Maryknoll. N.Y.: Orbis reality, and vice versa. Whatever the ap­ Asian Coloquium on Ministries in the Books, 1992. Pp. 160. $39.95; paperback proach,Nyamitiargues thatChristological Church, International Congress on Mis­ $16.95. reflection must begin from the ordinary sion, FABC Documents Survey, and oth­ Christians' "understanding of Christ and ers. Two important introductory essays Gabriel Moran directs the graduate pro­ his relevance to their current problems by Catalino Arevalo and Felix Wilfred gram of religious education at New York and aspirations" (p. 19). (members of the FABC Theological Advi­ University. "This book is about one word, Efoe Julien Pennoukou's essay sory Commission) provide an essential 'uniqueness'" (p.I), "Nearlyall arguments "Christology in the Village" tries to do

October 1993 185 just that. He reflects on the an sw er that his on six theologian s atte mpting to discover uncle gave to the Christological ques tion the tru e faces of Jesu s Christ in Africa. As "WhoisJesus for you?" (p.24).Pennoukou Anse lmeSano n points out, when Africans then learns from h im th at Africa n are able to recognize his face and "find an Christology focu ses on the fun ctional re­ African nam e for him " (p.90), then Christ lationship between Jesu s Christ and hu ­ becom es real to them in the ir personal and man beings. socia l struggles for their tru e ide ntity and In her essay "Christology and an Af­ integra tion. rican Woman' s Experie nce," Anne All the authors come out with faces of Nasimiyu- Wasike also interviews six Af­ Jesus relevant to the whole life of Afri­ rican women abo ut "their experiences in cans. The book is a major contribu tion relation to Jesus" (p. 72). She concludes tow ard our understanding ofJesus Christ that "for African women Jesu s Christ is for the Africa n and the wo rld church. the victorious conqueror of all evil spiri­ - Robert Aboagye-Mensa h tual forces; He is the nurturer of life, and a totality of their being" (p. 80). Robert Aboagye-Mensah teaches Ethics and Phi­ The seco nd part of the book focuses losophyofReligionatTrinity College, Legan,Ghana.

Seventy-Five Years of IFMA, 1917­ 1992: The Nondenominational Mis­ sions Movement.

By Edwin L.Frizen,Jr. Pasadena,Calif.: Wil­ liam Ca reyLibrary, 1992. Pp.478. Paperback $15.95.

