ART S.5 HOLIDAY WORK PROJECT WORK
Make a study of the landscape around your home.
S5 CRE 3 HW DR. JOHANN LUDWIG KRAPF
Johann Ludwig Krapf (1810 - 1881) was a German missionary in East Africa, as well as an explorer, linguist, and traveler. Krapf played an important role in exploring East Africa with Johannes Rebmann. They were the first Europeans to see Mount Kenya and Kilimanjaro. Krapf also played a key role in exploring the East African coastline.
EARLY LIFE Krapf was born into a Lutheran family of farmers in southwest Germany. From his school days onward he developed his gift for languages. He initially studied Latin, Greek, French and Italian. More languages were to follow throughout his life. After finishing school he joined the Base! Mission Seminary at age 17 but discontinued his studies as he had doubts about his missionary vocation. He read theology and graduated in 1834. While working as an assistant village pastor, he met a Basel missionary who encouraged him to resume his missionary vocation. In 1836 he was invited by the Anglican Church Missionary Society (CMS) to join their work in Ethiopia. Basel Mission seconded him to the Anglicans and from 1837- 1842 he worked in this ancient Christian land. Krapf later left Ethiopia and centered his interest on the Oromo - the Galla, people of southern Ethiopia who then were largely traditional believers. He learned their language and started translating parts of the New Testament into it. While 1842 saw Krapf receive a doctorate from Tubingen University for his research into the Ethiopian languages, it also witnessed the expulsion of all Western missionaries from Ethiopia, which ended his work there. Krapf spent some time in Alexandria, Egypt, where he married. From there he set off for East Africa hoping to reach the Oromo from what is now the Kenyan coast. Most of the East African coastline was then part of the Zanzibar sultanate. Sultan Seyyid Said gave him a permit to start a missionary station at the coastal city of Mombasa. Krapf started again by learning the languages of the local Mijikenda people and also Swahili. Soon after arrival in Mombasa his wife and young daughter died from malaria. Krapf moved to the higher grounds of Rabai on the coastal hills and started his station New Rabai. Here he wrote the first dictionary and grammar of the Swahili language. He also started studying other African languages, drafting dictionaries and Translating sections of the Bible, he went on to translate the New Testament, as well as the Book of Common Prayer. However, most of this was unpublished, though it was later used in revising a translation in a more southern version of Swahili. In 1846 he was joined by Johannes Rebmann, another southwest German Lutheran who was in the service of the CMS. Krapf and Rebmann set off to explore the interior of East Africa and they were the first Europeans to see the snowcapped mountains of Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya. They sent reports about them to Europe which were ridiculed by the experts. Krapfs deteriorating health forced him to return to Germany in 1853. The Anglican Church of Kenya counts him as its founding father. Linguists have been drawing on his works as he studied languages as diverse as Oromo (Galla), Swahili, Kamba, Mijikenda and Massai. His house at New Rabai is now part of Museums of Kenya. The building of the German Embassy at Nairobi is called "Ludwig-Krapf-House".
KRAPF AND THE SPREAD OF THE CHURCH IN EAST AFRICA He was the first European Christian missionary to volunteer service into East Africa, He aroused missionary business in East African, Representing the CMS, there were at least five mission societies at the coast by the end of the century. Krapf established friendship ties with the coastal Muslim Arabs such as Sultan Seyyid Said in a way laying foundation for the spread of the gospel. He established friendly relations with some African communities such as the Galla people in a way opening up East Africa to European missionary enterprise. Krapf opened the first mission station in East Africa at Rabai-Mpya in 1846 with Johann Rebmann, which served as the earliest center for missionary enterprise. He eased tension between the British and Germans in East Africa by working with the British founded missionary organization when he was a German He built the first school at the coast, Rabai-Mpya where Africans were trained in literacy and civilization as well as Bible study. This was a conversion center. Krapf translated the dictionary and part of the New Testament into Kiswahili. This made the spread of the church easier since it overcame language barrier. He preached and converted followers into the church, at Rabai-Mpya, among the Galla and the Chagga. At Rabai-Mpya, Krapf trained some Africans in Bible interpretation as catechists and priests, who were later employed in the further spread of the church Krapf preached against slave trade and slavery, discouraging it and attracting Africans into the church. Krapf was an explorer who visited the Chagga, Usambara, and Galla countries, reporting of their value and attracting other missionary groups into East African. Activities of Krapf contributed to the transformation of some coastal areas such as Rabai-Mpya and Ribe, serving as centers of evangelism. Krapf offered service, well responding to Christ's command, "Go into ail the world and preach the gospel to every creature"-mark 16:15. God bless Krapf.
CHALLENGES TO KRAPFS' MINISTRY In 1853, he was hit by ill health caused by the poor climatic conditions that made him abandon work for some time back to Europe for treatment. He faced resentment by some African communities such as the Akamba people who even plotted to have him killed, only to learn of the move that he escaped. Unscrupulous people could rob him of his belongings like food and medicine, as was the case when he was in Akamba land leaving him on trouble. Krapf was weak at winning followers largely because of his ascetic gospel and life of self-denial and indifference to all worldly enjoyments. Rabai-Mpya, Krapf was puzzled by the untimely death of his wife an issue that put him into worries and fear. He also kept losing his beloved colleagues in service such as Johann Wagner who died at Rabai-Mpya. This reduced on the manpower, slowing progress. Krapf arrived in East Africa when slave trading was rampant. This denied him security and ample time for missionary service. Experienced language barrier and had to spare time first studying some African languages a factor that delayed his service Krapf feared conflicting with Arab Muslims in his service, and presented the Christian church with reservations and compromise, causing slow progress. Penetrating the interior of East Africa was threatening to Krapf, because of the wild animals like lions in Akamba country, letting him confined to a few areas. There was poorly developed means of transport and communications at the time, a factor that hindered his movements and adventures into the interior. Krapf faced the challenge of implanting Christianity on the strong African traditional cultural beliefs and practices. According to one British council visiting Rabai in 1864, found only 06-Baptised converts and another 06-under instruction.
JOHANNES REBMANN Johannes Rebmann (January 16, 1820-October 4, 1876) was a German missionary and explorer Was among the first Europeans, along with Johann Ludwig Krapf, to enter Africa from the Indian Ocean coast His work had effects on future expeditions by Europeans, including Sir Richard Burton, John Speke, and David Livingstone. After losing most of his eyesight and entering into a brief marriage, he died of pneumonia. EARLY LIFE Rebmann was born on January 16, 1820 in Germany. From his early age, he aspired to be a "preacher and canvasser of the gospel". Later, when Rebmann became a young man, he chose to devote himself to being a missionary, and was trained in Basel. Rebmann traveled to East Africa in 1846 where he worked in areas around Kenya. In addition, he is also credited for being the first European to find Kilimanjaro in 1848. His work was hard, and had much trouble convincing tribal chiefs to let him speak to the people. An extract from Rebmann,s diary as taken from the Bible (Psalm: 51, 12) reflects his faith: "Restore to me joy of your salvation and grant me a willing spirit, to sustain me." Rebmann stayed in Africa for almost thirty consecutive years. He kept to a policy that, in order to truly have an impact on the African people, much patience was needed. As well as visiting Kilimanjaro, Rebmann visited other areas of Africa, including the African Great Lakes and Mount Meru. During his time in Africa, after his expeditions to Kilimanjaro and around the Great lakes, he learned to speak several native languages He as well wrote a dictionary in the Swahili language, contributing to linguistic study. Having almost lost his eyesight for unknown reasons, Rebmann went back to Europe in September 1875. He returned to Germany for the first time in 29 years On October 4, 1876, Rebmann died of pneumonia. Encrypted on Rebmann's tombstone in the cemetery are the words "Saved in Jesus' Arms". The legacy that he left behind is preserved by the Johannes Rebmann Foundation, a religious society devoted to Rebmann and his memory. Rebmann's work in Africa, both as a missionary and as an explorer, allowed other Europeans to follow in his footsteps.
REBMANN AND THE SPREAD OF THE CHURCH He was a Christian teacher and preacher, who taught Christianity to Africans converting them into the church Conducted missionary journeys to Kilimanjaro areas and the Meru, teaching Christianity Was an explorer who exposed the interior of East Africa attracting other missionaries such as Sir Richard Burton and David Livingstone Worked and supported Krapf in the evangelical business at Rabai Mpya. The two were the first missionaries to the coast of East Africa Senzed in Bible translation into Kiswahili, enabling coastal Africans red and understand the word of God Wrote a Swahili dictionary aiding linguistic study for easy communication and spread of the gospel Was a friendly missionary who easily related with Africans, whom he taught Christianity Condemned slave trading and slavery in East Africa in a way attracting Africans into the church Preached against some backward African cultures, softening Africans into the church Helped in ex-slaves rehabilitation at Rabai Mpya and Frere town, who were converted into Christianity Worked with Bombay Africans in the spread of the church at Rabai Mpya and Frere town Learnt some African languages that enabled him reach out to some Africans with the Christian gospel Like Krapf, Rebman experienced challenges of language barrier, being overworked, tropical diseases, hostile African communities, strong African culture and the works of Arabs and slave trade dealers at the coast among others MISSIONARIES AND SLAVE TRADE IN EAST AFRICA Slave trade was one that involved the buying and selling of human beings as commodities, largely dominant during the C19th period when African labor was needed to serve in European plantations, mines and homes. The coming of missionaries in East Africa coincided with this un-Godly and evil booming trade in the region Missionaries criticized and condemned, putting pressure on their mother Nations to bring it to an end PROBLEMS FACED BY AFRICANS DURING SLAVE RAIDING AND SLAVERY There was loss of lives especially for those with health problems, those burnt in their houses and out of fatigue. There was destruction of property through the burning of houses and surrounding bush and gardens to provide light and get those hiding. The burning of people's gardens, abandonment of shambas and the sell of able bodied young ones into slavery caused famine and starvation. The captured went through hard life of weeping on their way to the coast, at times chained to move whether healthy or not. They were loaded with other trade items on their heads on their way to the coast a factor that served to weaken them the more. The African natural family setting was destabilized with husbands fleeing their homes and mothers abandoning their children for safety of their lives. The trade caused emergence of orphans who suffered as they lacked elders to cater for their well-being. Family and clan instability caused a decline in the African cultural beliefs and practices and must have resulted into wrongful intermarriages. It exposed the enslaved Africans to unfair labor exploitation, very poorly paid and even at times not. They were hardly treated as human beings. PROBLEMS FACED BY EX- SLAVES Ex-slaves were Africans who had come out of slavery. Some had escaped from their masters; others had been chased away while some had been bought from slave markets by the missionaries African ex-slaves were faced with challenges. Slave raiding had destroyed their homesteads and as such lacked where to go and begin a new life. Lacked what to feed on due to food shortage at the coast and in the interior, continued starving The continued slave raiding in the interior of East Africa denied them room to return back into their native places for fear of being recaptured. Some freed slaves were still too young to establish independent homes in the natural family setting and African social life. Psychologically, freed slaves did not consider themselves free, since they were still vulnerable to recapture by the slave raiders. They usually considered themselves as social misfits in society, given the humiliation they had gone through such as being stripped naked. They had lost hope and any positive spirit in life. Though living, many of them had retired from normal personal socio-economic development. Loss of contacts with their own fellow family members, friends and relatives, a factor that kept them in psychological torture Could hardly acquire land for settlement and begin a new life altogether. In any case, they feared retreating back to their native lands for fear of being recaptured. Some had developed un-usual health problems yet it was not easy to come by any meaningful treatment. Such survived at God's mercy. Many could not tress the interior, particularly as regards their native homes while at the coast. Some ended up dying due to the hard life passed through, a factor that frustrated those still alive. Suffered from sex starvation and the lack of intimate heterosexual partners There was dire need for help to these poor suffering Africans. Thanks to missionaries for their effort towards this necessity.
THE RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION OF EX-SLAVES The activity of resettling ex-slaves from slavery was first started by the C.M.S. As early as 1855, they started an ex-slaves rehabilitation center at Sharanpur - Bombay in India. Later similar work was started by the Church Missionary Society in Mauritius, ad by the Holy Ghost fathers, on the island of Reunion. These were largely for ex-slaves rescued by British Naval cruisers patrolling the Indian Ocean. Some rescued ex-slaves were landed at Bombay, other Mauritius and a few in Reunion. In East Africa, work started in the early years of 1860's when different missions started settling in the area. The French - Catholics in 1868, opened up the earliest major slaves' rehabilitation center at Bagamoyo In 1863, the Holy Ghost fathers took over the building work, setting up a hospital for Europeans, a clinic for Africans, a pharmacy and workshops, with a school for children bought in the slave-market. By 1866, 110 - orphans were being educated by missionaries in the camp and all had been bought from the market with a young boy costing 25-franks and a young girl forty. The UMCA started work in 1864 in Zanzibar under Bishop Tozer. He trained ex-- slaves in catechism and clergymen, and taught a trade for independent life. The C.M.S, who had for long operated from Sharampur - Bombay and Mauritius, started service in East Africa in 1875, at Free-town. THE UNIVERSITIES MISSION TO CENTRAL AFRICA (UMCA) It started work in Zanzibar in 1864, under the leadership of Bishop Tozer. From Zanzibar, they spread out of the town and took up a new responsibility at Mbweni, South of Zanzibar. This became their first major center for freed slaves. In 1867, they started their first station on mainland Tanzania at Magila, near Tanga. Here they opened up mission stations, with schools and hospitals. In 1875, they went further a field and explored the areas around the Ruvuma River at Masasi. Dr-Steere led a number of freed slaves from Mbweni and settled them in this place, Yao land. THE SOCIETY OF THE HOLY GHOST (BAGAMOYO CAMP) Starting work in 1962 in Zanzibar, Catholics only intended to use Zanzibar as a depot. They preferred settling outside Zanzibar, a more free area. They established their Headquarters and ex-slaves rehabilitation center at Bagamoyo in 1868. Ex-slaves in Zanzibar were moved to this, a land that was given to the Catholics by Sultan-Bargash to facilitate Agricultural training for the Orphans. The land consisted of 80 acres, managed by 04 - priests, 08 - lay brothers and 12 - sisters. On the settlement were workshops, elementary schools, a junior college a training Seminary training priests, and a "Novitiate", a training African Sisters By 1868, the freed slaves numbered 324, of whom 251- were children. They were grouped into three according to intellectual ability. One group received academic education, the second was taught a skilled trade and the third did manual work only. Life was severely disciplined; each one did his share of work on the Mission farm and everyone an hour each day in prayer and study of catechism. When the Young people reached marriage age, they were married off and settled in Christian villages, under the charge of a missionary. Each family had an individual plot to produce for self-reliance, but also worked on the farm. Sir Bartle Frere regarded the system as highly commendable and recommended it to the CMS in any attempt to civilize and evangelize Africa. Catholics welcomed as many slaves as the British could send. With the subsidy paid by the British and the supporting nature of the orphanages, they could do quite well. Looking at the orphans as prospective Christians and the backbone of the future church new settlements flourished. From Bagamoyo Christian villages were established at Mhonda - 1877, Mandera - 1880, Morogoro - 1883, Tumuguo - 1884, and Kondoa - 1885. The former orphans had now spread out some 150km from their original home in Bagamoyo. THE REHABILITATION OF EX-SLAVES AT THE BAGAMOYO SETTLEMENT At the settlement, ex-slaves were resettled at the camp founding new homes under the whites. They were provided with food, and this saved them from hunger, starvation and possible death. Were provided for with accommodation at the settlement, saving them the danger of sleeping in bush and being recaptured Were counseled and their minds refigured with hope and spirit in life. This helped them accept themselves, and begin new hopeful life. The provision of dressing was the other charitable way the Catholics brought back ex-slaves to human dignity. Such brought joy and happiness to Africans. They were provided for with western medicine to combat the tropical diseases, Malaria and dysentery, which were a threat at the camp. Were taught Christianity with Christian villages established to act as Christian centers. Each day, one had to spend an hour in prayer, Bible and catechism study. Preparing them for the future, people were trained to work on the mission farm, which gave freed slaves the chance to live a successful agricultural life. Some were given Academic' education in literacy, also well prepared for the future. These became catechists, priests, and evangelists. Some were trained a practical skill such as carpentry, Brick making, Building, done in workshops. These were enabled cater for themselves in life. They were trained civilization; abandon the African superstition’s, entering the fold of the church, Christianity that actually set them free. Orphans acquired new parents, the white Catholics, who tendered for them in a more natural way They were allowed to interact for an hour every day. This enabled them share their heritage and experiences, love, accept each other, and live as comrades. Adults were married off in the Christian monogamous marriage practice, and settled in Christian villages, to stay in love and companionship. The settlement offered land to the growing mature people. This assurance for land set them free of any worries enabling them live a happy life. Bagamoyo settlement was a model slave’s rehabilitation center that set precedent for the rise of other centers like Frere town settlement by the CMS. CHALLENGES AT BAGAMOYO SETTLEMENT Catholics suffered a land raw with the local people who claimed the area. The church had to compensate them as a way of resolving the conflict. It was expensive to maintain ex-slaves, 05- pounds was needed to pay for the training that would make a man self-supporting. In the 1870's the mission faced severe financial problems which made work difficult for the missionaries Disease threat especially Malaria and Dysentery greatly incapacitated the settlement. By 1877, 12 missionaries had died out of disease. Then was manpower gap, since whites disliked working in Africa. At the start, only 04 priests 08 - lay brothers and 12 sisters worked at the settlement. Insecurity was a menace caused by Arab raids and activities at the cost. This resulted into fear among whites to work at the camp Language barrier was a challenge, largely caused by the indiscriminate settlement of ex-slave who lacked knowledge of the Swahili language. Work at the settlement with time became too bound up with material things, limiting individual attention and commitment to Christ. It should however be noted that amidst challenges, great service was rendered at the settlement in the rehabilitation of Africans, the Freed slaves. THE CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY fC.M.SJ The CMS service against slave trade started in Bombay as early as 1855 rehabilitating African ex-slaves from East Africa When the UMCA and the Holy Ghost societies took up the burden in East Africa at the coast, the Protestants were henceforth challenged to do the same. According to Sir Bartle Frere; I can recommend no change in the arrangement; I would recommend it to be followed in any attempt to civilize and evangelize Africa. He wrote about the service at Bagamoyo while challenging the CMS to establish one. Out of Sir Bartle Frere's pressure, the CMS established a slave's rehabilitation camp in 1875, named after the initiator, hence Frere- town at Kasauni. The C.M.S worked with the Bombay Africans from Bombay Sharampur at this station, including David George, Ismael Semler and William Jones By the end of 1875, there were around 300 ex-slaves at Frere town a figure that tremendously rose. At Frere town, similar services as those rendered at the Bagamayo settlement were offered Frere-town became the largest settlement and from there, foundations were laid for future missionary work among the Giriama, Nyika, and Taita. Major challenges however included conflict between missionaries and Arabs, rule by decree, denial of the actual food ration, imprisoning of ex-slaves, poor relationship between missions the Bombay Africans, language barrier, diseases among others. WHY MISSIONARIES ESTABLISHED SLAVES REHABILITATION CAMPS IN EAST AFRICA Philanthropic, economic and political factors have been raised to explain the above mission enterprise in East Africa. They include: The need to join Britain in the struggle against slave trade and slavery in East Africa, with all the misery and suffering it caused on Africans. The need to resettle ex-slaves, since they lacked a clear destination after being freed, and moving back inland would only expose them to recapture. The need to rehabilitate ex-slaves in such camps, where ex-slaves would be counseled, guided, fed, nursed, and generally prepared for the future The need by missionaries to develop legitimate trade, one of the reasons for cash crop agricultural development in these camps; in cotton and coffee The need to facilitate the spread Christianity through the camps/settlements, where it was easier and cheaper to convert the settled ex-slaves There was need to bring Converted Africans in a Christian lifestyle. They were watched to pray, study the bible, catechism, and live as God fearing people. The need to hide their imperial designs and present themselves as humanitarians to remain acceptable to majority Africans Activities of the Catholics in Zanzibar and Bagamoyo inspired other societies to establish ex-slaves camps and so were the UMCA at Mbweni and at Kisauni. Competition over converts among different denominations partly explains the trend; a move to out compete each other in the African Christian following. Missionary desire to out compete Islam in east Africa, partly through stopping salve trade and slavery, but also through the spread of Christianity These camps were designed to overcome manpower gap, the transport problems inland etc. In these settlements many people could be attended to at a time. Economic motives included the need to exploit the Africans labor on the farms established in the settlements, particularly those producing cash crops for export. The need to have cheaply produced raw materials, cotton and coffee grown on the settlement that was needed in Europe to feed manufacturing industries The need to secure ready market for goods produced in Europe. Ex-slaves used the little income got from the sale of cash crops to buy western goods. The need to easily spread western civilization through the offer of western education to the settled ex-slaves and break African cultures The political imperial motive to colonize African minds to accept anything European including colonialism, EX-SLAVES CENTERS AND THE EVANGELIZATION OF EAST AFRICA In the settlements, everything possible was done to ensure people turned to Christianity The centers were