Becau se of the important con tribution to stances, often by stating them as if they past and current mission activity by mem­ we re the only logical or right stance. So This publication is ber missions of the Interdenom inational this book perplexes by leaving important available from UMI in Foreign Mission Associ ation (IFMA), this ques tions undeveloped . Wh y is div ersity one or more of the is an impo rtantbook. Edwin "Jack" Frizen follow ing for mats: healthy wi thin the IFMA but dan gerous believes in the nondenom inati onal age n­ outside it (especially when the them e of • In Microform--from our collection of over cies, whose association he led for twenty­ the concluding chapter is the power of 18,000 period icals and 7,000 new spapers eight yea rs. This effort is welcome as his unity as a key to world eva ngelization)? history of "faith" mission age ncies. Why did the IFMA object to RomanCatho­ • In Paper --by the art icle or full issues It would be difficult to ove rempha­ lics in atte nda nce at the Lausanne Con­ thro ugh UMI Article Clearinghouse size the importan ce of innovative mis­ gress in Manila in 1989? His quotation sionary struc tures to the church's mis­ from a World Eva nge lical Fellowship po­ • Elect ro nically, on CD-ROM, online, andlor sionary task. Frizen begins wi th detail ed , sition pap er suffices: "We consider the magnetic tape--a broad range of ProQuest selected snippe ts as reminders of thi s databases available, including abstract-and­ members of the Roman Catholic Church index, ASCII full-text, and innovative full­ un assailable fact. But his championing of to be part of our mission field ." This event image form at faith societies implies connectio ns for the wit h Catholics is to be eschewed.But why? IFMA to any and all age ncies of like char­ They might ha ve conversio n experiences Call toll-free 800 -52 1-0600, ext . 2888, acter. Yet some of the non denominati onal equal to the staunches t non-Rom an evan­ for mo re informati on, or fill out t he coupon age ncies that he traces have no historical gelical. And why is a congress wi th World below : connection with the IFMA. Vision undesirable? We might have prof­ Name _ Perhap s the greatest value ofthe book ited from greater rati onale. will be for stude nts of mission who will The style is explained if one assumes Title _ cull the book for facts and su pply the that the int ended audience is the IFMA Company/Institution _ interpretive principles his style om its. set. From within familiar stances, Frizen Some ofhis listings are sem ina l typ ologies Address _ writes to extend the impac t of the agencies for improved practice. This is certainly he knows and loves so we ll. But a goo d C,ty/State/Z,p _ true of the organizati ons and patt erns on editor would hav e add ressed these issu es page 399.Other raw data ofhigh valu e are to ga in a broad er hear ing for valuable Phone ( provid ed . informa tion. I'm interested In the following titters): _ But the quasi-journalistic style leaves - Samuel Wilson the read er with pu zzles to solve. Frizen deprives us of engagement wi th his eva lu­ Samuel Wilsonis ProfessorofMissionandEvange­ UMI ative process. Imm ersed in the lon g and lism at the Trinity Episcopal School for Ministry, A Bell & Howell Company Box 78 noble history he is sha ring, he is content Ambridge, Pennsylvania. He was a Christian and 300 Nort h Z eeb Road simply to state "wha t is" wi thout mar­ MissionaryAlliance missionaryto Peru anddirec­ A nn Arbor, MI 48 106 sha ling evaluative argument. All "facts" tor of the World Vision International Missions 800-5 21-0 600 toll -free 313-761 -1203 fax (which some times are opinions) appearto Advanced ResearchCenter. Healsoservedas direc­ have equal we ight. tor of research for the Zwemer Institute of Muslim Seventy-Five Years buttresses IFMA Studies.

186 INTERN ATION AL B ULLETIN OF MISSIONARY R ESEARCH Conversion and Jesuit Schooling in xvii), is nevertheless critical of his col­ Zambia. leagues and their educational work but tends to qualify his criticism in a positive By Brendan P. Carmody. Leiden: E. J. Brill, way, perhaps more graciously than a non­ 1992. Studiesin Christian Mission,no.4. Pp. Jesuit ethnohistorian could. xxix, 179. No price given. The study is deficient in failing to explain why one of the professed aims of The author, an expatriate Jesuit priest in content of thinking characteristic of vari­ forming local priests (p. 16) apparently Lusaka, has written an abundantly docu­ ous groups" (p. 14, n. 57). It is interesting did not succeed (cf.pp. 137-38).Could the mented ethnohistorical study of Jesuit to note that in the colonial period (1905­ separate Jesuit ideology and the special schooling in Chikuni, a central Jesuit mis­ 64),missionariesand colonialgovernment organizational status of the Jesuit order sion station among the Tonga in southern determined the educational policies and (p. 99) provide at least a partialanswer? In Zambia. Its special value consists in inter­ programs with different and only par­ his conclusionthe authorpleadsfor greater weaving historical description with theo­ tially overlapping objectives, to which identification with the poor by becoming retical issues concerning the interrelation­ Africans could respond, however, only corporately poor (p. 142). This approach ship of education with theologies of con­ with their own perceptions and aspira­ contrastswithElizabethColson'slast para­ version, religious beliefs, background of tions (chap. 3, pp. 84-88). In the period graph of her introduction to this study, the missionaries, capitalism, and church after independence (1964-78), this situa­ which stresses the hope of Zambians to growth (chap. 1). The study covers a pe­ tion was reversed. The independent Zam­ "escape from an unchosen poverty so that riod of seventy five years, from the begin­ bian state determined the educational theycan see themselvesas respected mem­ ning ofChikunistation (1905)up till 1978, policy and program, to which now the bers of the world community" (p. xxix), and is divided into three sections: 1905-40, Jesuits had to respond (chap. 5, pp. 109­ Thus the struggle for a right educational withstress on primaryeducationandkeep­ 32).This new policy led to a dissolution of vision and program continues. ing traditional Tonga society intact (chap. the Catholicschool, whichrequired a pain­ -Frans J. Verstraelen 3), 1940-64,with the mission's focus shift­ ful but in a way liberating exercise of ing to secondary education and modern­ redefining Jesuit education, especially re­ Frans].Verstraelen, Professor ofReligious Studies ization (chap. 4),and 1964-78,withcontin­ garding the missionaries' aim of conver­ attheUniversityofZimbabwe, wassecretary forlay uedemphasison secondaryschoolingnow sion. In this they were greatly aided by the apostolate andsocial action, National Catholic Sec­ in line with national development goals newvistas of the VaticanIICouncil,which retariat in Ghana (1965-69), andassociate director (chap. 5). also broadened the content and scope of of the Interuniversity Institute for Missiological The studythroughoutcontrasts three conversionbecauseofa newpositiontaken andEcumenical Research (lIMO),Leiden, theNeth­ different types of educational ideologies: vis-a-vis other Christian denominations erlands, 1969-89. In 1973 he did research on the Catholic, Jesuit, and government with and other faith traditions. Catholic Church in Zambia, published in An Afri­ "ideology" understood principallyas "the The author, aware of his parti-pris (p, can Church in Transition (Leiden: lIMO, 1975).