religiously founded, on either Catholic or protestant foundation, and therefore ex-slaves lived a Christian lifestyle. Christian believers of the respective denomination administered the camps and often ensured their religious viewpoint was put across Worship centers, churches were erected in these centers, where inmates were squired to go and attend church services. The Freed-slaves were to access missionary educational, health and other charity services only when one had accepted Jesus Christ Every inmate was by law required to be baptized to Christianity as a qualification to fit in the camps. People were required to go for prayer every day. This was important in zommitting them to Christ. Religious schools, seminaries and Novitiates were built to train African Catechists, Priest and sisters out of the freed slaves. Bible study lessons were conducted and encouraged among Africans to enrich them with Bible knowledge. Some freed Africans were made Leaders in the church, challenged to reach out Christ's gospel to fellow Africans in the camps. Inmates were challenged to adopt Christian marriage practices of monogamy cased on love and companionship Christians were provided with land and houses built at the camps for independent living to encourage more into the Christian faith. Once at the camp, then one was supposed to stay in the Christian villages created, and thus live a Christian life. Christianity in that way was unavoidable. CHRISTIAN SUCCESS IN THE CAMPS Catholics were at the Bagamoyo settlement and Anglicans at Frere-town settlement There was the emergence of Christian villages, Morogoro, Mhonda and Kondoa, areas for Christians only People lived a life of prayer - everyday. At Bagamoyo, one hour of prayer everyday was compulsory. Christian worship was developed among the ex-slaves, with love for Christian Music, dance and drama. The belief in Jesus Christ as the Lord, God, Messiah and Savior, with the belief in resurrection of Christ They adopted Christian Baptism for both the adults and the young ones they produced at the camp Africans abandoned the African Initiation rites of circumcision, clitoridectomy by some people who culturally practiced this. Adopted Christian marriage systems of monogamy, based on Love Company and for pro-creation Africans often visited churches for prayers, thanksgiving to God and fellowship among others They took up Monotheism abandoning polytheism. They turned to the one supreme creator, God. Some Africans became church leaders after undergoing seminary education hence African Priests, Reverends. Some developed a life of Bible study and interpretation to live a real Christian holy life required of them. Some developed a life of self-sacrifice and the denouncing of materialism which breads, jealousy and hatred. They offered themselves to God for everything. HOW MORALS WERE IMPARTED INTO EX-SLAVES Ex-slaves were converted into the Christian faith and called upon to live according to Christian norms They underwent Bible study lessons to equip them with the virtues of Christian moral life Ex-slaves were subjected to moral lessons and instructions in the camps that constantly reminded them of their moral obligations Adults were required to enter marriage relations to avoid temptations of sexual immorality Missionaries administered punishments to those who went against the Christian moral values in a way discouraging such vices They encouraged daily prayers, ones that constantly renewed the faith of the ex- slaves for moral living Missionaries could ex-communicate those ex-slaves whose conduct was unbearable, teaching others a lesson to lead morally acceptable lives Ex-slaves were kept busy in the gardens and technical schools in a way avoiding die life at the camps Some ex-slaves were provided with employment opportunities that earned them ncome for survival, reducing the temptation for theft Ex-slaves were encouraged to lead repentant lives through which their faith was always renewed for moral uprightness Counseling services were extended to the ex-slaves at the camps to help those with psycho-social challenges adjust to acceptable moral standards The young were given foster parents who were charged with their moral upbringing Ex-slaves were allowed establish own homes at the camps that reduced on the congestion in the dormitories for easy discipline management Local leaders were appointed amongst the ex-slaves and charged with the moral conduct of the others at the camps Qn. How are moral values imparted among Christians today? WEAKNESS OF EX-SLAVES SETTLEMENTS IN THE REHABILITATION OF THE AFRICANS They were institutions of divisionism on the African race, the ex slaves and other Africans. Were centers of cultural imperialism, eroding Africans cultures in favor of Europeanism styles Africans were at times mistreated basing on race, thinly fed with small food rations Simple misconduct was rewarded with heavy punishments of imprisonment and whipping, a factor that disappointed ex-slaves to imagine they were still slaves. Their labor was directly and indirectly exploited, especially on the mission farms that produced among others cash crops for export. Ex-slaves were overworked on the farms and camps which weakened them and caused them conflict with the missionaries Africans in the camps were markets for the European produced goods and services, the medicine, educational scholastics, among others, exploiting their low-income earnings. . They were used produce raw materials for European industries, the cash crops grown and produced by Africans were for export They were used to fulfill the European imperial designs of colonial rule to colonize African minds to accept anything European and so was the flag following the cross. Congestion at the camps resulted into poor hygiene and outbreak of diseases such as dysentery that caused loss of lives Life at the camps was too strict and bound that ex-slaves sometimes found themselves in another form and state of slavery under the missionaries SLAVE-TRADE AND THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY Slave trade attracted different and many missionary societies into East Africa, to de- campaign the evil and un-Godly trade, hence the HGF, CMS, UMCA, and LMS The trade provided room for missionaries to buy slaves from the slave markets who were obliged to conversion into Christianity. It made missions establish slaves' settlement and rehabilitation centers for the £-eed slaves where conversion was mandatory, and so was a life of Christianity. Missionaries condemned the trade as evil and un-Godly, in a way becoming acceptable by majority Africans, who easily accepted their gospel too. The trade made Africans especially at the coast, run into mission stations for protection; who easily accepted conversion into Christianity. The trade produced hopeless, frustrated Africans, who easily converted to Christianity where they hoped their misery and suffering would come to an end. The trade led to the development of trade routes leading into the interior, later used by missionaries to penetrate the Interior and spread the gospel. The trade cleared the interior of some dangerous wild life like elephants, providing security to missionaries moving into the interior. It produced African church leaders, the Bombay Africans, who presented Christianity as a liberating institution to Africans, winning many followers. The trade enabled missions win financial support from their mother nations to help in their activities against slave trade, but also in the spread of the church. Enabled missions win home protection in East Africa against slave raiders, providing them with Arms that eased their endeavors in the spread of the church The trade made Britain sign anti-slave trade treaties with Sultan Seyyid Said and Bargash, which protected missions against Arab raiders, providing a fairly conducive environment for the spread of Christianity. The slave trade abolition campaign involved the development of legitimate trade toy missions, which attracted African followers for cash crops production and income earning. The abolition campaign involved development of transport and communications, the railways and roads, which were used by missions in the spread of the church. The anti- slavery campaign ended with European colonialism on East African, which provided safety and freedom for the spread of the gospel. It deflected Arabs from the propagation of their Islamic faith to dealing in the profitable trade an opportunity that missionaries exploited. By the time Muslims woke up, Christianity had already been widely spread. HOW SLAVE TRADE LIMITED SPREAD OF THE CHURCH The trade caused insecurity to missions over their lives slave dealers a factor that limited missionary effort in spreading the church. Slave raiders often raided and robbed missions also threatening them in their noble evangelical cause. Missionary activities caused them conflict with Arab and African slave dealers, hence some poor working relations. The trade made missionary work very expensive, requiring lots of finances and protection, a factor that limited missionary activities. It delayed missionary work among African communities, whose leaders enjoyed the trade, delaying the spread of the gospel in areas of the Masai and Yao. It caused some unsettled African life especially in the Interior of East Africa, making it hard for missionaries to preach free persons. The trade caused a materialistic lifestyle among the traders, who could not easily denounce if in favour of Christianity in which life was of self-denial and sacrifice. The trade developed with the spread of Islam at the coast and in the interior. Muslim converts were not easy to convert to Christianity. Missionaries were mistaken for slave dealers by Africans hence being rejected and sometimes treated with hostility Some Africans kept in hiding from slave dealers and could not be got by the Christian missionaries for conversion Slave trade caused famine and food shortage a challenge missionaries shared with Africans limiting their work Some missionaries feared to come to East Africa due to the insecurity caused by slave trading THE RISE OF BOMBAY AFRICANS Bombay is one of the most respected urban centers in India India is an Asian sub continent that was colonized by Britain getting its independence in 1947. Bombay Africans were African ex-slaves who had been rescued by British patrol ships on the Indian Ocean and landed to Sharanpur -Bombay for rehabilitation. Here, C.M.S had established a slave's rehabilitation and settlement center in 1855, and some African freed slaves benefited from this facility. African freed slaves in this camp were converted to Protestantism, and trained in different skills, trade and theology. Prominent Bombay Africans who returned to East Africa from Bombay around 1564 included William Jones, David George, Ismael Semler. They worked among the freed slaves at Freretown established in 1875. Those who came early, worked with Rebman at Rabai-mpya. The rise of this community of African Christians was one great blessing to the church expansion in East Africa. PROMINENT BOMBAY AFRICANS DAVID GEORGE A pronounced Bombay African was recruited by Rebmann as a catechist to work at Rabai-mpya in 1864. He spent most of his time at Rabai, conducting catechism lessons to the few recruits at Rabai, therefore serving as teacher. His services were highly appreciated by Sir Bartle Frere, when he visited Rabai in 1873. David George suggested to Frere the need for missionaries to concentrate more on industrial training, as this would help Africans become self reliant. George died in 1884, after 20 years of service without being ordained. The most pronounced Bombay African, worked at Rabai with Rebmann, for some time. In 1880, he was sent to Taita, to help with missionary work among fellow Africans. In 1885, Bishop Hannington at Rabai -Mpya ordained William Jones a Deacon. Thereafter, he was commissioned to accompany Bishop Hannington to Uganda the same year. Unfortunately Bishop Hannington was imprisoned in Busoga for six days and then killed before arriving in Buganda. William Jones escaped and returned to Rabai with the story of the Bishop's murder in Busoga. He thereafter became pastor at Rabai and ministered fellow Africans. He is credited for his accommodating spirit of the Watoro (refugee slaves) who were fleeing to Rabai from their Arab masters. By 1888, Jones had resettled nearly 1000 ex-slaves only at Rabai. In 1896, he was ordained Archdeacon at Rabai. The other important Bombay African was Israel Semler. Ordained in 1885, worked with Rebmann at Rabai
ROLE PLAYED BY BOMBAY AFRICANS IN THE SPREAD OF THE CHURCH In many ways Bombay African activities and influence in East Africa contributed to the expansion of the church Being African converts to Christianity, Bombay Africans encouraged other Africans to take up Christianity and indeed attracted followers. They were easily acceptable by the coastal African communities, together with their gospel. William Jones was accepted among the Taita, who had rejected the whites under the CMS in the area. Bombay Africans presented the church as a liberating Institution that had settled and rehabilitated them, and therefore an Institution worth joining They carried out missionary journeys to the coastal and some interior communities. William Jones, spread the gospel in Taita area. Did the mediation service between Africans and missionaries, William Jones, rr c: jeed William prince of the CMS among the Taita people Served as teachers, David George recruited from Bombay as a catechist closely wcr' CHALLENGES FACED BY BOMBAY AFRICANS Those who volunteered to serve with missionaries were few in number, and were therefore overworked. Bombay Africans faced hostility from the coastal African and Arab slave raiders, who opposed their activities in the region. Muslims had dominated the towns of Mombasa and Zanzibar, and were not easy penetrating with the Christian gospel. Bombay Africans service was retarded by the limited and scarce financial resources to facilitate their activities at Rabai and Frere town. They suffered racial prejudice from the European missionaries, who still regarded them as inferior since they were ex-slaves and Africans, demoralizing them. They were denied important responsibility in the church, a behavior condemned by William prince of the CMS after realizing that David George had served as a Catechist for over 15- years at Rabai-Mpya. Bombay Africans were unhappy with the Missionary harsh treatment of Africans at Frere town, causing dissatisfaction to the two races, one doubling the other. Missionaries did not trust Bombay Africans, and those in responsibility remained under tight supervision, a fact that reduced the spirit to service among Bombay Africans. The Missionaries were against African cultures, yet valued by the Bombay Africans. Such affected the church negative. Some African communities did not welcome the Bombay Africans Missionary work in their countries, such as the Nandi people. Bombay Africans were frustrated by the poor remuneration given to them amidst great service. Were affected by the poor transport and communication network in East Africa, which limited evangelical movements Suffered from language barrier since they did not know ail the languages in East Africa, limiting communication and evangelism Tropical diseases such as malaria were a threat to the lives and health of Bombay Africans interfering with their evangelical work RELATIONS BETWEEN MISSIONARIES AND BOMBAY AFRICANS The repatriation of Bombay Africans to East Africa was a move taken with the main aim of reinforcing missionaries at Rabai- Mpya, East Africa. Bombay Africans were valued as people who were trained, skilled and with the experience to rehabilitate their fellow African ex-slaves in East Africa To this, relations between the two were good in the early years of repatriation and settlement in East Africa. Bombay Africans very well bore in mind the significance of the CMS missionaries r their rehabilitation, settlement and preparation for the future. Unfortunately as time passed, relations between the two started deteriorating such that by the end of the 1870's the two were overtly in poor relations. REASONS FOR THE POOR RELATIONS Africans were treated as inferior by the missionaries, treating them like children who had to be guided and patronized in every way. Missionaries denied Bombay Africans important leadership opportunities in the church and even at Frere town Bombay Africans were entrusted with too much work by the missionaries, that caused them tire, fatigue and consequently, resentment. Missionary mistrust of Bombay Africans, subjecting them to tight supervision, displeased these Africans. Bombay Africans were frustrated by the poor remuneration amidst much work, which to them was a sign of little appreciation and recognition of their services. Bombay Africans were unhappy with the missionary harsh approach on Africans at Frere town, involving caning, imprisonment and provision of small food rations. They conflicted over a stand on African cultures such as circumcision among the Masai and Kikuyu, which missionaries opposed, yet tolerated by the Bombay Africans. Missionary discrimination of Africans featured of neglect of the non-converts made Bombay Africans uncomfortable with such behavior. The limited missionary support, financial and material to those Bombay Africans sent out on missionary journeys also explains the poor relations. The departure of Sir Bartle Frere, the only European who respected the services of Bombay Africans left Bombay Africans neglected by the existing Missionaries. The untimely death of Bishop Hannignton in 1885 in Busoga accompanied by a Bombay African William Jones, who was not killed, raised suspicion and mistrust for the Bombay Africans. Missionaries at Frere town over worked the African ex-slaves which they interpreted as racial segregation. Bombay Africans felt cheated by the Missionary dislike to leave coastal mission posts for interior adventure, instead delegating Bombay Africans such hard tasks. The development of such poor relations became a big cost to the church's growth and expansion such that by the end of the century missionaries had already started working out ways of harmonizing these relations. EFFORTS TO RECONCILE BOMBAY AFRICANS AND MISSIONARIES Sir Bartle Frere, a British official called on the CMS missionaries to respect the plight of Bombay Africans. William prince of the C.M.S called on fellow missionaries to put Bombay Africans in responsible positions in the church and at Frere – town William prince condemned racial discrimination as practiced by the white missionaries, who under-looked Africans as inferior. Africans were given important places in church with William Jones made a pastor at Rabai, and later Archdeacon. There was respected treatment of African ex-slaves by the missionaries, giving them good food rations, and human response to misconduct Missionaries took to indigenizing the church, tolerating some African cultures such as African names and even circumcision later. Africans trained as catechists and priests were allowed to establish churches, and run them on mission principles hence Sagula and Stevesta missions. Missionaries offered literacy and practical education to Africans in the settlements, preparing them for life, a practice that pleased Bombay Africans. There was increased African access to medical services that pleased Bombay Africans Missions also increased charity to Africans, providing them with food, housing, clothes, medicine, especially those at Frere - town. Missionaries put pressure on colonial authorities to value African interests, a credit to the services of Dr. Arthur, the Africans representative to the legislative assembly from 1923. They also encouraged peasant farming to boost African incomes. K. Borup distributed seedlings and fertilizers to Africans The C.M.S appealed for more missionaries into East Africa to work with the Bombay Africans, a step that relieved them of workload, raising their hopes. With these measures in place, they set a precedent for the rapid penetration of the church into the interior, especially into Kenya, with Kenya becoming a 'Haven of Mission churches" STUDY QUESTIONS Critically analyze the success and failures of the missionaries on the East African coast in the 19th Century? Examine the achievements and failures of the missionaries who worked on the East African coast from 1844 to 1882? Assess the impact of Christianity on the communities of freed slaves in East African between 1844 - 1890? (a) Comment on the problems that the freed slaves in East Africa experienced? (b) Examine the efforts at Bagamayo settlement to rehabilitate them? In what ways did the CMS in the 19th Century, help ex-slaves to be self reliant at the East African coast? Discuss the role played by the Bombay Africans in expanding the church on the coast. Discuss the role played by the freed slaves in the evangelization of East Africa? (a) Account for the fact that relations between Bombay Africans and missionaries deteriorated from 1879 onwards? (b) Comment on the steps, which were taken to improve the situation of the Bombay Africans. (a) Why did several missionary societies set freed slaves settlements in East African in the 19th Century? (b) How successful were these settlements in the evangelization of East Africa? (a) Explain the ways in which slave trade contributed to the spread of Christianity in Uganda? (b) How is the church in Uganda trying to reach the masses with the gospel today? CHRISTIANITY AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OFCOLONIALISM ON EAST AFRICA The establishment of European colonialism on East Africa was a business of the last two decades of the 19th Century, and the early years of the 20th C - period. Before this period, different European groups had operated in the region, with no direct quest for control over the Africans. The Portuguese had operated on the East African coast from around 1500, to around 1700, and concentrated on trade and commerce Explorers such as Speke, Stanley Morton, had operated in the region and all they did was to report of the region's economic potential, without direct involvement in the politics of colonialism. Early traders were attracted to secure economic opportunities and so were the activities of the imperial British East African company and the IGEACO. These companies were later to administer East Africa after the declaration of protectorates on the region. The IBEAC's administrative services ended in 1892, while those of the GEA-CE ended in the early 1890's. When missionaries came, they argued their activities were primarily humanitarian, meant to save mankind from the social evils in society, such as the tropical diseases, slave trading and slavery, and cultural backwardness. Scholars have on the other hand presented missionaries to have been imperial in motive, MISSIONARIES AS AGENTS OF EUROPEAN - IMPERIALISM Missionaries brainwashed and softened the minds of Africans through their education and Christian teachings, to accept anything European including colonialism. They discovered East African's wealth, gave wonderful reports, a factor that motivated European governments to colonize the region. Directly involved themselves in wars of colonialism in Buganda, 1888 - 1892 when Buganda lost her independence forcefully to the whites of the C.M.S. Engaged in colonial treaty signing in Buganda, in 1892, when the CMS reached a truce with Kabaka Mwanga, which confirmed European control over Buganda. Missionaries mediated colonial treaty signing between Africans and the whites. In the 1900-Buganda Agreement, members of the CMS acted as interpreters. They financed activities of chartered Companies. In 1891, when the IBEAC ran bankrupt, it was financed by missionaries of the CMS to continue with work in Uganda, till 1892. Missionary education produced African elite collaborators such as Apollo Kagwa and Semei Kakungulu, who spread European imperialism across Uganda. They were instruments of the 1884/85 Berlin conference- "Doctrine of effective occupation" as they occupied East African areas, building Christian communities, which were consequently passed on to their mother nations. They built roads that eased the transportation of European troops and administrators into East Africa, for the establishment of European imperialism. They improved on the health services, reducing on the disease threat that had scared away European Imperialists. Missionaries civilized Africans, a factor that made Africans admire anything Europeans, and so was their acceptance of imperialism. Missionaries introduced cash crop agriculture among Africans, who earned income and supported colonial activities Missionaries developed legitimate trade that earned Africans income attracting them to European activities and colonialism Decampaigned slave trading and slavery which brought joy to Africans to love and accept European activities and control Resettled and rehabilitated ex-slaves in camps like Frere-town wining the support and interest of Africans to accept European control Called upon home countries to come and declare colonial control over Africans. The CMS called upon Britain into Buganda after the religious wars Reported about hostile and collaborating African communities, information that guided colonialists as they advanced to control Divided Africans along religious denominations, the Catholics against Protestants undermining African unity to resist colonialism Hence, "the flag followed the cross". Missionaries threatened colonial wars in Africa, resulting into the 1884-1885 - Berlin conference and the declaration of "protection" on East Africa by 1895. ANTI COLONIAL END OF MISSIONARIES Not necessarily all European Christian Missionaries and missionary activities were designed to erode the independence of Africans, European colonial interests was realized after some forty years of missionary adventure in East Africa, Missions with time tolerated and condoned some African cultural ways