Dissertation Notices

Babatunde, Ezekiel Adebola. Hup, Chung Lian. Olander, Mark A.

"Yoruba Concept of Good Character "A Critical Look at the Work of the IIA Study of the Relationship Between and Its Implications for Christian American Baptist Mission in the Chin Teacher Leadership and Student Spiritual Formation in Yorubaland of Hills (1899-1966)in Burma from a Motivation in Bible Colleges in Nigeria." Missiological Perspective." Kenya." Ed.D. Deerfield, Ill.: Trinity Evangelical Th.D. Chicago: Lutheran School of Ed.D. Deerfield, Ill.: Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, 1992. Theology, 1993. Divinity School, 1992.

Gupta, PaulR. 1m,Peter Yuntaeg. Sterk, VernonJay. "Institutionalization and Renewal of "Toward aTheological Synthesis of "The Dynamics of Persecution." Hindustan Bible Institute." Missionary Discipleship: Foundations Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Ph.D.Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological for a Korean Missiological Paradigm." Seminary, 1992. Seminary, 1992. Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Seminary, 1992. Weiss, Raymond Ernest. Hall,John Wesley, Jr. "The Emotional/Affective: Revealer of "Urban Ministry Factors in Latin Janvier, George E. Cultural Dynamics." America." "The Open and Closed Items for Needs Ph.D. Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theological Ph.D.Pasadena, Calif.: Fuller Theoligical Assessment: Comparison in Nigerian Seminary,1992. Seminary, 1992. Pastoral Education." Ed.D. Deerfield, Ill.: Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, 1992.

October 1993 187 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH

INDEX-VOLUME 17

January through October 1993

(pages 1-48 are in theJanuary issue; pp.49-96 in April; pp. 97-144 in July; andpp.145-192 in October)

ARTICLES

Annual Statistical Table on Global Mission, 1993,by David B.Barrett, 17:22­ The Legacy of Ruth Rouse, by Ruth Franzen, 17:154-58. 23. Max Warren: Candid Comments on Mission from His Personal Letters, by Can a House Divided Stand? Reflections on Christian-Muslim Encounter in Graham Kings, 17:54-58. the West, by Lamin Sanneh, 17:164-68. Mission and Democracy in Africa: The Problem of Ethnocentrism, by Robert The Challenge of Islamic Fundamentalism for Christians, by David A. Kerr, Aboagye-Mensah, 17:130-133. 17:169-73. My Pilgrimage in Mission, by H. D. Beeby, 17:24-26. Crusade or Catastrophe? The Student Missions Movement and the First My Pilgrimage in Mission, by John V. Taylor, 17:59-61. World War, by Nathan D. Showalter, 17:13-17. Noteworthy, 17:30, 74-75, 167. Defining Syncretism: An Interim Report, by Robert J. Schreiter, C.PP.S., Pew Charitable Trusts Announcement (missions research programs), 17:74­ 17:50-53. 75. Doctoral Dissertations on Mission: Ten-Year Update, 1982-1991,by William Prepositions and Salvation, by Kenneth Cragg, 17:2-3. A. Smalley, 17:97-125. Research Enablement Program Grant Awards for 1992, 17:74-75. Evangelist or Homemaker? Mission Strategies of Early Nineteenth-Century The Riddle of Man and the Silence of God: A Christian Perception of Muslim Missionary Wives in Burma and Hawaii, by Dana Robert, 17:4-10. Response, by Kenneth Cragg, 17:160-63. Ferrin, Howard W. [Obituary], 17:75. The Student Foreign Missions Fellowship over Fifty-Five Years, by H. Fifteen Outstanding Books of 1992 for Mission Studies, 17:33. Wilbert Norton, Sr., 17:17-21. The Legacy of jacob [ocz, by Arthur F. Glasser, 17:66-71. Themes of Pentecostal Expansion in Latin America, by Karl-Wilhelm The Legacy of Lewis Bevan Jones, by Clinton Bennett, 17:126-129. Westmeier,17:72-78. The Legacy of W. A. P. Martin, by Ralph R. Covell, 17:28-31. United States Catholic Missioners: Statistical Profile, U.S. Catholic Mission The Legacy of Pius XI,by Josef Metzler, O.M.L, 17:62-65. Association. The Legacy of Lottie Moon, by Catherine B. Allen, 17:146-52.

CONTRIBUTORS OF ARTICLES

Aboagye-Mensah, Robert-Mission and Democracy in Africa: The Problem Norton, H. Wilbert, Sr.-The Student Foreign Missions Fellowship over of Ethnocentrism, 17:130-133. Fifty-Five Years, 17:17-21. Allen, Catherine B.-The Legacy of Lottie Moon, 17:146-52. Robert, Dana-Evangelistor Homemaker? Mission Strategies of Early Nine­ Barrett, David B.-AnnualStatisticalTable on GlobalMission, 1993,17:22-23. teenth-Century Missionary Wives in Burma and Hawaii, 17:4-10. Beeby, H. D.-My Pilgrimage in Mission, 17:24-26. Sanneh, Lamin-Can a House Divided Stand? Reflections on Christian­ Bennett, Clinton-The Legacy of Lewis Bevan Jones, 17:126-29. Muslim Encounter in the West, 17:164-68. Cragg, Kenneth-Prepositions and Salvation, 17:2-3. Schreiter,RobertJ.,C.PP.S.-DefiningSyncretism:AnInterimReport, 17:50­ __. The Riddle of Man and the Silence of God: A Christian Perception of 53. Muslim Response, 17:160-63. Showalter, Nathan D.-Crusade or Catastrophe? The Student Missions Covell, Ralph R.-The Legacy of W. A. P. Martin, 17:28-31. Movement and the First World War, 17:13-17. Franzen, Ruth-The Legacy of Ruth Rouse, 17:154-58. Smalley, William A.-Doctoral Dissertations on Mission: Ten-Year Update, Glasser, Arthur F.-The Legacy of jacob [ocz, 17:66-71. 1982-1991,17:97-125. Kerr, David A.-The Challenge of Islamic Fundamentalism for Christians, Taylor, John V.-My Pilgrimage in Mission, 17:59-61. 17:169-73. U.S. Catholic Mission Association-United States Catholic Missioners: Sta­ Kings, Graham-Max Warren: Candid Comments on Mission from His tistical Profile, 17:9. Personal Letters, 17:54-58. Westmeier, Karl-Wilhelm-Themes of Pentecostal Expansion in Latin Metzler, Josef, O.M.L-The Legacy of Pius XI, 17:62-65. America, 17:72-78.