of life, such as circumcision among the Kikuyu and Maasai. Some missionaries were adventures, whose mission was to make names in Europe as ones who had discovered certain features in Africa, the likes of Dr. David Livingstone. Some missionaries in East Africa were victims of the 18th and 19th century evangelical awakening in Europe Some were victims of the surge for Islam at the East Coast of Africa, a faith they naturally weakened in the region. Some missionaries were victims of the 19th century unemployment problem in Europe and therefore needed to earn a living through service in the church. The 19th century wars and revolutions made some missionaries rush into East Africa for peaceful secure areas. Some were challenged by the teachings of St. Mark 16:15, "Go into all the world, and preach the gospel to every creature". Some missionary societies were influenced by the desire to abolish slave trading activities, which were evil, un-Godly, abusing man's special place on earth. Others were influenced by the social problems of disease in Africa, hence the "eed to curb the problem on Africans through giving western medicine to the sick - ill- poor Africans. To Europeans, East Africa was a dark continent and there was need to bring light on the continent through civilizing the illiterate Africans The Christian obligation to spread the Christian faith to Africans and save the souls of Africans from perishing in Hell COLONIALISM AND MISSIONARY WORK ON EAST AFRICA Colonialism was established in the last decade of the 19th century, with Zanzibar, Kenya and Uganda under the British while Tanganyika was under the Germany Colonial authorities in different ways chose to facilitate missionary enterprise on the region a factor that led to its wide spread such that by the mid 1930's the entire East African region had been covered. Terms and conditions of the 1884 - 1885 Berlin conference; called upon colonial powers to support missionary work The conference legalized colonialism on Africa, giving missionaries the confidence to spread the church It provided for missionary freedom of movement, without colonial interference a factor that saw evangelists across East Africa regardless of the colonial power The doctrine made European nations fund expansion of mission work and enable them have claim over those areas. The conference provided for non-interference among mission bodies in their work, enhancing on missionary cooperation, which boosted missionary work The doctrine encouraged missionaries to continue with work wherever they were increasing missionary activities in the region. It guaranteed colonialism on African communities, which also guaranteed missionary business on East Africa. Missionaries enjoyed educational financial support from the colonial authorities, which service attracted many African followers into the church. Missionaries enjoyed colonial Health services financial support, a service that attracted very many Africans into the Christian church. Colonial authorities linked missionaries to local political and cultural leaders, paving way to effective gospel spreading. Colonialism guaranteed missionary security particularly in those areas which had more negativity about the whites. This boosted missionary enterprise. Colonialism legalized the church in its affairs to ease its spread. In Uganda, Protestantism operated as a state religion, enjoying full colonial incentives The establishment of colonialism involved the development of communications such as railways, which were vital for missionary evangelical movements British colonialism complemented missionary effort against slave trade and slavery and therefore attracting a big following to the church. Colonialism complemented mission effort towards cash crop peasant production particularly in Uganda, whose success benefited the church in congregation. Colonial complementary role in the development of legitimate trade as agitated for by missionaries won more followers to the church COLONIAL DISRUPTION OF MISSIONARY WORK In some areas, colonial capitalistic interests conflicted with the missionary humanitarian services, limiting cooperation among the two. Colonial authorities in Uganda favored Protestants against French Catholics which the Catholic Church did not like Colonialists in some instances openly criticized missionary service, as was the case with the 1924 -25-phelpstoke - commission education report negatively affecting the church. Colonial offer of educational services to Africans, similar to mission education, caused a run - away of some converts from the mission schools and churches Colonial offer of health services to Africans also destructed some Africans from pining the church since they could still access the same services outside church. Colonial wars of conquest such as the Hehe's 1891 - 1899, Nandi 1894 - 1905, Majimaji, disrupted missionary work due to insecurity and instability. European colonial interests in Uganda caused instability and insecurity within the church. The Wafranza - Wangleza wars disrupted missionary work. Colonialists neglected the opening up of unproductive areas such as Turkana and Karamoja lands, delaying missionary activity in such areas. The colonial imperial designs partly explain the 1885 - murder of Bishop Hannington a factor that threatened the Christian enterprise in the interior. Colonial land grabbing in Kenya caused tension between Africans and the whites limiting missionary work Colonial exploitation of African labour caused conflict between Africans and whites interfering with missionary work THE PENETRATION OF CHRISTIANITY INTO THEEAST AFRICAN INTERIOR CHRISTIANITY INTO UGANDA As compared to the other areas of East Africa, Christianity came into Uganda a bit ate; virtually a century after the missionary impetus in Europe had began. This was following Stanley's famous letter to London, which painted Kabaka Muteesa-1 as eager to hear the gospel and propagate it throughout the kingdom. The Anglican Church missionary society assembled teachers with the first two representatives of the group arriving in June 1877 at Kabaka Muteesa-1 as court. Two years later, the French Catholic White Fathers arrived in 1879. Unfortunately, the years that followed were of Christian missionary harassment out of Buganda as well as open conflict between the four religious groups. In 1892, this environment came to an end when Kabaka Mwanga reached a truce with the whites. Protestants seized power in Buganda Since then, the British supported the spread of Christianity with the church dominating the region by the end of the century as compared to Islam. A census carried out in the protectorate in 1911 showed that 40% Baganda were already Christians with 60% Catholics and 40% Protestants. Christianity spread to the other regions of Uganda beginning with the western region, which by 1900 had adjusted to a situation of accepting the new faith. In Toro, both the CMS and the White Fathers arrived in 1894. Omukama Kasagama favored Protestantism with the Catholics allying with the local people. In Ankole, evangelization was first done by the CMS who won the favors of the Omugabe as early as 1899. They were in 1901 joined by the Catholics who won the alliance of the Bairu people. In.Bunyoro, the earliest evangelists were Protestants of the CMS who started mission in 1896 to be joined by the Catholics in 1900. In the Eastern region, except for Busoga, Christianity was first felt in the aftermath of Semei Kakungulu’s conquest and was associated with Kiganda culture. In Teso and Bukedi, Catholicism that arrived late dominated scoring great success among the peasants. The Protestants who arrived earlier before 1904 remained with few followers. In Busoga and Bugishu, Protestants of the CMS dominated the area with the Mill- Hill Fathers who propagated the catholic doctrine winning over few followers. In the north, Acholi and Lango areas, British Protestantism largely influenced them from 1908. In 1910, Catholics of the Verona White Fathers joined them. Up to 1910, some three parts of Uganda, West Nile, Kigezi and Karamoja were practically still untouched by missionary work. In West Nile, Christianity arrived late but made great impact. Catholics of the Verona White Fathers and the African Inland Mission were the pioneer missions. Kigezi land was first pioneered by the Catholic white fathers in 1910, joined by Protestants of the CMS from 1915. The Christian enterprise in the area was later roosted by the revival movement from Rwanda in the 1930s. It was until 1925 that Missionary work spread to Karamoja, when the Anglican Bible church started work in the area. They were later joined by the Verona others who through effective school work worn over converts. The spread of Christianity in Uganda was so rapid than expected. By 1914, the White Fathers had 26-stations in the country, Mill hill Fathers 15 and the Church Missionary Society a good number. CHRISTIANITY INTO KENYA In modern Kenya, Christianity came earlier than the 19th century missionary impetus in Europe, being introduced by the Portuguese during the 16th century. Francisco D'Almeida (1505) came and left two Christian Portuguese to say mass, developing four worshiping centers in Mombasa, St. Augustine Church, Fort Jesus, Mother Church and the Mesocodia Church. Unfortunately, the end of Portuguese rule at the East African coast was equally a blow to the church. Arab Muslims established themselves and Christianity got relegated untii the 19th century period when missionary journeys into East Africa started. Krapf was the first missionary of the Church Missionary Society into East Africa in 1844, joined by Rebmann in 1846, with whom a mission station at Rabai-Mpya was established. The Methodists, who for long operated around river Tana, joined them and moved southwards to Meru-land where they established a mission station. The Holy Ghost Fathers from Zanzibar who had their first station near river Tana implanted Catholicism. They established themselves in Mombasa and Voi. The Scottish Missionaries followed thereafter, moving further inland to Kikuyu- land where they established a mission station at Thogoto. They spread service to the west of mountain Kenya, into Nyeri and southern to Meru-land. From Rabai-Mpya, the CMS moved inland to Teveta, and spread their activities east of Mountain Kenya to Embu-land. The Society of Friends from England established a mission station in western Kenya with a school, a teacher training college, Bible institute and a hospital. The African Inland mission started work in Ukambani in 1895, opening a mission station in Nairobi in 1907. Immediately the railway line reached Nairobi, the Holy Ghost Fathers moved establishing St. Austin's mission. They later opened up outposts at Ukambani, Muranga and Kiambu, all in central Kenya. The consolata mission arrived in 1902 and started ministering in kiambu area from where they spread service to limuru, Nairobi. SENIOR FIVE HOLIDAY WORK ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION 1(a) Distinguish between an enterprising person and an entrepreneur. (b) Suggest ways of promoting entrepreneurship in Uganda. 2aWhy is self employment preferred to paid employment? END ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… SENIOR FIVE HOLIDAY WORK ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION 1(a) Distinguish between an enterprising person and an entrepreneur. (b) Suggest ways of promoting entrepreneurship in Uganda. 2aWhy is self employment preferred to paid employment? END ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… SENIOR FIVE HOLIDAY WORK ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION 1(a) Distinguish between an enterprising person and an entrepreneur. (b) Suggest ways of promoting entrepreneurship in Uganda. 2aWhy is self employment preferred to paid employment? END ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… SENIOR FIVE HOLIDAY WORK ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION 1(a) Distinguish between an enterprising person and an entrepreneur. (b) Suggest ways of promoting entrepreneurship in Uganda. 2aWhy is self employment preferred to paid employment? S5 GEOG FISHING The term fishing refers to the extraction of aquatic animals from the seas/ oceans and inland water bodies. The aquatic animals include fish, whales, seals, pearls, crabs, shrimps etc. Fishing is one the oldest occupations of man. Due to advancements in technology and increased demand for proteins, fishing is increasingly becoming an important occupation. A well developed fishing industry can provide cheap proteins and essential minerals (like calcium, iodine, phosphorus), fish liver oils; employment , industrial development ( e.g. making animal feeds, glue, soap, margarine, paints, ink, medicine, perfumes and cosmetics). Today there is protection of international waters to check on the impact of the fishing industry, in order to ensure sustainable exploitation of aquatic life. Distribution of Major fishing grounds in the world The world’s major fishing grounds (fisheries) are located in the cool waters of the northern hemisphere, although there is also fishing in the southern hemisphere. The fishing grounds include: 1. North West Pacific fishing grounds 2. North East Pacific fishing grounds 3. North West Atlantic fishing grounds 4. North East Atlantic fishing grounds Other important fishing grounds are: a) The Caribbean region b) The Peruvian-Chilean coastlines c) Maghreb region (North West Africa) d) South African coast upto Angola World fish types 1. Salt –water fish These spend their entire lives in oceans and seas, and they are categorized as: (a)Pelagic fish 1 Fish stay at or near the water surface of seas/ oceans. Examples are herrings, mackerel, sardines, pilchards, brisling, anchovies/anchoveta, menhaden, tuna, swordfish, marlin, mahi-mahi, shell fish (b) Demersal fish This lives at the bottom of the seas/ oceans or in deep waters. Fish species include cod, haddock, halibut, hake, plaice, Pollock, flounders, sole, cusk, and Rose fish. 2. Fresh water fish This is found in inland streams, rivers and lakes. Also in ponds, paddy fields etc the fish species include: Sturgeon, Carp, Roach, Tilapia Nilotica, Nile pearch etc 3. Anadromous fish These stay in both salt and fresh waters. The best example is salmon (which is extensively fished in North America, particularly from Alaska to Oregon on the pacific coast). The young salmon live in the sea but after 2 to 5 years, they return to stream where they were born to lay their own eggs or die. (They move in large shoals and find their original breeding / spawning ground. Their migration routes and spawning ground. Their migration routes and spawning grounds are readily spotted and they are easily caught by traps or nets). Modern/commercial fishing methods 1. Gill netting ( drifting) This is a method used to catch pelagic fish. A net is suspended in water with floats at the top and weights at the bottom. The net hangs vertically in water and the fish are caught by their gills as they try to pass through the net. Once trapped they can move neither forward or backward. When the fish has been caught the net is removed onto the drifter/ ship for processing. Illustration of drifting method 2 2. Purse seining This method is also used to catch pelagic fish living near the water surface. A purse seine net is laid out in a circular form below the water to trap a shoal of fish. The fish shoals are located using an eco-sounder. At the bottom of the net a ring exists through which a rope attached to a small boat passes. The small boat is used to lay the net, which net is suspended by floats at the top and weights at the bottom. The net has a close mesh where fish are caught by gills. After the circle has been made, the rope is pulled to close the bottom of the net thereby engulfing/ trapping the fish. The net is lifted onto the boat/ seiner. Illustration of purse seining 3. Long lining This method is used to catch demersal fish found in deep water. It involves the use of a long main line with attached drop lines which have hooks with baits. The main line / main rope can stretch for several kilometers with about 200 drop lines. The fish are caught as they try to eat the baits. When enough fish has been caught, the line is pulled out of water onto the ship and fish removed for processing. Illustration of the long lining method 3 4. Trawling This method is used to catch demersal fish living in deep waters. A cone-shaped net is dragged behind a ship/ boat called a trawler. A trawl net is a bag-shaped net whose mouth is kept open by otter boards (either wooden or metal) and has weights at the bottom and a slim cod end. Any fish that enters the net is trapped at the cod end and after the trawl net is pulled out of water and emptied onto the ship for processing. The process is repeated. Illustration of trawling method Other methods include whaling and sealing. Whaling involves catching of whales. They are located by spotter planes or an eco-sounder and catcher boats with explosives are later used for killing the whales and floated in ships to the processing factories. Sealing involves catching of amphibians called seals that live both in marine and inland water. Seal herds are chased from the sea/ ocean where they are easily killed using game guns and later processed. The above modern methods are more advantageous than traditional methods which are common in developing countries. The traditional methods include basket method, spear method, hooking, bows and arrows, beach seining, fish poisoning etc in still some countries electricity is used ( fish paralyzed by electric shocks but this is dangerous). 4 NORTH WEST PACIFIC FISHING GROUNDS The North West Pacific fishing ground is the area from the Bering Sea to the East China Sea and it is the world’s greatest fishing region. Japan is the greatest contributor to the total annual fish yields in the North West Pacific fishing grounds. The rest is shared by china, North and South Korea, and the eastern former soviet republics. Within the enclosed sea –the Sea of Okhotsk, Sea of Japan, yellow sea, East China Sea are intensive for both inshore and deep sea fishing. FISHING IN JAPAN In the north pacific, Japan has an outstanding fishing industry and today it is the world’s leading fishing nation in all activities of fishing. Japan accounts for about 15%of the world’s output. Japan exports majorly fish products in addition to industrial items. The major fish species are: sardines, herrings, mackerel, salmon, yellow tail, cuttlefish, tuna, shell fish, cod, bonito, crab, shrimp, Pollock etc. in addition whales and pearls are caught. Almost 3 million (a large number of) Japanese are directly dependent upon fishing for a living. Every Japanese village fronting the sea is engaged in fishing. There is coastal fishing by small boats, offshore fishing by medium-sized boats, and deep-sea fishing by large vessels. Factors that have favoured the development of fishing in Japan Physical factors 1. Presence of a broad continental shelf with shallow waters especially off northern Kyushu and southwest Honshu and this allows sunlight to easily reach the seabed providing ideal conditions for the growth of planktons which fish feed on, hence survival of large populations of fish. Besides the concentration of planktons along the coast attracts pelagic fish like mackerel and sardines to be easily caught. This in turn leads to large quantities of fish caught. 2. The meeting of the warm Kuroshio (Kuro siwo) and the cold Oyashio (Oya siwo) currents which also creates ideal conditions for plankton growth and as a result pelagic and demersal fish is abundant in the area. The Japanese islands are located in the zone of convergence /mixing between the two great water masses. The large fish stocks lead to increased quantities of fish caught. The warm Kuroshio Current also provides warm conditions which prevent the freezing of water, thereby allowing fishing to go on throughout the year. 3. Presence of a long and highly indented coastline which has promoted the development of coastal fish landing ports in the numerous bays and sheltered inlets. The ports include Tokyo, Yokohama, Nagoya, Osaka, Kobe, Toyama, Kagoshima, and Hakodate which increase 5 accessibility to many fishing villages and handling of fish exports. Besides the indented coastline provides good breeding grounds for fish since the strong water waves that would carry the eggs are sheltered off; leads to increased multiplication of fish. 4. Japan is made up of islands and these include Honshu (the largest), Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku. In addition to these huge islands, there are over 3000 islands which has increased the fishing villages and in turn increasing the quantity of fish caught and distributed. This also made the Japanese traditionally sea ferring people and hence many have become fishermen. 5. The mountainous nature of Japan’s landscape with limited lowland. Much of the available agricultural land is used in the production of staple food crops like rice and therefore less left for dairy and ranching. This has emphasized fishing as a major source of animal protein supplying about 60% of animal protein in the Japanese diet. Still the mountainous nature of the landscape has made the population to be concentrated on/near the coast, which releases labour to the fishing industry as well as ready market. This increases production in the fishing sector. 6. Existence of large forests to support fishing since originally many islands of Japan were forested. This plus the forested former Soviet Republics provided the required timber for ship building for carrying out fish extraction, construction of ports for landing fish and handling fish exports and even making packaging boxes for fish. This increases production in the fishing industry. 7. Presence of a variety of valuable fish species fished during various seasons both pelagic and demersal; and which exist in large quantities. These include sardines, mackerel, yellow tail, cuttlefish, herrings, salmon, lobsters, cod, shellfish, tuna, and Pollock. These have a variety of uses such as making drugs, cosmetics and glue—hence commanding a large market. This encourages large-scale investment in the fishing industry. 8. Northly location of Japan in the cool waters of the northern hemisphere and this points to the natural productivity of the cool waters surrounding Japan, in terms of planktons, fish species and yet the cool climate makes fish preservation easy. 9. Presence of many rivers and streams which bring in mineral salts from inland dissolved in water and this facilitates plankton growth and in turn existence of large stocks of marine fish. The streams/ rivers also provide good breeding grounds for certain fish species like salmon, hence favouring the multiplication of fish, and thus sustainable exploitation. The rivers include: Shinano (the longest) in central Honshu flowing to the Sea of Japan; Tone River and Ishikari River. 10. Presence of large fishing grounds/ large water bodies. Japan is bordered by the large pacific ocean which is the major fishing ground containing many fish species like tuna, and mackerel. There are also rivers flowing from the interior which act as fishing grounds like 6 Shinano River. These large fishing zones promote large scale fishing investment due to large quantities of fish caught. 11. Presence of a smooth ocean floor which promotes the use of modern fishing methods like trawling, and long lining in the Japanese fishing zones and this results into large quantities of fish caught and marketed. A large part ocean floor is free from rock outcrops that could affect the landing of fishing vessels and destroy the fishing nets. Human factors 12. Availability of large sums of capital to invest in the fishing industry accumulated from the strong industrial sector and provided by investors. The capital is used to purchase of modern machinery for catching fish and the construction of ports for landing fish. There are large corporations carrying out fishing in Japan and these possess big and sophisticated fleets/equipment, processing and canning facilities. These corporations are managed and corporate worldwide. There is high quality and quantity production. 13. Large supply of highly skilled labour employed in the sector since most settlements are near the coast and fishing being a major sector in the Japanese economy. Many people have been trained in fish extraction, fish processing, transportation and marketing. The coastal settlement has also given the Japanese a long experience in fishing activities. This has led to long-term and large scale fishing investment. 14. Presence of a large market both domestic and foreign. Japan has a generally large population (over 130 million) and yet it is concentrated along the coast, hence providing a ready home market. Fish also provides about 60% of proteins to the Japanese diet. Besides Japan is located to the proximity of mainland Asia, which countries have large populations to support the Japanese fishing industry (countries like North Korea, South Korea, and china). There is large scale fisheries investment to support the ready market. 15. Advancement in technology employed in the sector (Japan leads the world in the invention of modern fishing technology). Modern fishing methods are employed such as trawling leads large quantities of fish catch; refrigeration plants, floating cannaries and other processing facilities for the preservation of the fish caught for a long period. For example tuna and salmon are caught and processed on spot. This technology has increased efficiency in the fishing industry. 16. Adequate/continuous research in the fishing industry which has led to many innovations to improve fishing activities. There is research in the breeding habits, feeding and maturation of various fish species. There are also hatching/ breeding techniques used such as for shellfish; which are then released into the waters. This in turn promotes the multiplication of fish and thus sustainable fishing in Japan. 