188 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH BOOKS REVIEWED

Anderson, Gerald H., Robert T. Coote, and James M. Phillips, eds.-Mission Kroeger, James-Interreligious Dialogue: Catholic Perspectives, 17:88. in the 1990s, 17:79. Krieger, David J.-The New Universalism: Foundations for a Global Theol­ Ariarajah, S. Wesley-Hindus and Christians: A Century of Protestant ogy,17:36. Ecumenical Thought, 17:36-37. Linthicum, Robert C.-City of God, City of Satan: A Biblical Theology of the Barker, John-Christianity in Oceania: Ethnographic Perspectives, 17:81. Urban Church, 17:44. Barnes, Michael-Christian Identity and Religious Pluralism: Religions in Moffett, Samuel Hugh-A History of Christianity in Asia. Vol. 1: Beginnings Conversation, 17:90-91. to 1500, 17:178-79. Beckmann, David, et aI-Friday Morning Reflections at the World Bank: Moran, Gabriel-Uniqueness: Problem or Paradox in Jewish and Christian Essays on Values and Development, 17:80. Traditions, 17:185. Beeby, H. H.-From Moses and All the Prophets: A Biblical Approach to Morse,Merrill-KosukeKoyama: A Modelfor InterculturalTheology,17:140­ Interfaith Dialogue, 17:88. 41. Boff, Leonardo-New Evangelization: Good News to the Poor, 17:174. Neill, Stephen-God's Apprentice: The Autobiography of Bishop Stephen Bonk, JonathanJ.-Missions and Money: Affluence as a Western Missionary Neill, 17:142. Problem, 17:44. Netland, Harold A.-Dissonant Voices: Religious Pluralism and the Ques­ ___. The Theory and Practice of Missionary Identification: 1860-1920, tion of Truth, 17:177-78. 17:34-35. Nielsen, Niels-Revolutions in Eastern Europe: The Religious Roots, 17:45­ Borrmans, Maurice---Guidelines for Dialogue Between Christians and Mus­ 46. lims: Interreligious Documents I, 17:88. O'Connor, Daniel-Gospel, Raj and Swaraj: The Missionary Years of C. F. Braaten, Carl E.-No Other Gospel! Christianity Among the World's Reli­ Andrews, 1904-14, 17:38-39. gions,17:137-38. Ogden, Schubert M.-Is There Only One True Religion or Are There Many? Carmody, Brendan P.-Conversion and Jesuit Schooling in Zambia, 17:187. 17:135-36. Covell, Ralph-Mission Impossible: The Unreached Nosu on China's Fron­ Palmer, Donald C.-ManagingConflict Creatively: A Guide for Missionaries tier, 17:83. and Christian Workers, 17:43. Crockett, William V., and James G. Sigountos-Through No Fault of Their Pendergast, Mary Carita, S.C.-Havoc in Hunan: The Sisters of Charity in Own? The Fate of Those Who Have Never Heard, 17:93-94. Western Hunan, 1924-1951, 17:39-40. David, M. D.-The YMCA and the Making of Modern India (A Centenary Phillips, James M., and Robert T. Coote, eds.-Toward the Twenty-First History), 17:141. Century in Christian Mission, 17:174. Dempster, Murray A., Bryron D. Klaus, and Douglas Petersen, eds.-Called Pope-Levison, Priscilla-Evangelizationfrom a LiberationPerspective,17:32. and Empowered: Global Mission in Pentecostal Perspective, 17:184­ Pui-Lan, Kwok-Chinese Women and Christianity, 1860-1927, 17:134. 85. Reid, David-New Wine: The Cultural Shaping of Japanese Christianity, Dickson, Kwesi A.-Uncompleted Mission: Christianity and Exclusivism, 17:38. 17:86-87. Renck, Giinther-Contextualization of Christianity and Christianization of Douglas, J. D., ed.-New Twentieth-Century Encyclopedia of Religious Language: A Case Study from the Highlands of Papua New Guinea, Knowledge, 17:82. 17:87-88 Downs, Frederick S.-Historyof Christianityin India. Vol. 5, pt. 5:Northeast Rivera, Luis N.-AViolent Evangelism: The Political and Religious Conquest India in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, 17:179. of the Americas, 17:176. Ferris, Robert W.-Renewal in Theological Education: Strategies for Change, Rosales, GaudencioB.,and Catalino G. Arevalo, eds.-ForAll The Peoplesof 17:41-42. Asia: Federation of Asian Bishops' Conferences Documents From Fischer, FriedrichHermann-DerMissionsarztRudolfFisch unddie Anfange 1970 to 1991, 17:185. medizinischer Arbeit der Basler Mission an der Goldkiiste (Ghana), Ruokanen, Miikka-The Catholic Doctrine of Non-Christian Religions: Ac­ 17:39. cording to the Second Vatican Council, 17:139-40. Frizen, Edwin L., Jr.-Seventy-Five Years of IFMA, 1917-1992: The Non­ Rzepkowski,Horst-LexikonderMission: Geschichte,Theologie,Ethnologie, denominational Missions Movement, 17:186. 17:138-39. Garrison, V. David-The Nonresidential Missionary: A New Strategy and Samartha,S.J.-OneChrist-ManyReligions: Towarda Revised Christology, the People it Serves, 17:32. 17:36. Gilliland, Dean S.-The World Forever Our Parish, 17:42. Sanders, John-No Other Name: An Investigation into the Destiny of the Grafe, Hugald-History of Christianity in India. Vol. 4, pt. 2: Tamilnadu in Unevangelized, 17:93-94. the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, 17:91. Sandoval, Moises-On the Move: A History of the Hispanic Church in the Grundmann, Christoffer H.-Gesandt zu heilen! Aufkommen und United States, 17:34. Entwicklung der arztlichen Mission im neunzehnten Jahrhundert, Schreiter, Robert J., ed.-Faces of Jesus in Africa, 17:185-86. 17:183-84. Sharpe, Eric J.-Nathan Soderblom and the Study of Religion, 17:84. Hamnett, Ian-Religious Pluralism and Unbelief: Studies Critical and Com­ Shenk,WilbertR.-The Transfigurationof Mission: Biblical, Theological, and parative,17:35. Historical Foundations, 17:181-82. Hedlund, Roger E.-The Mission of the Church in the World: A Biblical Sherman, Amy L.-Preferential Option: A Christian and Neoliberal Strategy Theology, 17:42-43. for Latin America's Poor, 17:182-83. Hinnells, John R.-Who's Who of World Religions, 17:92-93. Shorter, Aylward-The Church in the African City, 17:37. Hood, George-Neither Bang nor Whimper: The End of a Missionary Era in Sinclair, John H.-Juan A. Mackay: Un escoces con alma latina, 17:177. China, 17:175. Stanley, Brian-The History of the Baptist Missionary Society, 1792-1992, Ion, A. Hamish-The Cross and the Rising Sun: The Canadian Protestant 17:178. Missionary Movement in the Japanese Empire, 1872-193117:33. Stults, Donald Leroy-Developing an Asian Evangelical Theology, 17:40. Jenkinson, William, and Helene O'Sullivan, eds.-Trends in Mission: To­ Sullivan, Francis A.-Salvation Outside the Church? Tracing the History of ward the Third Millennium, 17:84-85. the Catholic Response, 17:180. Jongeneel, J. A. B.-Missiologie. Vol. 1: Zendingswetenschap; Vol. 2: Swidler, Leonard, Lewis John Eron, Gerard Sloyan, and Lester Dean­ Missionarie theologie, 17:136-37. Bursting the Bonds! A Jewish-Christian Dialogue on Jesus and Paul, Kimball, Charles-Striving Together: A Way Forward in Christian-Muslim 17:40-41. Relations, 17:183. Taber, Charles R.-The World Is Too Much with Us: "Culture" in Modem Klaiber, Jeffrey-The Catholic Church in Peru, 1821-1985:A Social History, Protestant Missions, 17:85-86. 17:180-81.