17. Efficient transport system such as a well-developed sea transport with over 2000 fishing ports (like Nagasaki, Otaru, Tokyo, Yawata,) and modern vessels; which facilitates fishing 7 operations/ extraction, distribution and marketing of fish. There is also a modern electrified railway network connecting various fishing ports and urban centres. This increases the supply of fish in the processing factories and the large market. 18. Political stability of Japan for long period since the Second World War, which increases the confidence of investors and workers in the fishing industry. This factor has enabled long- term and large-scale investment in the fishing industry such as construction of modern fishing ports and modern fishing vessels. 19. Ability of the Japanese to put fish to many uses, which has kept the demand for fish high. Through technology many industries using fish as an input have come up such as making fish meal, fish oils, cosmetics, perfumes, glue, drugs, fish manure ; and thus increase in the fish products on the market. This has prompted further investment in the fishing industry. 20. Supportive / positive government policy towards the fishing industry such as spearheading research in fishing such as fish spoting, breeding habits of certain species ; leading to increased multiplication of fish. It has also encouraged fisheries investment by large corporations and undertakes fisheries controls. This results into sustainable exploitation of fisheries resources. 21. International cooperation Problems facing the fishing industry in Japan 1. Restrictions in the fishing grounds and this has come from excessive efficiency of Japanese fishing fleets. Reductions in fish stocks resulting from over fishing have forced many countries to protect their fishing waters from foreign interference and as such Japan falls a victim. a) South Korea imposed the Rehee—line in the Korean straits as the limit beyond which the Japanese fleets should not go. b) Salmon fishing is limited by a convention with former USSR that sets 480N as the Japanese fishing limit in north pacific waters ; where as that of USA and Canada is 1700West. c) There are problems with Australia over the use of the Australian coastline water for pearl fishing. 2. Over fishing and important species are getting extinct especially the herrings and tuna due efficient fishing methods. Whales are really extinct in the region. Accordingly today there is an international ban on whaling. This reduces the quantity of fish production and more so threatens future production. 3. The US tests her atomic and hydrogen bombs in the pacific, which interferes with the fishermen’s schedules and increases the rate of water pollution. This reduces the quality of fish. 8 4. Water pollution problems due to discharge of toxic substances into the water especially where industries are along the coast and this negatively affects fish survival. This reduces the quantity of fish caught. 5. Competition from other major fishing nations such as Norway, Canada, Peru especially in the control of foreign markets. This limits the foreign market available for fish and fish products. 6. Competition from other sectors of the economy such as industry, which attract labour away from the fishing sector. This limits the quantity and quality of production. 7. Accidents occur due to strong winds that develop due to pressure difference between the sea and the land—leading to strong water waves. This interferes with fishing schedules and limits the volume of fish production. 8. Indiscriminate fishing in some areas involving the use of some methods which scoop large quantities of fish of all sizes and age; and this is leading to the extinction of some valuable species like halibut and cod. 9. Freezing of some rivers during winter also limits fishing sector. For example it limits the movement of some fish species which breed in fresh waters to the spawning grounds. Assignment (write essay) Qn. Examine the impact of the fishing industry on the economy of Japan. NORTH EAST PACIFIC FISHING GROUNDS This occurs in the sea waters off the western coast of North America extending from Alaska in the north to California in the south. The coastline is about 11200km and is highly fiorded /indented. In the middle belt British Columbia is the most important region. A variety of fish species occur which include: salmon, hake, herrings, tuna, sardines, sole, halibut, mackerel, flounders and a variety of shell fish. There are also marine sea animals such as whales, oysters, shrimps, and small crabs. Drifting and trawling are the most important methods employed. To a small scale seining and lining are also used. The major fishing and processing ports are: Prince Rupert, Vancouver, Seattle, San Francisco, and San Diego. A sketch map showing the North East Pacific fishing grounds Factors for the development of fishing in the north east pacific Physical factors 9 1. Presence of a wide and shallow continental shelf (for the whole coast of western North America from Alaska to California) and this allows sunlight to easily reach the seabed providing ideal conditions for the growth of abundant planktons which act as fish food, hence survival of large populations of fish. Besides the concentration of planktons along the coast attracts pelagic fish like mackerel herrings and tuna to be easily caught. 2. The meeting/mixing of the warm and cold ocean currents, that is, the warm North Pacific current and the cold California current in the North East Pacific waters. This also creates ideal conditions for plankton growth and as a result pelagic and demersal fish is abundant in the area. The warm north pacific Current also provides warm conditions which prevent the freezing of water, thereby allowing fishing to go on throughout the year, and thus large quantity of production per year. 3. Presence of a highly indented/fiorded coastline which has promoted the development of coastal fish landing ports (in the numerous bays and sheltered inlets). The ports include: Prince Rupert, Vancouver, Seattle, San Francisco, San Jose, anchorage, San Diego; and these increase accessibility to many fishing villages as well as handling fish exports. Besides the indented coastline provides good breeding/spawning grounds for fish since the strong water waves that would carry the eggs are sheltered off, hence the multiplication of fish. 4. Presence of off-shore islands and these include Vancouver, Queen Charlotte Islands; which have increased the fishing villages/ fishing area; hence large quantities of fish caught and distributed. 5. Limited agricultural resources on the mainland partly due to the thin infertile soils which characterize much of the adjacent mainland especially to the north of the fishing ground due to past Glaciation. More so, the rugged mountainous terrain (such as the Rocky Mountains, Sierra Nevada ranges) has made mechanized farming more difficult and this in turn has driven many people to the coast to engage in fishing as investors and as workers. This leads to large-scale investment in the fishing sector. 6. Presence of large stretches of forests to support fishing for example the temperate forests of British Columbia (with species like firs, pines, hemlock) provided the required timber for construction of fishing vessels to help in catching fish, construction of ports to support the landing of fish and even making packaging boxes for fish. This increase the quality and quantity of fish. 7. Presence of a variety of valuable fish species and in large quantities fished during various seasons both pelagic and demersal. These include salmon, hake, sardines, mackerel, sole, halibut, cuttlefish, herrings, lobsters, cod, shellfish, and tuna, which have a variety of uses (such as making drugs, cosmetics and edible oil). Salmon is the most important because it is both a fresh water and marine species and commands a large market in America and Europe. There are also marine animals caught like whales, shrimps, oysters and small crabs. This leads to increase in production. 10 8. The cool temperate climate in the region, which ensures cool waters for the growth of abundant planktons and survival of various fish species; hence encouraging large scale fish exploitation. Still the cool temperate climate helps in fish preservation and transportation of fish to distant markets while still fresh; which encourages further fisheries investment. 9. Presence of many rivers and streams running from the Rockies to the pacific coast such as Colorado River, Columbia River, Fraser River, and Sacramento River. These rivers bring in mineral salts from inland dissolved in water and this facilitates plankton growth and in turn existence of large quantities of fish. The streams/ rivers also provide good breeding grounds for certain fish species which breed in fresh waters like salmon. Columbia River is the main salmon stream in the region. 10. Presence of large fishing grounds/ large water bodies particularly the Pacific Ocean, which is the major fishing ground containing many fish species like tuna, salmon, sole, and mackerel. There are also rivers flowing from the interior which act as fishing grounds like Columbia River. These large fishing zones leads to large quantities of fish catch and thus promote large scale fishing investment. 11. Presence of a smooth ocean floor which promotes the use of modern fishing methods like trawling, and long lining in the North East Pacific fishing zones; leading to large quantities of fish caught. A large part ocean floor free from rock outcrops that could affect the landing of fishing vessels or destroy the fishing nets. Human factors 12. Availability of large sums of capital to invest in the fishing industry since Canada and USA are developed and highly industrialized countries . The capital is provided by the governments and private investors. This has been used in the purchase of modern vessels andequipment used in the extraction of fish, the construction of ports for landing of fish, and carrying out fisheries research to develop large quantities of fish. This increases the quality and quantity of fish. 13. Large supply of skilled and unskilled labour employed in the sector. Most settlements are near the coast since the interior is forested or rugged –hence releasing the necessary labour for fishing activities such as fish extraction, fish processing, transportation and marketing. The coastal settlement has also given the people a long experience in fishing activities. This has made fishing a long term investment sector in the North East Pacific. 14. Presence of a large market for fish and fish products both domestic and foreign. USA has a generally large population (over 300 million) and yet many people are concentrated along the coast, hence providing a ready market. There is a large market in the major urban centres of Canada and most especially USA (such as Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, Salt Lake City, and Las Vegas). Still the fish species especially salmon are highly demanded in European markets, which has encouraged fish extraction and marketing. 11 15. High level of technology employed in fishing that is, use of modern fishing methods such as trawling and drifting which enable catching of large quantities of fish. There are also modern preservation involving refrigeration, floating cannaries and other processing facilities, which add value to fish and enable it to be marketed in distant markets. This in turn increases efficiency in the fishing industry. 16. Continuous research in the fishing industry which leads to many innovations to improve fishing activities. There is research in the breeding habits, feeding and maturation of various fish species. There are also hatching/ breeding techniques used and the fish species are then released into the waters to mature. This in turn promotes the multiplication of fish and thus sustainable fishing in Japan. 17. Efficient/developed transport system involving sea transport with many fishing ports (like Anchorage, San Diego, Seattle, Vancouver,) and modern vessels; which facilitates fishing operations, distribution and marketing of fish. There is also a modern road and electrified railway networks connecting various fishing ports to market centres in the interior. 18. Political stability of the region. North America has been politically stable for a long time which increases the confidence of investors and workers in the fishing sector. This in turn has enabled long-term and large-scale investment in the fishing industry such as construction of modern fishing ports and modern fishing vessels. 19. Supportive / positive government policy towards the fishing industry. The governments of Canada and USA control fishing activities to limit over fishing, and encroachment on the fishing grounds by foreign vessels. USA and Canada put up 1700West against fishing by Japanese vessels. The governments have also encouraged fisheries investment by large companies and spearheaded fisheries research, resulting into sustainable fishing. Problems facing the fishing industry in North East Pacific 1. International restrictions in the fishing grounds. Fishing is not allowed beyond 200miles from the coast due to conventions with other countries like Japan, Australia. The reductions in fish stocks resulting from over fishing have forced many countries to protect their fishing waters from foreign interference. 2. Over fishing due to advanced methods of catching fish. Therefore there is great danger of wiping out some of the species for example salmon fish which is often trapped on its way back to the ocean water after breeding in the fresh waters. The fish stocks are rapidly decreasing. Accordingly today there is an international ban on whaling. 3. The US tests her atomic and hydrogen bombs in the pacific, which interferes with the fishermen’s schedules and increases the rate of water pollution. 4. Water pollution problems due to discharge of toxic substances/industrial wastes into the water especially where industries are along the coast. These contain poisonous chemicals which affect fish survival. Still the barks of logs are poisonous to the fish in the rivers. 12 5. Competition from other major fishing nations such as Japan, Norway, Peru, china, especially in the control of foreign markets and thus causing price fluctuations and fluctuations in incomes. 6. Shortage of labour for fishing sector due to the small population especially for Canada and due to the fact that many people are employed in other sectors such as forestry, mining and industry. This in turn limits fisheries production. 7. Accidents which occur due to strong winds that develop due to pressure difference between the sea and the land—leading to strong water waves that at times lead to capsizing of boats and hence limiting production. 8. Indiscriminate fishing in some areas involving the use of methods that scoop fish of all sizes including young ones. Accordingly some valuable species are threatening extinction like halibut and salmon; and thus threatening future production. 9. Freezing of some rivers during winter and this negatively affects fishing activities especially in the higher latitudes such as by limiting the movement of fish to the breeding grounds. 10. Construction of dams on rivers / damming of rivers from the Rockies due to great demand for power in the US and Canada. This has adversely affected fish spawning / breeding of especially salmon fish which is prevented from reaching the breeding area and hence decline in fish stocks. Steps being taken to solve the above problems 1. Controlling of fishing activities by government in order to reduce over fishing and indiscriminate fishing. There are stringent regulations/ laws on fishing in particular seasons of the year such as when the salmon fish is moving down to marine waters after breeding. 2. Treating and proper disposal of industrial wastes in order to control pollution of waters. 3. Exporting fish and fish products to other countries to solve the problem of small domestic market. This is coupled with carrying out market research. 4. Setting up more factories that use fish as a raw material such as those producing animal feeds, glue, fertilizers, oil to increase the market for fish. 5. Diversifying fish sources such as by introducing fish farming to supplement the natural sources of fish. 6. Increasing mechanization to minimize the problem of shortage of labour. 7. Signing international fishing agreements to solve conflicts over territorial waters. These agreements recognize fishing rights and grounds for each country. 8. Constructing of ladders for fish to move across the dams. These ladders assist salmon fish to overcome areas where dams have been constructed so that they can reach their spawning / breeding areas upstream. 9. Diversifying the economy to avoid over dependence on fish exports. 13 NORTH WEST ATLANTIC FISHING GROUNDS This region is located along the eastern shores of Canada and USA. It extends from eastern Canada coastal lands downwards to the Georgia bank. The North West Atlantic fishing grounds has along coastline of about 8000km, with a fishing area of about 520,000km2. The fishing region is categorized as follows: Canadian fisheries a) Newfoundland and Labrador—the eastern most province of Canada. Newfoundland is an island and Labrador is on the mainland of Canada. Here fishing provides employment to the vast majority of the population. The region was formerly the world’s richest cod fishing area, although catches have declined due to over fishing. This region also includes the Labrador coast on the mainland of Canada. b) Maritime Provinces, including lower st.lawrence. The maritime provinces of Canada include: Prince Edward, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. In the Canadian fisheries today the main species are: flounder, turbot, halibut, crabs, lobsters, shrimps, herrings, plaice, haddock, oyster, cod, and salmon among others. USA fisheries a) New England. The species are similar to those in Canadian fisheries. Larger vessels are based on larger ports like Boston, Gloucester, Portland, and New Haven. b) Central and south coast of USA. Among the variety of fish caught (similar to Canadian fisheries), there is also oyster fishing based at Delaware and Chesapeake bays, crab fishing. A sketch map showing the North West Atlantic fishing grounds Note: In the North West Atlantic fishing grounds more workers are employed in fish processing than catching. However increased mechanization is making the process capital intensive. The largest percentage of Canada’s catch (about 2/3) is exported to USA given its large population (high demand) despite having large-scale fishing. Factors which have favoured the development of fishing in the northwest Atlantic Physical factors 1. Presence of a wide/ broad an shallow continental shelf extending from southern New England to Newfoundland area which provides an excellent breeding ground for fish. It also allows the penetration of sunlight to the ocean floor/ sea bed and this facilitates the growth 14 of planktons-which act as fish food and thus multiplication of large quantities of fish. Besides the concentration of planktons along the coast attracts pelagic fish like sardines, mackerel to be easily fished. 2. The convergence of the cold Labrador Current and the warm gulf stream. This occurs off Newfoundland at about latitude 450—550N which condition favours the existence of abundant planktons and hence large stocks of fish. Based on the tides and the general small storms, there is increased supply of oxygen required for life. Still the ice bergs which come south with the Labrador Current bring in minerals from the land important for plankton growth. Besides the warm gulfstream which washes the Northeast coastline of North America results into the melting of ice which enables fishing activities to go on throughout the year. 3. The cool temperate climate which ensures cool waters which favour the growth of abundant planktons and the survival of various marine fish species, hence large-scale commercial fishing. It also favours the preservation and storage of fish which has promoted export trade in fish. However modern canning and refrigeration facilities have also been put up. 4. Presence of a variety of valuable fish species and which exist in large quantities which include: flounders, turbot, halibut, herrings, lobsters, plaice, haddock, mackerel, salmon, sardines, cod, shell fish, menhaden in the Canadian and US fisheries. The fish species command a large market since many products are got from them such as oil, fish meal, fertilizers, glue, cosmetics. There are also marine animals like oysters, crabs, and shrimps. This leads to increase in the quantity of fish caught. 5. The highly indented coastline which has encouraged fish breeding since it shelters off the strong water waves that would carry away the eggs of the fish. It has also favoured the development of modern fishing ports which include: St. John’s, Stephenville, Saint John, Boston, Portland, Providence, Bridgeport, New Haven, and Halifax which support fish landing, processing and exportation. 6. Presence of many offshore islands which include Newfoundland (the main island), Anticosti island in the gulf of st. Lawrence, Prince Edward island, Cape Breton island, Sable island among others. These have increased the fishing villages and hence increased fish catch, processing and marketing. 7. Presence of large stretches of temperate forests which were used by the early settlers (like the Dutch) to make fishing vessels/crafts to extract fish. Still many other Europeans crossed the Atlantic ocean and settled at various points like Boston, Halifax and st. john; and used the timber to make vessels, packaging boxes for fish and also in the construction of ports to handle fish landing, processing and exportation. 15 8. Limited productive natural resources in many parts of the mainland. There are very few minerals on the mainland of New England, yet the soils are poor, thin, rocky, and infertile – implying limited agricultural opportunities. The area also has a short growing season. The Appalachian Mountains deep inland also limit the agricultural opportunities further especially mechanization. All this has driven many people to the sea to seek a livelihood, hence large supply of labour for fishing and therefore large-scale fisheries investment. 9. Presence of many rivers and streams which include St. John River, St.Croix River and Restigouche River in Brunswick; Jupiter River on Anticosti Island, Churchill River in Labrador; Exploits River and Gander River on Newfoundland. These rivers bring in mineral salts from the land that facilitate plankton growth and in turn the existence of large stocks of fish. The rivers/streams also act as breeding grounds for certain fish species, hence the multiplication of fish. 10. Presence of large fishing grounds/ large water bodies. 11. Presence of a smooth ocean floor. Others factors/ human factors 12. Availability of large sums of capital invested in the fishing industry provided by the US federal governments (of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maine, Delaware etc) and the Canadian federal governments (of Newfoundland, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia etc). There are also private fishing companies. The capital is used to purchase modern vessels for fish extraction, contruction of modern processing factories and paying fisheries workers. This leads to increased fisheries production. 13. Presence of a large market, both local and foreign. The local market is especially provided by the urbanized north east of USA (including towns like Boston, St. John, New Haven, Newyork etc). For example St. John is a large settlement zone with about ¼ of Newfoundland’s population. There is also market in the eastern cities of Canada. However there is also exportation to other countries especially of processed fish products. This encourages further fisheries production. 14. Availability of skilled labour to work in the fishing sector. 15. Advancement in technology. 16. The developed transport system. 17. Political stability of the region. 18. Supportive/ favourable government policy towards fishing. 19. Continuous research in the fishing industry. Problems facing the fishing industry in NW Atlantic 16 1. Overfishing leading to depletion of fish stocks. This is due to large-scale operation and modern technology. Some fish species are being threatened by extinction most notable being cod fish which used to be the dominant species in the region. 2. Water pollution problems, since the fishing ground is located along the coastline of one of the most industrialized regions of the world. There is heavy discharge of waste material/ substances into the water which endanger fish survival and in turn humans who consume fish. 3. Poor visibility due to the dense fog. Therefore, the fishing vessels often run into one another causing accidents. However today vessels are equipped with a radar system which can be used to detect approaching vessels/ships. 4. Indiscriminate fishing in some coastal areas and this involves catching of even young fish and the endangered species; and this limits sustainable fishing. 5. International conflicts over territorial boundaries. The demarcation of legal fishing grounds per country has often created conflicts over boundaries (which are in most cases imaginary) between USA and Canada; and with European countries. 6. Competition from other major fishing nations such as Japan, Norway, Peru, china, especially in the control of foreign markets. This causes price fluctuations and fluctuations in incomes. 7. Shortage of labour for fishing sector due to the small population especially for Canada and the fact that many people are employed in other sectors such as forestry, mining and industry. This limits production in the fishing sector. 