October 1993 189 Thomas, M. M.-My Ecumenical Journey, 1947-1975,17:79. Van Engen, Charles-God's Missionary People: Rethinking the Purpose of Tracy, David-Dialogue with the Other: The Inter-religious Dialogue, 17:88­ the Local Church, 17:80. 89. Ward, W. R[eginaldl-The Protestant Evangelical Awakening, 17:134-35. van der Laan, Cornelis-Sectarian Against His Will: Gerrit Roelof Polman Zwiep, Mary-Pilgrim Path: The First Company of Women Missionaries to and the Birth of Pentecostalism in the Netherlands, 17:89. Hawaii, 17:134.

REVIEWERS

Aboagye-Mensah, Robert, 17:185-86. Escobar, Samuel, 17:32, 180-81. Neville, Robert Cummings, 17:137-38. Anderson, Gerald H., 17:82,135-6,178-79. Fieldsend, John H., 17:185. Pope-Levinson, Priscilla, 17:182-83. Arana, Pedro Q., 17:177. Fuller, W. Harold, 17:37. Robert, Dana, 17:134, 174. Bailey, Martin J., 17:45-46. Geyer, Alan, 17:80-81. Roxborogh, John, 17:93-94. Bays, Daniel H., 17:134. Greenway, Roger 5., 17:44. Scherer, James A., 17:181-82. Becken, Hans-Jiirgen, 17:183-84. Gros, Jeffrey, F.S.C., 17:88-89. Sharpe, Eric J., 17:38-39. Bromley, Myron, 17:87-88. Grundmann, Christoffer, 17:39. Smith, A. Christopher, 17:134-35. Burrows, William R., 17:139-40. Guder, Darrel L., 17:80. Starn, John, 17:174. Campbell, William 5., 17:40-41. Hiebert, Paul G., 17:85-86. Sundermeier, Theo, 17:136-37. Carey, E. F., 17:33. Hogg, William Richey, 17:79. Taber, Charles R., 17:35. Carroll, Ewing G., Jr., 17:83. Hooker, Roger, 17:36-37. Taylor, William, D., 17:32. Chapman, Colin, 17:90-91. Hultkrantz, Ake, 17:84. Thomas, Norman E., 17:44 Cook, Guillermo, 17:176. Jongeneel, Jan A. B., 17:89, 138-39. Thompson, Jack, 17:34-35. Copeland, E. Luther, 17:38. Karotemprel, Sebastian, 17:179. Unsworth, Virginia, S.C., 17:39-40. Costa, Ruy 0., 17:34. Kirk, Andrew, 17:86-87. Verstraelen, Frans J., 17:187. Cotterell, Peter, 17:42-43. Kroeger,JamesH.,M.M., 17:84-85,185. Webster, John C. B., 17:91. Crim, Keith, 17:92-93. Lacy, Creighton, 17:141. West, Charles C., 17:79. Davies, R. E., 17:178. MacInnis, Donald, 17:175-76. Whaling, Frank, 17:36. Drummond, Richard H., 17:36, 140-41 McClung, L. Grant, 17:184-85. Whiteman, Darrell, 17:81-82. Dyrness, William A., 17:41-42. McConville, William, 17:180. Wilson, Samuel, 17:186. Elmer, Duane, 17:43. Miller, Roland E., 17:183. Wisely, Thomas N., 17:177-78. Elwood, Douglas, 17:40. Murray, Jocelyn, 17:142. Zahniser, A. H. Mathias, 17:42.

DOCTORAL DISSERTATIONS

Dissertation Notices [from the U.S.], 17:46. Dissertation Notices [from the U.S.], 17:94. Dissertation Notices [fromthe U.S.], 17:187.

BOOK NOTES

On back page of each issue-17:48, 17:96, 17:144,17:192.

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