8. Freezing of some rivers during winter and this negatively affects fishing activities especially in the higher latitudes. For example limits the movement of fishing vessels. Evaluation question To what extent have physical factors favoured the development of the fishing industry in either Canada or USA? Note: In this question consider both the North East Pacific fishing grounds and the North West Atlantic fishing grounds. NORTH EAST ATLANTIC FISHING GROUNDS This region extends from Iceland to Mediterranean shores. Fishing is highly organized by the European countries especially Norway, Denmark, Spain, Iceland, and United Kingdom. Fishing is carried out all round the year in the shallow waters of the North Sea, although spring is the busiest fishing season (but also the most hazardous due to the stormy weather). The major fish 17 species are: herring, cod and mackerel. Others are haddock, turbot, halibut, hake, plaice, sole, anchovies, pilchards, sardines, skate etc Fishing is generally best developed where there are least opportunities for alternative gainful employment on land. For example commercial fishing is less important in countries like Sweden, Holland, Belgium where agriculture and forestry are crucial for the livelihood of the citizens. NORWEGIAN FISHERIES Norway is the greatest fishing country in Europe accounting for almost 3% of the world’s total catch. The main fish species in the Norwegian fisheries include: herring (which contributes 65% of the total fish catch), cod, tuna, brisling, and mackerel. The main fishing ports include: Haugesund, Stavanger, Bergen, Tromso, Oslo, and Hammerfest. The leading Norwegian ferring port is Haugesund and it exports mainly herrings to many parts of the world. Stavanger specializes in canning of brisling fish and sardines, and has one of the most advanced canning industries of Europe. The major fishing methods are: drifting, trawling, and lining. A sketch map showing the fishing grounds in Norway Factors for the development of the Norwegian fishing industry Physical factors 1. Presence of large fishing grounds/ large water bodies. Norway is bordered by the large Atlantic ocean (which includes the Norwegian sea and the North sea) which are the major fishing grounds containing many commercial fish species. There are also rivers flowing from the interior which act as fishing grounds. These large fishing zones lead to large quantities of fish caught and thus promote large scale fishing investment. 2. Presence of a smooth ocean floor free from rock outcrops that could affect the landing of fishing vessels and also destroy the fishing nets. The smooth ocean floor therefore promotes the use of modern fishing methods like trawling and lining in the Norwegian fishing zones, and thus large quantities of fish caught. 3. Extensive/wide and Shallow continental shelf which allows the penetration of sunlight to the seabed and this promotes the growth of phyto-planktons. The planktons act as fish food that helps in the multiplication and maturing of fish such as herrings, cod, and brisling. Besides the wide and shallow continental shelf from Stavanger to Hammerfest promotes easy catching of pelagic fish like herrings. 18 4. Favourable conditions at the continental shelf such as cool waters, which also contain a variety of mineral salts resulting in the abundance of planktons which attracts fish. The Northly position and cool temperate climate makes the preservation of fish relatively easy- as fish cannot easily be spoilt, and thus enabling the marketing of fish in distant markets. 5. The effect of the warm north Atlantic drift which enables fishing to be carried out all year round, by keeping the waters open through the winters. It enables ice to melt but water remains cool enough for fish survival. This leads to large quantities of fish caught per year. 6. Presence of many rivers and streams that provide good breeding grounds for various fish species, which breed especially in fresh waters. The rivers also bring in mineral salts from inland dissolved in water and this facilitates plankton growth and in turn existence of large stocks of fish. The rivers include: River Glama (Glomma) in the east, River Tana in the north and several other small streams. 7. Presence of a highly fiorded/ indented coastline which has promoted the development of fishing ports such as Stavanger, Trondheim, Bergen, and Oslo in the sheltered areas, which enable fish landing and exportation. The fiords also provide suitable grounds for fish breeding, since it shelters off the strong water waves that would carry away eggs of fish; and thus enabling the multiplication of fish. The long fiorded coast between Stavanger and Hammerfest is noted for cod fishing. 8. Presence of off—shore islands which increase on the fishing villages, right from Tromso to Kristiansand. The Lofoten islands form the greatest cod fishing area. Other smaller islands are Vesteralen islands, Vega Island, Andoya and Shetland islands. This results into increase in the fishing areas and thus increased fish caught and this attracts more investment in the fishing industry 9. The poor agricultural resources such as rugged terrain / mountainous landscape and infertile soils which has driven people to seek a livelihood at the sea and more labour supply. This has led to increased investment in the fishing industry. Approximately 75% of Norway is of high altitude rugged terrain with steep slopes of unproductive land. This in turn increases fisheries investment. 10. Existence of many valuable/ commercial fish species such as herrings, cod, tuna, brisling, mackerel, halibut, pilchards, haddock, dogfish, and capelin. These species are of high commercial value and in large quantities which has attracted large scale investment in the fishing industry. 11. Presence of extensive forests (Norwegian forests) with species like spruce, firs, pines favouring the building of ships and boats at Bergen, Stavanger, and Tromso. These ships are used in hauling fishnets and transportation of fish to processing centres/ports. The timber is also used in the construction of modern ports for fish landing and making packaging boxes for fish. Human factors 19 12. Norwegians have a long Sea ferring tradition and this dates back from the times of the Vikings and Norsemen (kings). These encouraged quite often people to become sailors and fishermen. As such, fishing is rooted in culture. This has led to large scale and long-term investment in the fishing industry. 13. The cooperative movement/ highly organized and developed cooperatives engaged in all fishing activities such as fish extraction, processing, preservation and marketing of fish. The cooperatives also enable fishermen to raise adequate capital to invest in all those activities. This leads to increased quantity and quality of production. 14. Presence of adequate capital to invest in the fishing industry. 15. Most settlements are at or near the coast/ availability of labour, both skilled and unskilled. 16. Presence of a large market, both internal and external. 17. Well developed fishing technology 18. Continuous research in the fishing industry. 19. Efficient transport system 20. Political stability of the country. 21. Supportive / favourable government policy towards fishing. 22. International cooperation Contribution of the fishing industry to the Norwegian economy 1. Fishing has promoted industrial development by providing raw materials. Many industries are now engaged in processing of fish products such as cod liver oil, fish meal, fertilizer, glue. There are various industries at Stavanger specializing in modern canning of brisling fish. Inferior and undersized fish are converted into fishmeal for animal feeding or used in making of fish manure. There are also industries making fishing inputs like ship building and making of nets. 2. Generation of employment opportunities in Norway both direct and indirect employment in the fishing industry such as fish extraction, processing, transportation and marketing. These employees earn incomes which help them to improve their standards of living. They also pay tax to the government to raise revenue. 3. Generation of foreign exchange through the exportation of fish and fish products to various countries like France, Portugal, Italy, Belgium, Sweden, and Spain. Fish is exported in various forms like frozen, dried, pickled(preserved in salt water) and canned. The foreign currency earned is used in the importation of foreign technology and consumer goods not available domestically. 4. Fishing has promoted urbanization and port development. The port of Haugesund is the greatest Norwegian port handling herrings and exports cured/preserved fish to various countries. Other important ports are Stavanger, Bergen, Tromso, Oslo, Hammerfest and 20 Trondheim. These ports have trade links with many parts of the world and they are developed urban centres due to increased population and thus the concentration of associated activities like trading, banking, and recreation. 5. Fishing has promoted technological advancement and research due to the necessity to improve fishing technology, preservation and processing in order to keep pace with other fishing countries (like Japan, Canada). Fishing has also led to research into various fish species such as cod, tuna, and sardines—in breeding habits, fish feeding habits, which has increased efficiency in fishing. 6. Development of other sectors especially agriculture. Fishing provides fertilizers which improve crop farming like wheat, corns and sugarcane. It also provides animal feeds for dairy farming at Stavanger and Trondheim. This also helps to improve the standard of living of the people and government revenue. 7. Provision of government revenue through taxation of the fishing companies, fish exporting companies, and individuals’ incomes. This is in turn used to develop many sectors such as health, recreation, education among others. 8. Promotes international relations between Norway and other countries, which import the fish and fish products such as Sweden, Portugal, Denmark, Holland, Finland, Spain, France, Belgium, and some African countries. It also relates with other major fishing countries like Japan, Canada, and Peru due to sharing ideas regarding the fishing industry. This in turn promotes economic contacts and increases the rate of capital inflow in Norway. 9. Development of transport infrastructure in Norway that is, the construction of roads and rail networks along the coast to access the fishing grounds such as Oslo-Stavanger road and railway. Besides the revenue from fish exports has been used in the rehabilitation and opening up of new feeder roads. 10. Development of tourism because many tourists are attracted by large-scale fishing by use of modern technology such as trawler boats, and factory ships. The various fish species like cod, sardines, and brisling also attract many tourists. This also generates foreign currency and creates market for the local goods. 11. Promoted diversification of the economy by acting as an alternative source of income for Norway instead of depending on industry or forestry. This makes the economy to remain stable and more so it widens the export base of the country. Besides the fishing industry has minimized the problem of population pressure on land, which land is of poor quality. Shortcomings/ negative effects 1. Over fishing and hence reduction in fish stocks due to the use of efficient fishing methods like trawling and drifting which in turn leads to lowering of fish output. 2. Indiscriminate fishing which also reduces fish stocks. This involves catching young fish and endangered species and this leads to inadequate production. 21 3. It is a source of international conflicts over boundaries (which are in most cases imaginary) between Norway and its neighbours such as Denmark, Iceland, Sweden, Finland, and USA. These conflicts are a barrier to beneficial diplomatic relations. 4. Fishing is associated with accidents leading to loss of life and property. This interferes with fishing schedules. 5. Depletion of forest resources due to the high demand for temperate forest species (like firs, pines) for boat making and shipbuilding at Bergen, Tromso has led to depletion of forest resources. 6. Industrial-related problems for example pollution due to discharge of toxic gases and other substances which impacts negatively on the environment such as by contaminating water. 7. Urban-related problems. Fishing has led to growth of urban centres (such as Bergen, Oslo, and Tromso) but these are associated with many problems such as slum growth, poor sanitation, and hooliganism. The fighting of such social evils is costly to the government. 8. It has caused regional imbalance in development. The coastal areas are more developed than the vast interior areas in terms of infrastructure such as recreation, education, and health facilities. 9. The fishing sector has attracted labour away from other sectors like agriculture, and industry; hence undermining their development. 10. Straining the government budget when financing various fishing—related activities such as research, quality control. This undermines investment in other sectors of the economy. Problems facing the Norwegian fishing industry 1. Over fishing leading to reduction in fish stocks. There are many fishing countries in the North East Atlantic which all use sophisticated weapons. As a result this has reduced fish stocks. For example Norway about half of the world’s whaling vessels, a factor that has led to the almost extinction of whales in the North Sea. 2. Water pollution problems since industrialized countries border the North Sea where the Norwegian fishing industry is confined. The toxic waste disposals into the water cause death of fish and endanger plankton survival, also humans who consume the fish. 3. Competition from other fishing countries on the world market such as Japan, USA, which all flood the markets with the best fish types with or compared to Norway. This leads to fluctuations in the prices and incomes. 4. Competition from other countries in the North Atlantic fishing grounds. There are interferences from international fishing lanes because some of the fishing grounds are located in the waters internationally used for fishing purposes. The competitors include Iceland, Denmark, Sweden, and USA. This limits fish production. 5. Restrictions in the fishing grounds. Fishing by foreign vessels is often restricted over a variable distance from the land. This has been prompted by rapidly improving technology in 22 fishing vessels and equipment, and if not restricted this would mean depleted grounds. For example the Norwegian were refused to fish in their reserved fishing grounds. 6. Accidents occur especially during the spring season –which is the busiest fishing season and the most hazardous. During this time, the North Sea is characterized by big waves due to pressure difference between the sea and the land. This interferes with the fishing schedules. 7. Seasonal variation in fish availability. There is migration of fish from the north to the south and fish stays in waters off the coast from summer until the end of autumn. This has limited fishing activities. 8. Alternative employment opportunities offered especially in industry has also attracted the labourforce away from the fishing industry of recent. This also tends to limit fishing activities. SOUTH PACIFIC FISHING GROUNDS FISHING IN PERU Peru is located in South America bordering the Pacific Ocean and is an important fishing nation, although fishing is a recent development. By 1970, Peru was the world’s leading fishing nation and at that time it accounted for almost 30% of the world’s total catch. However today catches have declined mainly due to indiscriminate fishing. The main species of fish caught include anchovy, pilchards, tuna, haddock, sole, mackerel, smelt, flounder, lobster, sardines, and shrimp, among other marine species. Anchovy is the most important and is used for making fish meal, a product in which Peru leads the world. Fish meal is used in animal feed and fertilizer. There are over 50 important fishing ports on the coast of Peru, but Chimbote and Callao are the most important. Modern fishing is employed and government controls processing with a corporation called Pesca-Peru. The corporation monopolizes the processing of fish meal and fish oils. It also engages in the canning and freezing of especially tuna fish. Today there are over 100 fish processing factories and the fish and fish products presently account for over 40% of Peru’s export earnings. Much of the products are exported to USA, USSR, china, and the European Union. A sketch map showing the Peruvian fishing ground 23 Factors for the growth and development of the Peruvian fishing industry Physical factors 1. Presence of along coastline of over 2000km and this ensures a large fishing area and commercial deep-sea fishing off the Peruvian coast, which leads to large quantities of fish caught. It is not surprising that there are over 50 fishing ports along the coast, and thus increased fish landing and exportation. 2. Presence of a relatively indented coastline which has provided good sites for construction of fishing ports such as Chimbote, Callao, Trujillo, Piura, Pisco, and Chiclayo for fish landing and exportation. The indented coastline also provide suitable grounds for fish breeding, since it shelters off the strong water waves that would carry away eggs of fish-hence increased multiplication of fish. 3. Extensive and Shallow continental shelf which allows the penetration of sunlight to the seabed, which promotes the growth of phyto-planktons. The planktons act as fish food that helps in the multiplication and maturing of fish such as anchovy, tuna, and sardines—hence favouring fisheries development. 4. Existence of many valuable/ commercial fish species such as anchovies, tuna, mackerel, bonito, sardines, pilchard, haddock, sole, smelt, flounder, lobster, shrimps. There are more than 50 species caught commercially and anchovies are particularly found in large quantities—which has attracted large scale investment in the fishing industry. 5. The influence of the cold Humboldt Current (Peruvian current) which creates cool conditions for large quantities of phyto-planktons and in turn large populations of fish survive for example anchovy. This leads to increased fish catches. 6. Presence of some small off—shore islands which increase on the fishing villages for example San Lorenzo Island and other smaller islands. This results into increased quantities of fish caught and thus large scale investment in the fishing industry. 7. The limited productive natural resources on the mainland such as due to presence of the Atacama Desert stretching from Peru to the south of Chile and the Andes mountains, and this limits settlement and agricultural production. The minerals which exist such as silver and iron ore occur in small quantities hence cannot support the export economy. This has led to increased investment in the fishing industry as the alternative source of livelihood. 8. Presence of large fishing grounds/ large water bodies. 9. Presence of a smooth ocean floor Human factors 10. Presence of adequate capital to invest in the fishing industry. This was provided by the government which looked for the alternative to the economy and the vision set to fishing. 11. The development of many processing plants at the coast such as Chimbote, Callao, and Lima. These process fish into fish meal, fish oil, and animal feeds. 24 12. Supportive / favourable government policy towards fishing. The government has spearheaded research and also extended monopoly over the fishing grounds in the south pacific from 22km to 370km from the coast to avoid competition from foreign vessels. It also restricts on the local fishing seasons. 13. Presence of a large and ready market, both internal and external. 14. Improved fishing technology 15. Continuous research in the fishing industry. 16. Improved transport system 17. Relative political stability of the country. Problems facing the fishing industry in Peru 1. Over fishing which has drastically reduced the fisheries potential. This has been brought about by improved technology used and the invasion by the US and Japanese fishing fleets to the Peruvian waters. Over fishing partly accounts for the decline of the anchovy fish in Peruvian waters. 2. Reduction in guano. The establishment of a fertilizer plant using guano as a raw material has greatly reduced the guano available as fertilizer to the ocean water planktons and hence a decrease in fish stocks. This is because guano is very rich in phosphorous, nitrogen and potassium which is very essential in fertilizer manufacture. 3. Stiff competition from other fish exporting countries on the world market since 1970s such as Japan, china, USA, Norway, and Canada. To her disadvantage, Peru only exports fish meal and fish oil from one fish species (anchovy) compared to other countries exporting a variety of fish species—hence outcompeting Peru. 4. Competition from other sectors of the economy for government funding. Although fishing in early 1970s received great government funding but over time it has come under stiff competition from other sectors such as tourism and industry. This has been worsened by the declining fish species due to over fishing. 5. Limited valuable fish species. Peru unlike other countries has been noted for one valuable species in abundance –anchovy, which has limited the growth of Peruvian fisheries. However there is in unedible fish species on the Peruvian coast, which hinder fisheries development due to limited uses of such species. 9. Water pollution problems due industries along the coast. The toxic waste disposals into the water cause death of fish and endanger plankton survival, also humans who consume the fish. 6. Inadequate capital to develop the fishing industry such as improving port facilities and funding research. More so there is limited industrial development. Apart from the fertilizer industry , fish meal and fish oil, Peruvian industries have not explored other fish processing factories like cosmetic , glue etc partly attributed to limited capital. 25 7. The El Niño weather phenomenon. Towards the end and beginning of every year (between December and March) strong winds cross the equator and bring warm water south wards along the Peruvian coast which spread over the cool waters of the Peruvian current. This is mostly a problem during the abnormal years when the north wind is very strong. This causes fish to migrate southwards into Chilean fishing grounds. It also creates unfavourable conditions for plankton growth and hence affecting fish survival. 8. Political problems. After the military coup in 1970 that overthrew president Allende, it led to a decline in the fishing industry given the fact that it scared off the potential investors. 9. Low levels of technology used in some regions evidenced by people using poor fishing nets that catch even young fish. Some people even use poor fishing gears , hence limiting production. 10. Poorly developed transport facilities in some regions, since Peru is a developing country; yet fish requires efficient transport to the market and processing centres. 11. Shortage of labor to work in the fishing industry. This is because Peru’s coastal lands are arid and therefore poorly settled, yet even most of the labour is unskilled; hence resulting into under production. 12. Accidents occur during fishing for example the capsizing of fishing vessels leading to loss of life and the fish caught. Steps taken to develop the fishing industry in Peru 1. Conservation measures have been taken to ensure constant fish stocks and to increase fish stocks such as restrictions on the fishing seasons to avoid over fishing. 2. The government has extended the territorial waters from 22km to 370km away from the coastline. This is designed to keep off the invading American and Japanese fishing fleets, making monopoly of fishing in this region to Peru. 3. Fisheries research has been adopted for example at Chimbote in the available fish stocks, its behavior and fluctuations. The intention is better conservation for sustainable fishing. 4. Control of processing by a government corporation called Pesca-Peru, to ensure that all profits that accrue are ploughed back in the fishing industry. 5. Encouraging local people to consume fish in order to increase the home market for fish. 6. Stocking inland waters with improved species to improve on the fish catch. 7. Continuous improvement on the techniques of fishing, freezing, packing and canning. 8. Improvement in transport and communication facilities. 9. Continuous training of manpower to acquire the necessary skills for the fishing sector. FISHING IN AFRICA 26 It should be noted that the fishing industry in Africa is not well developed. A few countries can afford big ships and other fishing equipment; although the situation is gradually changing. In Africa the countries with a developed marine fishing industry include: South Africa, Namibia, Angola, Nigeria, Ghana, Morocco, Mauritania, and Senegal. These are countries that export fish and fish products (with regard to marine fishing). The species of marine fish from African coastal waters include: sardines, stock fish, hake, anchovy, barracuda, sole, pilchards, mackerel, lobsters etc. Africa only contributes about 6% of the world total catch and unfortunately many African countries import fish. Reasons for the low level of development of marine fishing in Africa 1. African coasts are generally straight with few indentations, unlike the coasts of the North Sea or Europe. As such it is not easy to develop ports and does not allow breeding of fish since even young fish require less turbulent water where they cannot easily be carried away by waves. The young fish also do not require open water where they may be eaten by large fish or marine animals. 2. Small continental shelf for most of the African coastline rarely extending for many kilometers from the coast. This doesn’t allow easy penetration of sunlight for photosynthesis in phyto-planktons. It also limits the use of profitable methods like trawling (for the fish sunk to the bottom). The east African continental shelf is extremely limited to only 15km from the mainland and the operation is very small. 3. Influence of warm ocean currents such as the Mozambique current, which do not favour the growth of planktons and therefore low fish populations. Still some ocean currents are strong and interfere with plankton distribution and movement of vessels, many of which are actually non-motorized. 4. Large areas of Africa are located within the tropics, where temperatures are hot making waters generally warm. This discourages the growth of planktons, encourages poor fish species and limited fish stocks. The fish that mostly develop in this warm water are always oily and not of good taste. The hot temperatures also make fish spoilt easily; and this limiting fisheries production. 5. Ideal climate for agriculture. A reasonable area of Africa receives heavy rainfall which can sustain farming. Many people therefore look at farming as the main source of livelihood and backbone for development. It is only in areas like Namibia, Angola and Morocco with poor agricultural resources where fishing is developed. 6. Africa has few offshore islands; which otherwise would have been used to increase the fishing villages. (The few islands include Canary Islands, East African islands of mafia and Pemba). This limits the fishing area and thus limited fish production. 27 7. Existence of coral reefs particularly along the East African coast. These coral reefs interfere with fishing and movement of vessels, fishing nets especially trawl to be used in deep waters. This discourages many investors and this limiting production. 8. Scattered fish species that is, there are few species moving in shoals due to the scattered nature of planktons, such that even the fish scatter in search for them. This fish occur very far from the shoreline and have a peculiar characteristic of moving very fast. It is therefore uneconomical to apply modern methods like trawling and seining. 9. Limited capital in many African countries and this limits the use of modern fishing vessels resulting into low fish catch. Still many countries cannot finance research on fish stock available which limits fisheries development further (to only a few countries like South Africa, Morocco). Many countries use poor crafts like canoes and boats. 10. Low levels of technology employed in many areas, resulting into low fish yields. Methods like basket trapping, beach seining, simple hooks are still noticed in several areas. Marine fishermen operate from small canoes and their activities limited to a few miles off the shoreline. More so poor preservation methods such as smoking, salting and sun drying are common. This also limits the marketing of fish in distant markets. 11. Limited market for fish. Africa’s population is still small and hence a small demand for fish and fish products. More so traditional customs/cultures prevent fish consumption; some African societies take eating fish as a taboo, hence limiting demand. Most areas along the coast are sparsely populated and people relatively poor. 12. Export of marine fish is difficult because of stiff competition from the developed countries, some of which already faced with the problem of over production of fish. This also discourages further investment in the fishing sector. 13. Political instability experienced in several areas such as Mozambique, Angola, Namibia, Liberia, Ivory Coast. This limits the investment in fishing industry by diverting funds to wars. It also limits the labourforce in the fishing sector. 14. Unfavourable government policies towards fishing. Many African governments have weak policies to control fisheries such as over fishing, indiscriminate fishing among other activities. Where the policies exist, there is weak or no enforcement. This for example results into depletion of fish stocks. 15. Invasion by foreign vessels which catch much of the fish in Africa’s coastal waters for example Japanese and Korean vessels which have in recent years been catching fish off the coast of West Africa. This reduces the fish stocks. 16. Poorly developed infrastructure connecting the coast and the interior for example poor roads and this negatively affects the marketing of fish and fish products. This discourages further investment in the fishing sector. 28 S5 GEOG MINING Mining refers to the process of exploitation of minerals from the earth’s crust. The mining industry involves all activities related to the extraction, processing and trade in minerals. In the industrial sector, minerals are used as raw materials, as a source of power and contribute to the generation of capital when exported. Minerals are classified into two categories: the metallic and the non-metallic minerals. The metallic minerals are the most important and valuable because they are hard and have a wide range of uses. These include iron ore, tin, copper, aluminium, chromium, gold, silver, platinum, uranium, manganese, cobalt etc. The non-metallic minerals are relatively soft and weaker such as salt, potash, nitrates, sulphur, asbestos, certain precision stones e.g. diamonds. Minerals fuels are non-metallic minerals (derived from vegetation remains). These include coal, oil and natural gas. Methods of mining The methods used to remove mineral ores from the ground depend on the nature of mineral, the depth at which it occurs and its marketing value. The most common methods include: . Open cast mining This method is used when the mineral ore is near the surface. The top soil (over burden) is removed and the mineral ore is blasted using explosives. The ore is then crushed to reduce the size. It is then loaded into trucks and taken to the processing plants. . Shaft/ Adit/ underground mining This is used when the mineral ores lie deep below the surface (the over burden is too thick to be removed by mechanical shovels). Vertical shafts are dug into the ground to appropriate levels. From these, horizontal tunnels leading to the ore body are constructed. Supporters are provided from the roof to the floor of the tunnels. The ore is then blasted using explosives causing shattering. The ores are crushed and loaded on small wagons and taken to the vertical shaft, and lifted to the surface, and taken to processing plants. . Placer or Alluvial mining. This is used when minerals occur in alluvial deposits. In this method a steel dredge or a gravel pump is used to dig up the alluvial deposits (waterlogged alluvium). The alluvium is mixed with a great deal of water. The mixture is rotated and in the process the lighter particles (sand, mud, dust) are washed off, leaving the heavier ores (diamonds settled down. . Drilling methods such as for petroleum/oil. Process of oil drilling The basic equipment for oil drilling is a derrick—which is a steel tower about 40m high. Exploration /prospecting/survey of the oil is done and installing of the derricks/oil rigs follows. The derrick carries a drill stem on which steel drilling pipes are screwed /attached, having a drilling bit. The drilling bit is used to drill into/cut through the rock strata/layers to reach the oil well below. Lubricating mud is pumped into drilling pipe to lubricate the bit and to bring up rock samples. Once the bit reaches the oil stratum/layer, crude oil rushes out by natural pressure or pumped out to the surface using oil pumps if natural pressure is weak. The oil is then transported through pipes, fuel tankers, trucks to the refinery. Factors limiting exploitation and use of tropical minerals 1) The small size of some mineral deposits that is, very small quantities not economically viable to exploit. A small deposit which can run out in a few years is uneconomical to exploit/ to install expensive machinery such as iron ore in Zimbabwe, Kenya, CAR; and Gold in Uganda, Kenya, Zimbabwe and Liberia. This discourages many investors in the mining industry. 2) The low grade of some minerals/ low value for example copper which looses almost over half of the ores to become viable for productive value; yet it is deeply underlain/ occurs in deep layers such as in Zambia, and DRC (Shaba province). Because a large percentage of the mineral ore becomes waste material, copper mining attracts less investment. In Tanzania the quality of diamonds vary and some are of low grade, hence more uneconomical to mine. 3) The great depth of the mineral ores. Most minerals exist at great depth underground and hence very expensive to exploit. They are subjected to a thick overlying burden (over burden) such as coal, diamonds, ironore and copper. This increases the cost of exploitation since it requires sophisticated technology such as the shaft/underground mining method and involves a lot of risks. 4) There are many risks involved in the mining sector. The mining conditions are not appealing partly attributed to the deep overlying burden which can burry the miners/exploiters, high pollution levels involved (noise and air) which causes deadly diseases. All these scare away workers and investors from tropical mining. 5) Most tropical countries export their minerals as crude ores and this earns them less than if they had processed ores. As a result the high costs of production are not compensated by high value in terms of exported ores, which weakens and undermines tropical mining especially in tropical Africa. For example copper in democratic republic of Congo (DRC). 6) Remoteness of some mineral deposits, referring to the distance from the coast. The deposits occur in remote areas such as iron ore and coal in southern Tanzania, copper inland locked Zambia. Therefore the long distance travelled and the absence of viable transport infrastructure has limited mineral production and trade in tropical countries despite having enormous mineral potential. Also the dense tropical rain forests such as in Congo basin make the development of transport systems more difficult. 7) Low level of technology used in extracting the mineral resources especially the underground minerals. This is the case with Africa and Latin America. More the small operations make mineral exploitation using modern technology unprofitable and very expensive. Yet even most countries cannot afford purchasing the modern equipment. 8) Inadequate capital to invest in the mining sector. Capital is inadequate for economic exploitation of minerals such as bauxite which needs large amounts of electricity for the final production of aluminium itself (such as in Ghana, guinea and Sierra Leone). Also the delayed exploitation of oil in Lake Albert in Uganda has been mainly due to inadequate capital. The purchase of mining equipment, building smelting/processing plants and associated infrastructure are all expensive. 9) Limited skilled labour to work in the mining sector. Tropical countries do not have many competent engineers, geologists, and other scientists to develop and manage mineral exploitation economically. This is also attributed to the poorly developed training in mineral exploitation and the general education system in tropical countries. This also explains why these countries continue relying on foreign expatriate personnel. 10) Price fluctuations on the world market. The prices of some tropical minerals have fluctuated more in the recent past, leading to uncertain incomes. For example the prices of copper declined more in the 1980s such that even earnings from it reduced tremendously such as for Zambia, and former Zaire causing unfavourable terms of trade, hence limiting further investment in mining. 11) Limited market for tropical minerals. Many other countries that would import tropical minerals have large deposits of their own minerals/Reserves with better mining cost reducing technology for example copper greatly exists in USA, USSR, Canada; yet coal occurs in USSR, USA, china, Germany; which further reduces the market for tropical minerals. Still some tropical minerals have low market value such as lead and zinc. 12) Political instability in many tropical countries which also limits the success of mining. Countries like DRC, Liberia, Sierra Leone, CAR, Angola, Venezuela, Zambia, Gabon, Nigeria, Venezuela etc have for a long time been locked up in wars and civil strifes which negatively affects the mining activities. The mineral wealth in Angola (e.g. diamonds and uranium, iron ore, copper and manganese) has not brought maximum benefit to the country because rebels have been selling the minerals cheaply to American and European companies in order to get many to buy arms. 13) Unfavourable government policy towards the mining sector. In many countries government efforts are directed to many other sectors and providing social services but limited investment done in the mining sector, after all some countries have less economic potential currently in terms of minerals or their known reserves. Some governments also discourage foreign investors through high taxes and failure to maintain transport and other infrastructure. 14) Power and energy problems in many tropical countries. The exploitation and processing of some minerals requires colossal/large amounts of electricity. However many potential power generation plants have not been established and the existing ones have low voltage; which further undermines the performance of the mining sector in tropical countries. 15) Low level of research in the mining sector. There is inadequate mineral exploration to discover new mineral potentials, partly attributed to inadequate funding and limited expert manpower. Therefore many minerals are not known to exist and thus low level of mineral development. 16) Exhaustion of some mineral deposits due to high rate of exploitation, and thus many mineral deposits are exhausted or threatening exhaustion. For example some of the Zambian copper deposits are already exhausted. The copper deposits in Kilembe in Uganda are also exhausted. This also discourages many investors in the mining sector. MINING IN SOUTH AFRICA South Africa is gifted /blessed with plenty of mineral resources and the country has the most developed mining sector in Africa. Gold mining South Africa has the world’s largest known reserves of gold. Gold mining takes place on the Rand (Witwatersrand) covering parts of the Orange Free State and Transvaal. The main gold fields of the Rand include Johannesburg, Springs, Krugersdorp, Klerksdorp, Vierfontein, and Odendalsrus. Diamond mining South Africa is also a major producer of diamonds. In South Africa diamond has the greatest deposits in Kimberley and Hope town in the Rand. Other mines include the Premier mine near Pretoria, Bultfontein, Jagersfontein, Koffiefontein, Rustenburg and Bloemfontein. Most industries connected with diamonds are found in Johannesburg—with most of the diamond cutting factories plus diamond research centre. Note: Diamonds are formed beneath the ground by great heat of volcanic activity and occur in rocks called kimberlite. Coal mining South Africa has large reserves of coal and produces about 6% of the world’s output. Coal is also used to generate electricity alongside other sources of power]. Southern Transvaal is the leading coal producing state in South Africa. Huge deposits occur at Witbank, Vereeniging and Middleburg. Iron ore mining The most important African iron ore producer is South Africa and the country has its own iron and steel industry. In South Africa, large deposits occur in Pretoria, Middleburg, Waterburg and northwestern Cape. Other important minerals in South Africa include platinum (world’s leading producer), tin, manganese, chromium, asbestos, copper, nickel, zinc, and limestone. Factors which have favoured the development of the mining industry in South Africa 1) Presence of a wide range of minerals and large deposits, which encourages investment in the mining sector due to being economically viable. The country has the largest known reserves of gold concentrated in the Witwatersrand. It has large reserves of coal such as in Middleburg and Vereeniging; and it is a major producer of diamonds such as in Kimberley. These large deposits have attracted government funding and various local and foreign mining companies. 2) High quality/value of the minerals produced such as gold and diamonds. Gold commands high demand since it is a very precious metal used as international currency and used for decoration. Diamonds are used in industry for cutting and polishing, and making jewellery. The high grade of most of South Africa’s deposits attracts many companies /encourages mining investment. 3) Presence of labour both skilled and unskilled employed in the mining sector. Cheap labour to work in the mines is provided by the black local people and migrants from neighboring countries like Lesotho, Namibia, Botswana, Mozambique and Malawi. South Africa pays better wages than other countries. The foreign companies brought in many skilled workers and trained local people to acquire the necessary skills such as geologists who carry out mineral exploration, mining engineers, and supervisors. 4) Presence of adequate capital to invest in the mining sector provided by the government, foreign and local companies. These are investing in the exploration/ survey, exploitation and processing of minerals such as coal, gold, diamonds and platinum. For example the Anglo-American corporation is engaged in gold mining. This promotes the growth of the mining sector. 5) Availability of large quantities of power/energy supply such as coal used for smelting and refining gold, platinum, and chromium. There is also hydro electricity generated at Vaal dam and Handrick Verwoed dam on River Orange. Uranium near Johannesburg generates nuclear power. This in turn attracts various mining companies. 6) High level of technology used partly due to foreign companies. This involves the use of earthmovers, caterpillars, bulldozers, and cranes. Most mines began as open cast mines but of today underground mining is also used by deep-level miners. There is also alluvial /placer mining such as for alluvial diamond deposits. Modern mineral processing technology is used and all this turn increases quality and quantity of mineral production. 7) Presence of a large market both internally and internationally. Gold as an international currency has a ready market especially in industrialized countries in Europe, Asia and North America. South Africa also exports mineral and mineral products to African countries. Besides the Rand is the major industrial region of South Africa and yet the minerals are concentrated there, hence offering immediate market. This promotes more investment in the mining sector. 8) South Africa has the most developed transport system in Africa and directly comparable with those in North America and Europe. This includes road and railway network such as the Cape—St. Lucia via Johannesburg and the Pretoria rand –Kimberley Railway lines. These facilitate the movement of mineral ores to processing centres, and minerals and mineral products to the export ports like Cape Town and Durban. This increases mining investment. 9) Large water supply, from both underground and surface sources such as Vaal and orange rivers; necessary for refining some minerals such as diamonds. The water is also used for domestic use in the labour camps. This also encourages further investment in the mining industry. 10) The development of the industrial sector such as in Witwatersrand using the minerals as raw materials. For example the iron and steel industries using iron ore as a raw material in Pretoria, Witbank and Vereeniging. Other industries are engineering and electronics. This enhances mineral exploitation and processing due to the available immediate market in the various industries. 11) Favourable/supportive government policy towards the mining sector. Due to apartheid in the past, South Africa was isolated by economic sanctions and this gave the country a chance to develop most sectors of the economy to promote self-reliance including the mining sector. The government has set up the necessary transport infrastructure, creation of markets and economic liberalization, which has allowed many private companies into the mining industry (since the end of apartheid). 12) Increased research and discovery of more valuable mineral deposits in South Africa. Research is undertaken by geologists, engineers in areas of mineral exploration, exploitation and processing. This also in turn promotes the quality and quantity of mineral production. 13) Political stability of South Africa. Since the end of apartheid the country has remained stable which has encouraged many local and foreign investors in mineral exploration, extraction and processing as well as encouraging trade in minerals and mineral products since security of investment is assured. Contribution of mining to the economy of South Africa 1. Generation of foreign exchange because South Africa is the world’s leading producer of gold, the world’s largest exporter of platinum, a major exporter of coal, diamond. All these minerals and mineral products are exported to Europe (UK, Germany, Belgium); North America, South America, Asia, and the rest of Africa. The foreign currency generated helps to import foreign goods not produced locally, and foreign technology. 2. Promotion of industrial development such as gold refining and diamond cutting industries in the Rand region. The large deposits of iron ore are responsible for iron and steel industries in Pretoria, Johannesburg, Witbank, and Vereeniging. These industries have led to development of secondary industries (such as electronics, machinery, jewelry) and provide jobs to many people. 3. Generation of many employment opportunities to many people at various stages such as mineral extraction, processing, refining, transportation, and exportation. Many people are employed by the gold mining, diamond mining, and coal mining companies. This improves the standards of living of the people such as through building better houses, accessing better education and health services. 4. Source of power/ energy supply such as the mining of coal in the Rand has supplied power for domestic and industrial use. Remember that South Africa is the leading producer of coal producer in Africa. This helps to supplement other sources of power like HEP and thermal power, hence contributing to the general development of the country. 5. Promotion of urbanization/ development of urban centres especially in the Rand such as Johannesburg, Pretoria, Germiston, springs, Witbank, and Kimberley. As population increases in these urban centres, a number of facilities come up such as banking, insurance, education, hospitals, recreation, entertainment, and research facilities. 6. The mining sector facilitates capital accumulation such as gold mining which boosts the GNP of South Africa. Also the strong linkage between mining and industry has increased the export earnings –hence raising valuable capital to invest in various sectors of the economy like industry, sugarcane growing and tourism. 7. Generation of government revenue from the taxation of gold, platinum, uranium, iron ore and coal mining companies. The government also taxes the incomes of workers employed in the mining sector and the related industry. The revenue realized is invested in various sectors like fisheries, manufacturing industry, and vine growing. 8. Promotion of international relationship/cooperation between South Africa and other countries such as the countries where the mining companies originate, countries importing the minerals and associated industrial products-and they include: UK, USA, Canada, Japan, other Asian countries, South America, and the Rest of Africa. This has increased trade and economic contacts with those countries—hence more capital inflow. 9. Promoted development of transport infrastructure for example today South Africa has the most advanced road and railway network in Africa comparable to that of Europe and North America. These routes were initially established to connect mining, processing centres and the export ports such as Cape town-Johannesburg—St.Lucia railway and Pretoria—Kimberley railway. These networks have not only supported the mining sector, but also other activities such as industry, farming, service sector. 10. Diversification of the economy due to the development of the mining sector and related industry which supplements on the number of economic activities. It has therefore reduced over dependence on few sectors like agriculture; thereby expanding the economic base and national income. 11. Facilitation of technological development and research in the country through the use of modern mining methods—like underground mining, and standardizing of the industrial processing technology to improve the quality of products like chemicals, electronics, jewelry, and diamonds. 12. Promoted development of other sectors like agriculture, trade and commerce, tourism—given the linkage with such sectors. For example, the mining sector provides market for the agricultural sector through buying food for the mining workers. This in turn increases the national income. Negative effects/ short comings 1. Disfiguring of the landscape/ destruction of the landscape. The abandoned mines, ditches/ quarries and heaps of soil have created an ugly landscape and large areas of wasteland such as soil heaps from the gold mine near Johannesburg. 2. Mining leads to pollution of the environment, that is, air, water and noise pollution. For example coal mining destroys underground water and lakes. In addition, the dust from the various mines pollutes the air hence causing deadly diseases. 3. Mining accidents are associated within the sector for example the sinking of soils, patches of soil covering miners, collapsing roofs—leading to loss of life. 4. Neglect of the agricultural sector due to the movement of able-bodied people from the rural areas to get better paying jobs in the mining sector. This undermines food production. 5. Displacement of people from areas where mineral deposits occur (especially due to large open cast mining). Many people lose their areas with less or no compensation. 6. Emergence of ghost towns where minerals have been exhausted and this has forced people to move to other areas. Modern planned settlements at high cost have been abandoned such as in Johannesburg. 7. Urban-related problems in the mining towns such as slum growth, high crime rate, and poor structures. It is very costly for government to eradicate such problems. 8. Discovery of minerals increased foreign influence. Earlier the British and the Boers after discovering minerals displaced the blacks from their land. Today there are more whites in South Africa engaged in the exploitation and trade in minerals. 9. Profit repatriation by the foreign—owned companies such as those involved in gold and coal mining. This reduces the rate of re-investment in the economy. 10. Leads to regional imbalance in development since the mining zones have experienced more progress in terms of infrastructure than other areas. This in turn has led to rural—urban migration, hence creating more problems in the urban areas. Problems facing the mining sector in South Africa 1. Shortage of labour to work in the mines and related industries, and this undermines production. 2. Shortage of water needed in processing of minerals especially in the Rand. 3. Price fluctuations of minerals on the world market leading to uncertain incomes. 4. Competition with other mineral producing countries like Ghana, DRC producing gold. 5. Long routes to the coast which increases the transport costs. 6. Labour unrest which often leads to strikes and hence affecting production. This is due to poor working conditions and racial segregation. 7. Accidents occur during mining leading to loss of life such as due to falling rocks. 8. Suffocation due to lack of fresh air and flooding of the mines. 9. High costs of mining due to increasing depth of the mines. 10. Exhaustion of some high grade mineral deposits due to over exploitation. MINING IN NIGERIA Nigeria is the largest producer of oil south of the Sahara. Large deposits of petroleum /oil occur under sedimentary rocks of the Niger delta and the neighbouring coastal plains/ off shore in the ocean. Commercial oil production started in 1956. The first commercial oil well was at Oloibiri west of Port Harcourt and soon after others around Port Harcourt started production. Other oil reserves are found at Ughelli in Bendel state. Refineries exist at Port Harcourt, Warri, and Kaduna. In Nigeria many companies both domestic and foreign are engaged in the oil industry such as shell—BP, Gulf, Mobil, Texaco, Elf, Nigerian national oil corporation. Most foreign companies originate from Britain, USA, France, Italy, Japan, and Germany. Apart from oil/ petroleum, Nigeria produces natural gas, a cheap clean industrial fuel (exploited together with oil). Other important minerals in Nigeria include Iron ore at Enugu and Itakpe near Lakoja, Coal mined at Lafia and Enugu supplying power, Tin in Baunchi on Jos plateau. A sketch map showing the distribution of minerals in Nigeria Factors which have favoured the development of the mining sector in Nigeria 1) Presence of large reserves of minerals in the country for example large reserves of oil at Oloibiri, Port Harcourt and offshore deposits. Nigeria has got the largest oil reserves south of Sahara, making it economical to exploit the oil and this has encouraged many oil companies to invest in the oil industry. 2) Presence of adequate capital to invest in the mining sector provided by local and foreign companies such as shell BP, Texaco, Gulf, which were attracted by the large oil reserves in the country. Capital is also raised by the Nigerian national oil corporation. This has enabled the installation of oil derricks to drill the oil and building of oil refineries such as at Port Harcourt; hence expansion of the mining sector. 3) Presence of skilled manpower to work in the mining sector. Nigeria is one of the African countries with high functional literacy levels and has trained many people as engineers, technicians, geologists, and managers. Workers are trained on the job to acquire the skills in oil drilling and processing. The skilled workers are also brought in by the foreign companies from their home countries. This increases the quality and quantity of oil production. 4) High level/improved technology employed in mining. Since 1956 mining and processing has been progressing with advancing technology such as the drilling pipe technology attributed to the mining companies. Previously natural gas was simply lost but today it is extracted as oil is being refined. One method to increase production has been the construction and operation of offshore drilling rigs. 5) Presence of a large market, both domestic and foreign. Nigeria has a big population over 130 million providing a big home market for oil and oil products. Nigeria mainly exports oil to USA, United Kingdom, Italy, France, and the rest of Africa to be used in a number of ways such as making chemical products and in the transport sector. Given the high grade of oil, the country supplies about half of its oil to USA and most of the other half to Europe. This has encouraged investment in Nigerian oil mining. 6) Efficient transport system since Nigeria is not landlocked and is lucky to have oil reserves at the coast which minimizes the transport costs to export markets. There is also an extensive system of pipelines laid down to transport oil from the fields to oil collecting terminals such as the pipeline from Oloibiri to port Harcourt, pipelines to Escravos terminal, Forcados terminal, Brass terminal, and Bonny terminal. Port Harcourt handles most of Nigeria’s oil exports while other facilities for export are at Bonny and Burutu. 7) Large quantities of power in form of hydro-electric power at Kainji dam on Niger River, oil and natural gas to support the mining industry such as oil drilling and refining. This promotes efficiency and hence large-scale oil mining. 8) The setting up of various processing industries such as the completion of the Port Harcourt refinery owned jointly by the Nigerian government and shell BP made it possible to process total output in part. Other oil refineries are at Warri, and Kaduna; to increase the quality of output, instead of exporting crude oil. In turn, this has increased the export earnings from oil mining. 9) Positive/ supportive government policy towards the mining sector such as the liberal policy since it has allowed many companies to invest in the mining sector. The government has encouraged many companies by granting them tax holidays and protecting them against competition. This in turn expands the mining sector. 10) Nigeria is also strategically located reasonably close to the markets in Western Europe, USA and South America. This enables easy access to the markets. Nigeria became a member of OPEC (Organization of petroleum exporting countries) in the late 1970s. Easy marketing encourages further investment in the mining sector. 11) Relative political stability. 12) Increased /intensive research in the mining sector. MINING IN GERMANY Germany is a country greatly endowed with mineral resources and has the second largest coal reserves in Western Europe after UK and its rapid industrial development was greatly based on the exploitation of coal. Today however other forms of energy are taking over from coal. The most important /largest coalfield is the Ruhr coalfield which accounts for ¾ of Germany’s output and about 90% of its reserves. The coalfield is divided into two; the exposed coalfields to the south in the Ruhr valley and the concealed coalfields in the north in areas of the areas of the Lippe valley and Emscher valley. The exposed coalfields have the coal bearing rocks on the surface while the concealed coalfields have them buried underground. Open cast methods are used for exposed coal while Shaft or underground methods are used for concealed coal. Note: The exposed coalfields are getting exhausted and work now is deep in the concealed coal fields which are difficult and expensive. Other coalfields in Germany include Aachen coalfields (not very important today); and the Saar coalfields near the Germany—French border with good coking coal and easy to mine. There are also lignite coal deposits at cologne and in Bavaria which are mined to provide fuel for thermal electricity generation. There are other important minerals in Germany such as potash, salt, iron ore, phosphates, copper, lead and zinc. [The presence of certain minerals in large quantities such as potash and salt led to the development of chemical industry, including fertilizers and pharmaceuticals]. Factors which favoured the development of coal mining in Germany 1. Availability of large mineral deposits/ reserves for example the country has the second largest reserves in Western Europe after UK which meant that mining was cost effective. The largest coalfield is the Ruhr region which accounts for about ¾ of Germany’s output. Other deposits are the Aachen and Saar coalfields. This has attracted large-scale investment in the coal mining industry. 2. Presence of different types of coal for example Anthracite coal containing a high percentage of carbon and burning with great heat—making it an important source of energy. Gas coal for domestic and industrial purposes. Coking coal especially valuable for the iron and steel industries and chemical industries. Mining was therefore necessary since the coal acted as a raw material and energy for industrial development. 3. Some coal deposits are near the surface and thus easy to mine. At the beginning mining was concentrated in the exposed coal fields of the south and these could be mined by open cast method especially in the Ruhr valley. Still most of the deposits were in close proximity to one another, allowing convenient use of coal as fuel first to process the iron into steel and manufacture products from steel. 4. Presence of other forms of energy such as petroleum, natural gas and hydroelectric power has also supported mineral exploitation and processing. In the recent years, nuclear energy and hard coal which burn more cleanly than brown coal are gaining importance. 5. Well developed and cheap transport system provided by the Rhine River and its tributaries such as Ruhr, Lippe and Emscher. The Rhine water way is linked with a system of canals such as Dortmund Ems and Lippeseite canals, which improves its transportation capacity; to transport coal to industries and markets. The Ruhr region has railway and road networks to transport coal, iron ore and mineral products. This leads to expansion of the mining sector. 6. Large sums of capital to invest in coal mining which was first provided by the government but later private financiers joined, to provide the necessary capital for mineral exploration, extraction, setting up processing plants and related industries. 7. Development in technology in the mining sector such as open-cast mining for deposists near the surface. Large machines are used such as shovel wheels which can do a lot of work. There is intensive research in mining technology such as the use of cranes, and excavators to support exploitation. This increases the quality and quantity of mineral production. 8. Presence of skilled labour employed in mining because a body of skilled labour labour has been developed right from the time of the industrial revolution in mining sector such as geologists specializing in mineral exploration/research, mining engineers, machine operators, managers, and drivers. This has increased efficiency in the mining industry. 9. Presence of large market for minerals and mineral products. Coal is used in the coking of iron, as a catalyst in blast furnaces and as a source of power. Of all the coal produced in the Ruhr , 40% is used there, 30% to other Germany areas and 30% exported to Scandinavia , France , Belgium ,Italy Switzerland and The Netherlands. Germany’s potash industry ranks as one of the largest exporters of potash based on fertilizers in the world. 10. Political stability of the country since the Second World War. Germany has remained a peaceful country providing the necessary conditions for the rehabilitation of the mines that were destroyed during the war in the Ruhr, Saar and cologne areas. Political stability has increased the confidence of investors and hence enabled the establishment and maintenance of mineral processing plants. 11. Positive /supportive government policy towards the mining sector such as originally investing in the mining sector with powerful industries. Today the government has provided enabling policies and subsidies such that mining continues in the rather uneconomical concealed mines. This has attracted foreign investors from countries like USA and Britain. 12. High level of research in the mining sector which leads to the discovery of more mineral deposits, improve their quantity and quality. There is also research into mining technology and new uses of the minerals. This in turn expands the mining sector. Importance of coal mining in Germany 1. Promotion of industrialization for example the iron and steel industries which use coal as a source of energy and as an ingredient in the refining process. Iron and steel producing areas include Hamburg, Bremen, Hannover, Wolfsburg, and Brunswick. Chemical industries use coal as a raw material centred at Bochum, Dortmund and Essen. This has increased national income. 2. Has promoted urbanization in Germany. Many towns started as mining areas but have grown into great cities such as Dortmund, Duisburg, Essen, and Bochum. The Ruhr conurbation has a number of towns which developed mainly due to the presence of coal which was used as power. Most of the industries of the Ruhr are linked together/ depend on each other. The concentration of population in the Ruhr region has attracted many urban facilities such as banking, insurance, and education facilities. 3. Generation of foreign exchange 4. Generation of many employment opportunities. 5. Promoted development of transport infrastructure. 6. Generation of government revenue. 7. Promotion of international relationships. 8. Diversification of the economy. 9. Modernization of other sectors of the economy. 10. Development of modern technology. Negatives/ short comings 1. Pollution of the environment. 2. Urban-related problems. 3. The closing of some mines due to exhaustion of coal is leading to the under utilization of infrastructure put in the mining areas. This is especially in areas of exposed coal which is now exhausted like in Essen. 4. The use of open cast methods in the Ruhr, Aachen and Saar mines has led to destruction of the landscape, which has affected the otherwise viable agricultural land. 5. etc Problems facing the mining sector in Germany 1) Exhaustion of coal in some areas because coal has been mined for many years especially in the exposed fields. These areas have redundant infrastructure. 2) Increasing costs of mining with increasing depth of the mines especially in the concealed coal deposits. It requires experts and a lot of facilities such as construction of shafts, lamps—hence costly. 3) The closing of mines has resulted into unemployment and pre-mature retirement of skilled manpower. 4) Coal is facing stiff competition from other sources of energy especially petroleum/ oil which is a less pollutant and today the Ruhr region receives a large quantity of petroleum moved in by pipeline and ocean-going vessels , which has seriously replaced coal as a major source of power. 5) Competition from other countries whose coal deposits are continuously being discovered and low cost producing countries such as Saudi Arabia, china, USSR, and Australia. 6) Decline in demand for coal in relation to other minerals due to improved technology which requires less inputs and costs. For example in the iron and steel industry the technological progress results into less and less coal demanded. 7) Price fluctuations on the world market. 8) The shared location of some mineral deposits such as coal with France. 9) The uneconomical deposits of some minerals in some areas. 10) Destruction of landscape and mining accidents. 11) Shortage of labour to work in mining activities. 12) Remoteness of some areas of mineral occurrence. MINING IN USA USA is endowed/ blessed with a variety of minerals. The most important minerals are iron ore, coal, gold, copper, petroleum/ oil and natural gas. Others are aluminium, lead and zinc, manganese, cobalt, and silver IRON ORE Iron ore is mined in four (4) major regions: . Lake Superior region—the most important of which is the Mesabi Range. Other deposits occur in the vermillion Range, Cuyuna, Gogebic, Menominee and Marquette Range. . The northeastern region. Mainly ores are mined in the Adirondacks region of Newyork and the Cornwall area of Pennsylvania. Here they have the advantage of location near the industrial cities of Newyork and Pittsburgh. . The southeastern region. This region is centred at Birmingham –Alabama. It is favourably located near the coalfields of the southern Appalachians and serves the iron and steel industry at Birmingham. . The western region. This includes many scattered fields in western USA in the states of Utah, Nevada, Wyoming, and California. The ores are transported to the steel works at San Francisco, Los Angeles, Puelo, Colorado and Provo, Utah. COAL MINING IN USA USA is the world’s leading coal producer and it became the leading producer in the 20th century. However, the USSR has the largest coal reserves in the world. The major coal areas of USA are: The Eastern province. This is the most productive region and has the greatest reserves. This includes four leading coal states: Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Kentucky and Ohio. The Interior province. This is the 2nd major producing region and it covers the shores of Lake Huron, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas. The Gulf province. It is a minor coal region including Texas, Alabama and Arkansas. The Rocky mountain province. This is America’s greatest coal reserve but yet little exploited due to inaccessibility and distance from major markets. The major deposits are located in Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, and New Mexico. The Pacific province. This includes small coal deposits close to the pacific coast. The fields include Washington, Oregon, California and Alaska. Factors which have favoured the success of coal mining in USA 1) The existence of large coal deposits spread over the Eastern, Interior, the Gulf, Rocky Mountains and the Pacific provinces. These large deposits have promoted exploitation and processing of coal for now over two (2) centuries. The remaining deposits will last for over several decades to support the industries in USA and the international market. 2) Presence of high quality coal and of all types such as anthracite, bituminous coal, lignite (brown) coal and graphite coal. Coking coal is a grade of bituminous coal used in the iron and steel smelting in blast furnaces. Anthracite coal is of the best quality usable for heating, boilers as well as in the manufacture of batteries. About 50% of the world’s anthracite coal is found in USA and this has given USA dominance in its supply to countries like Canada, china, Russia, and India. 3) The country’s coal deposits are easy to mine and transport because the coal is found in horizontal layers and many deposits are found near the surface. The extraction of coal is done at low cost sometimes-using open cast methods. Even in mountainous regions such as Appalachians, the coal seams/ layers are not very deep and thus easy to access and extract. 4) Strong capital base to invest in mining provided by rich coal mining companies and private individuals. The corporations which operate in the Eastern and Gulf provinces are some of the richest in the world of coal mining business. More so USA has a high GNP per capita therefore capital mobilized for the purchase of modern machinery, setting up processing industries, training manpower, and carrying out mining research. 5) Influence of many large foreign companies from Britain and Germany due to the liberal economy of the US. These have brought in more capital, high technology and find it easy to market the coal abroad using their international reputation. The companies include the Peagody coal company and Kennecott company from Britain. Such companies have contacts in Europe and Asia which guarantees market for US coal. 6) Presence of a large market both domestic and abroad. Within USA the end user sectors for coal include electric utilities, coastal shipping, transcontinental railways and residential facilities. US coal is also exported to Canada, Japan, Italy, Netherlands, France, china and southeast Asia ( like Malaysia, Indonesia). The economies of the newly industrialized countries continue to provide a large market for US coal. This promotes investment in the mining sector. 7) Presence of efficient transport systems in USA such as the country’s highway system which is integrated with the railway system. The railway system is connected to almost all ports enabling easy transportation of machinery, manpower, the coal and coal products. The railway system if further integrated with the Canadian and Mexican railway systems. For purposes of export the US depends on the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean routes, which implies lower transportation costs compared to other coal producing countries. 8) Availability of skilled/ hilghy trained labour to support coal mining such as geologists, managers, engineers, marketeers, and accountants. The migrant workers from South America, Asia and Africa are also trained to acquire the needed skills. The coming of the multinational companies has increased the skilled labour and thus high quantity and quality of production. 9) Advancement in technology which facilitates easy extraction and processing of the coal. The extraction technology includes open cast methods (for seams near the surface), underground/ shaft mining (for deeper coal seams), and slope mining. The technology further has enabled the Americans to manufacture a wide range of products from coal greater than other nations. 10) The growth of the industrial sector also explains the success of coal mining. Previously coal was a major source of power for many industries (such as chemical, engineering). Today coal is used in the smelting of iron and steel and used to make metallurgical coke used in the blast furnaces. Coal provides a number of raw materials for the chemical industry (such as the making of organic chemicals, plastics, detergents, disinfectants, synthetic fibres, explosives). This attracts more investment in coal mining. 11) Political stability of the US for a long period which has attracted foreign investors from Europe and Asia due to guaranteed security of investment. The financial, insurance and securities subsectors have been attracted to the US mining industry for a long time. This has boosted further the stock of capital invested in the coal mining industry. 12) Availability of large quantities of power required for Coal mining, processing and the making of coal-related products. This includes hydroelectric power and the leading dams are Hoover dam, Grand Coulee dam, Shasta dam, and the many dams in the Tennessee Valley Authority scheme. These together with thermal facilities produce large quantities of power to run the coalmines and processing factories. 13) Favourable/ supportive government policy towards coal mining industry such as creating a stable political and economic environment, encouraging local and foreign investors and financing large hydro electricity projects. There has also been economic liberalization policy aimed at boosting coal mining as well as giving preferential treatment to investors when securing loans. 14) Intensive/ developed research in the mining sector done by physicists, chemists, engineers, geologist—to explore the available quantity and quality of coal in a given area and extract it using the most appropriate technology. There is also research aimed at improving the mineral processing technology. Impact of coal mining on the economy of USA Positive impact 1. Promotion of industrial development for example iron and steel industry since it is used in smelting. Coal and oil have also led to the growth of chemical industries since they are used as raw materials to make various products like organic chemicals, plastics, detergents, perfumes, disinfectants, insecticides, fungicides, and pharmaceutical drugs. 2. Generation of employment opportunities to the people. 3. Generation of foreign exchange to USA. 4. Diversification of the economy of USA. 5. Mining has promoted the development of transport infrastructure. 6. Promotion of urban development. 7. It has led to further technological advancement. 8. Coal miners have acquired more skills due to constant training. 9. Generation of government revenue. 10. The country’s international relations have been strengthened. 11. Promotion of research and scientific studies. Negative impact 1. Exhaustion of minerals causes dereliction of the landscape. 2. The decline of mining and closure of mines is associated with problems of unemployment and declining industry. 3. Pollution and health hazards. 4. Mining accidents 5. Profits by the foreign owned companies 6. Displacement of people 7. Destruction of natural vegetation 8. Urban—related problems 9. Underdevelopment of some rural areas 10. Displacement of other economic activities like farming and industry and tourism. Problems facing the mining sector in USA 1) Exhaustion of some high-grade minerals in some areas because coal has been mined for many years. For example the exhaustion of coking coal/ high grade bituminous coal in the Appalachians. In addition, many old oil fields are being exhausted which has made USA a major importer of oil/ petroleum and hence greatly affected by oil price rises since the 1970s. 2) Increasing/high costs of mining with increasing depth of the mines especially in the concealed coal deposits. This requires experts and a lot of facilities such as construction of shafts, miners’ lamps— hence costly/ very expensive. 3) The closure of some mines has resulted into unemployment and pre-mature retirement of skilled manpower. It has also resulted into redundant infrastructure and unproductive land in terms of other activities such as agriculture. 4) Stiff competition between oil and coal as sources of energy. Today oil is a major source of industrial power. Oil has largely replaced coal in the boilers and furnaces. For example the presence of major oil fields in the interior has negatively affected coal production and trade, since oil is mined more cheaply and is a more effluent fuel. On the other hand, coal is very bulky, which makes it difficult and costly to transport than either liquid petroleum carried by pipelines or tankers or electricity which is simply transmitted by wires and has no bulk at all. Note: Oil has also become a raw material in a wide range of chemical industries and in fact dominates the chemical industry. It is used in making synthetic textiles, dyes, solvents, detergents, plastics which have a wide range of industrial and domestic uses. Synthetic rubber is also extracted from oil. 5) Competition from other mineral producing countries whose deposits are continuously being discovered and which are low cost producing countries such as Saudi Arabia, china, USSR, and Australia which produce oil. Also USSR, china, UK, South Africa which produce coal. This in turn limits the export market of US minerals. 6) Remoteness of some areas of mineral occurrence for example in the Rocky Mountain region mining of oil is more difficult, more expensive and thus potential oil districts are inaccessible due to rugged terrain. There are high costs of transporting minerals from the interior to the coastal processing centres and export ports. The Alaskan region also has large reserves of oil and natural gas but it is expensive to produce and transport because of the cold tundra climate (the severe winter conditions) make mining difficult throughout the year. 7) The shared location of some mineral deposits such as coal and iron ore with Canada. For example iron ore mining in the Lake Superior region which at times causes conflicts as regards the control of certain deposits of minerals. This undermines the expansion of mining investment. 8) The uneconomical deposits of some minerals such as the many scattered fields of iron ore in the states of Utah, Nevada and California. The pacific province has very small deposits of coal only for local significance close to the pacific coast. North America in general is markedly lacking in tin deposits, has limited deposits of zinc, chromium, and diamonds. This makes it rather uneconomical to exploit such minerals, hence discouraging investors. 9) Fluctuation of prices of some minerals on the world market such as for coal, oil and copper. For example, copper prices fluctuated more in the 1970s and 1980s which also negatively affected US production by discouraging some potential investors. 10) Destruction of the landscape and many mining accidents. The exhaustion of some deposits has left a derelicted landscape—since mining operators are unwilling to spend money on rehabilitation, which will not give them direct financial return. This leads to waste of agricultural and industrial land; causes ugliness, health and accident hazards. Therefore, there is strong opposition from environmentalists on further expansion of mining. 11) Pollution of the environment for example by the oil industry through unintentional oil spillage from tankers and pipeline leaks as well as through dumping of oil processing waste. This negatively affects the habitats of birds and aquatic life. This also leads to strong opposition from the Authorities and especially environmentalists. 12) Shortage of labour to work in mining activities since many are attracted to other better paying and/ or less risky jobs in the country or outside. This limits the productivity of the mining sector. 13) Congestion at the ports which leads to delays in the exportation of the minerals and thus leading to inefficiency in the mining sector. Guiding questions 1) To what extent have natural resources influenced the development of the mining sector in either Ruhr region of Germany or Zambia? Natural resources to the development of the mining sector Large deposits of minerals High grade of the minerals Relatively flat landscape Nearness of some ores to the surface Availability of land/ sparse population *Aridity of the area—alternative land use *Water supply Other factors Cheap labour and skilled labour Developed transport system Adequate capital Etc 2) Account for the development of the mining sector in either Nigeria or USA. 3) Assess the role of the mining industry in the economy of either Zambia or Germany. 4) Examine the problems facing the mining sector in either Zambia/Ghana or USA 5) Using specific examples assess the significance of mineral resources as a basis for industrial development in either a developed or a developing country. 6) To what extent have mineral deposits led to the growth of towns in either republic of South Africa or France? 7) Assess the impact of mining on the environment in USA. 8) With reference to either DRC or Germany, discuss the problems facing the mining industry and suggest possible solutions to the problems. 9) Assess the contribution of the mining industry to the development of either Greatlakes region of North America or the Witwatersrand (Rand) region of the republic of South Africa. S5 HOLIDAY WORK SUB-ICT PAPER ONE COPY THE FOLLOWING WORK TO YOUR BOOKS DURING THIS LONG HOLIDAY Chapter 2: COMPUTER MANAGEMENT Interacting with computers and other ICTs for the first time is one of the most challenging tasks. However system developers invented storage media, system administrative tools, services and programs. Menus, graphics, commands and most interestingly voice recognition interfaces to facilitate the interaction and dialog between the system and the user. It is important that you are introduced to the general operating system environment, common files and folders plus their management, and basic utilities. Objective The learner should be able to demonstrate that he can efficiently manage files. Computer management is able to prepare participants to use different types of technology in everyday settings. This may include installing software, managing updates and performing backups on desktop computers, laptops or tablets. Computer management can prepare you to use a computer both on the job and in your personal life. Prerequisites This topic is designed for students to follow when they have already got an introduction to computing. You should be having a theory background concerning powering on of a computer. Booting Process You may wonder what happens when the computer starts; Most microcomputers are switched on by the switch on the system unit and the monitor. As the computer is switched on, it does the Power – On Self-Test (POST) before it starts.The POST consists of RAM1 check, CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor) check, HDD controller check (Disk Drive controller Check) In case one of the checks fails, then an appropriate error message is displayed on the screen or An abnormal number of beeps are sounded. Note: Each error has a specific number of beeps. The whole process is called BOOTING. Note: CMOS memory stores vital data about system configuration, even when your computer is turned off. Definition Booting is the process of starting a computer which involves loading an operating. System into memory. Types of booting 1Random Access memory There are two types of booting; ★ Cold booting /Hard boot ★ Warm booting / soft boot Cold booting It is the process of starting a computer which has been previously off. OR It can also refer to the process of starting a computer from rest. Warm booting It is the process of restarting a computer that is already turned on. In the windows environment, it is normally performed by pressing Ctrl+Alt+Del keys on the Keyboard. Application of booting Booting is done in the following cases; Cold booting is done always when one is starting up the computer which has been totally off. Warm booting is done; +Whenever the computer devices such as keyboards, mouse, etc. stop responding to commands issued to them. +After installing a software or hardware onto your computer. +After scanning for viruses. Steps that occur during a cold boot using the windows operating system ❖ The power supply sends an electrical signal to the motherboard and other devices located in the system unit. ❖ The CPU resets itself and looks for the ROM that contains the BIOS. ❖ The BIOS executes the Power on Self-Test (POST) to ensure that all the computer hardware is connected properly and operating properly. ❖ The results of the POST are compared with the data in the CMOS chip on the motherboard. ❖ If the POST is completed successfully, the BIOS looks for the boot program that loads the ❖ Operating system. ❖ Once located, the boot program is loaded into memory and executed, which then loads the kernel of the operating system into RAM. File Management Definition: File. A file is a collection of related records. An example is an inventory file for sporting goods store. A file, made up of records, contains information on a specific topic, or group. Folder File Management System The File Management System (or simply File System) is the layer of system software responsible for organizing and managing the storage of data on permanent media. This media is often magnetic, eg: hard and floppy disk drives and tape streamers, but optical media such as CD-ROM and DVD are also commonplace, and solid state memory devices, such as pen drives or flash drives are becoming increasingly common. As you know, each storage device on a computer has a drive letter assigned to it. The table below shows a typical allocation of drive letters: Drive Description A: First floppy disk drive B: Second floppy disk drive (only normally found on older machines) C: Hard disk drive D: Optical drive (CD/DVD reader/rewriter) E: USB drive If a machine has two hard disks, the second one is referred to as D: and the letters for subsequent devices are incremented, eg: the CD/DVD drive would then be E: and so on. Many of these devices are bootable, meaning that the operating system can be loaded from them. The usual boot device is the hard disk, but a computer can also be booted from a floppy disk (often used in emergencies) or from a CD-ROM (often used for installing the operating system). The order in which the computer attempts to boot from the various devices is known as the boot sequence. This can be adjusted via the BIOS, a set of instructions stored in a read-only memory chip which enable a computer to start the operating system and communicate with system devices. A computer's file system can be regarded as analogous to a filing cabinet, as used for storing paper documents. The disk drives correspond to the drawers in the filing cabinet and the directories correspond to the folders stored in the drawers. The individual files, such as Word documents, spreadsheets etc. correspond to the sheets of paper stored in the folders of the filing cabinet. Common Utility Programs These are system software component which are used to support, enhance or expand the existing programs in a computer system. OR Utility programs are referred to as service programs which improve the performance of a computer. Many operating system have utility programs built in for a common purposes. However, some utility programs are available separately and the common examples of utility programs include the following; +Virus Protection A virus protection utility is used to detect, remove or destroy viruses. This utility is also referred to as anti- virus utility or software. It is used to scan hard disks and memory to detect, remove or even destroy the viruses. Note: It is always important to update the anti-virus software frequently in order to detect new viruses. Examples of common anti-virus software utility include; -Norton anti-virus. -Dr Solomon’s anti-virus. -McAfee Virus Scan. -Node32. -Kaspersky anti-virus. -Esset -Smadav -Avast +Archives Output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a set of files. Archive utilities, unlike archive suites, usually do not include compression or encryption capabilities. Some archive utilities may even have a separate un-archive utility for the reverse operation. +Backup software Can make copies of all information stored on a disk and restore either the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of accidental deletion). +Clipboard managers Expand the clipboard functionality of an operating system. +Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files. +Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided with a stream or file. +Data synchronization utilities establish consistency among data from a source to target data storage and vice versa. There are several branches of this type of utility: +File synchronization utilities maintain consistency between two sources. They may be used to create redundancy or backup copies but are also used to help users carry their digital music, photos and video in their mobile devices. +Revision control utilities are intended to deal with situations where more than one user attempts to simultaneously modify the same file. +Debuggers are used to test and "debug" other programs, mainly to solve programming errors. Also utilized for reverse engineering of software or systems. +Disk checkers can scan operating hard drive. +Disk cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to delete when their hard disk is full. +Disk compression utilities can transparently compress/uncompress the contents of a disk, increasing the capacity of the disk. +Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are scattered across several locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency. +Disk partitions can divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with its own file system which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an individual drive. +Disk space analyzers for the visualization of disk space usage by getting the size for each folder (including sub folders) & files in folder or drive. Showing the distribution of the used space. +File managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data management, email recovery and management tasks, such as deleting, renaming, cataloging, cataloging, moving, copying, merging, generating and modifying data sets. +Hex editorsdirectly modify the text or data of a file. These files could be data or an actual program. +Memory testers check for memory failures. +Network utilities Analyze the computer's network connectivity, configure network settings, check data transfer or log events. +Package managers Are used to configure, install or keep up to date other software on a computer. +Registry cleaners Clean and optimize the Windows Registry by removing old registry keys that are no longer in use. +Screensavers Were desired to prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma computer monitors by blanking the screen or filling it with moving images or patterns when the computer is not in use. Contemporary screensavers are used primarily for entertainment or security. +System monitors for monitoring resources and performance in a computer system. +System profilers provide detailed information about the software installed and hardware attached to the computer. Chapter 3: COMPUTER LABORATORY CARE & MAINTENANCE The use of ICTs has a number of challenges for example, computers malfunction, laptops break down, servers go offline, networks become unavailable and computers slowdown with time, etc. All of these problems can be minimized by keeping up with regularly scheduled preventive maintenance activities. It is important for every user to have an idea on basic preventive maintenance in order to maintain the equipment in a good running condition. This topic will equip the learner with skills to maintain his/her computer systems in a good running condition and the safety measures to observe when working in a computer laboratory. Objectives When handling computer laboratory care and maintenance, the learners should be able to take care of computer systems & maintain (service) computer systems. They should also be able to troubleshoot malfunctioning computer systems and restore them to a good running condition. Pre-requisite You should have at least basic knowledge concerning how a computer works and the basics of the different components of a working computer. We also encourage you to have the basic maintenance ideas theoretically in order to maintain the equipment in a good running condition. Definitions: A computer laboratory is a room that is specially designed and prepared to facilitate the installation of computers and to provide a safe conducive environment for teaching and learning of computer studies. Meaning of computer literacy Computer literacy is having an understanding of what a computer is and how to use it as a resource. Computer literacy is the ability to use computers and related technology efficiently, with a range of skills covering levels from elementary use to programming and advanced problem solving. Literacy, which understands, needs to be distinguished from competency, which is having a skill. Computer competency is having some skill with a computer so that you can use it to meet your information needs and improve your productivity. System starts up. Laboratory rules and regulations ➢ Handle every computer device with maximum care without dropping them down. ➢ Do not allow external diskettes, flash disks and other external storage devices. These may have viruses. ➢ Do not expose computers to dusty environments, dump places and strong heat. ➢ Do not expose computers to direct sunlight. ➢ You should move with a lot of care when you are in the lab. Never enter the lab while running. ➢ Call the lab technician or any experienced person in case you encounter any problem when you are using the computer. ➢ Avoid disconnecting the parts of the computer unless you have been told to do so. ➢ Always report any case of theft within the lab to the concerned authorities. ➢ Do not eat or drink anything near computers. Liquid can splash on the machines and spoil them. ➢ Avoid abrupt on and off of computers to avoid damage. Always shut them down through the right procedure. ➢ Cover the hardware devices after they have been cooled down. ➢ Always clean the surface of the hardware with a clean, dry piece of cloth. Avoid using water. ➢ Always follow instructions of the instructors while in the computer lab. Computer maintenance and management ❖ Switch on the computer hardware systems starting from the wall socket switch, U.P.S or stabilizer, computer and then the computer. ❖ Protect the computers with U.P.S or a Stabilizer. ❖ Avoid making connections (e.g. Mouse, Monitor) when the computer is on power. ❖ Minimize the number of visitors to your computer lab. ❖ Computers should be regularly serviced e.g. blowing the dust from the system, cleaning the keyboard etc. ❖ Storage devices should be kept safely as recommended by the manufacturers. ❖ The computer lab must be well ventilated to avoid computers from being affected by heat. ❖ The computer lab must be painted with water color paint to avoid problems of fire out breaks. ❖ There must be a fire extinguisher in the computer lab in case of fire outbreaks. ❖ Keep daily record of the condition of the computers. ❖ Only allow qualified personnel to clean the inside of the computer. ❖ Always clean the surface of the hardware with a clean, dry piece of cloth. Avoid using water. HEALTH AND SAFETY There are a number of safety hazards linked with using computers and ICT devices. This section looks into some of these potential hazards and what you can do to prevent them. We will also look at some of the medical conditions and health problems that prolonged use of ICT devices can cause and what you can do to avoid them. Health problems There are a number of health problems that you can suffer if you use ICT devices incorrectly or for too long The main ones are: -Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI) -Back and Neck Strain -Eye Strain and Headaches Health Problem & Causes Prevention Description (a) Repetitive strain inquiry Typing on a computer for too Take breaks to rest your hands. RSI causes painful swelling long. Use an ergonomic of the wrist and fingers Using a mouse for long periods. Keyboard. Holding the mouse Arrange your workspace so you are not Sufferers with really bad RSI Incorrectly. cramped. are unable to use their hands Working in a ramped Use a wrist rest. at all. workspace RSI is caused by doing the same small movements over and over again across a long period of time. For example, clicking a mouse button repeatedly (b) Back and Neck Problems Working in a cramped Take regular breaks to stretch your body. Back ache and neck ache can workspace. Use adjustable chairs so you can sit in a cause great pain and affect Not sitting upright in your chair. position suitable for your height. the quality of your life. Incorrect positioning of the Sit upright against the back rest. Both back and neck ache can computer screen. Tilt the computer screen so it is set just be caused by sitting below your incorrectly eye level. and using poor quality chairs Keep your feet flat on the floor. without back rests. This is called poor posture (c) Eye strain and headache ★ Staring at a computer ★ Use LCD screens rather Staring at a computer screen Screen for a long time. than CRT as they have for too long can strain your★ Working in a room with less flicker. eyes and cause headaches. bad lighting. ★ Use an anti-glare screen. Eye strain can cause your ★ Using a computer screen with★ Ensure that room lighting is good with Vision to blur. glare or flickers. no direct light causing glare on the Common causes of eye★ Dirt on the screen. screen. strain are screen flicker and ★ Keep the screen clean of dirt. having Direct light causing screen glare. Safety Issues There are a number of safety issues that can arise from using ICT devices. Some of these safety issues include: ∙Electrocution ∙Tripping over wires ∙Heavy equipment falling on you Chapter 4: COMPUTER WORD PROCESSING The history of written communication is very long. It goes all the way back to ancient Egypt, when people painstakingly chiseled the hard surfaces of stones to record the details of their commerce and the facts of their daily lives. We have seen an expression dating back to those times: “carved in stone” means that something is set, recorded, meant to last through the ages. Indeed Egyptians’ toil left us a clear picture of their lives but at a tremendous cost. In order to minimize and eliminate such hassles, several electronic devices and services by computerized systems and electronic typewriters have been developed for more efficiency and effectiveness in document production. Computerized word processing systems have got easy to use document edit and format features capable of making documents look more and more business like if well mastered. Some people and organizations earn their living by producing documents for others using computerized systems. Word processing has continued to evolve since the days of the first word processors. Today, there are hundreds of word processing software programs available, for a wide variety of purposes. Objective At the end of this topic, learners should be able to demonstrate basic knowledge and skills in document production. Pre requisite A learner should have prior knowledge concerning switching on the computer. A clear picture of how to boot a computer can help learners understand this topic well. Definitions: Word processing: This is the process of creating text based documents such as reports, letters, brochures, memos, mailing labels and newsletters. Word processor This is software used to create, edit, format, save and print text based documents. Examples of word processing software MS Word, Abi-Word, openoffice.org writer, La Tex editor and LyX. 2. FEATURES OF A WORD PROCESSOR; Editing:It is the process of making changes to the existing content of a document Formatting:It is the process of making changes to the appearance of a document. Saving: It is the process of transferring data / information from memory to a storage medium such as a floppy disk or a hard disk. Undo: Is the operation that allows actions that have been performed to be reversed such that if some text was accidentally deleted, then the action can be undone. Printing: Is the process of sending a file to a printer to generate output on medium such as paper. Inserting:Is the process of adding text or graphics to a document. Deleting:Is the process of erasing text or graphics from a document. Cutting:Is the process of removing the original text from its original position onto the clipboard Copying:Is the process of duplicating and storing text on the clipboard. NB;when text is cut, the original text is removed from its place while when text is copied, the original text remains in its original place. Pasting:Is the process of removing the text from the clipboard into the document. Word wrap: This is an MS word feature which allows a user to type continually without pressing the enter key at the end of each line. Find and Search: This feature allows the user to locate all occurrences of a particular character, word or phrase. Replace: It allows a user to substitute existing characters, words or phrases with new ones Spelling checker: It allows a user to check the spelling of a whole document at one time or check and correct the spelling or individual words as they are typed (Autocorrect). Grammar checker: It helps to report grammatical errors and suggests way to correct them. Character map: Is a group of symbols not found on the keyboard. Thesaurus: Helps to suggest alternative words with the same meaning (synonyms) for use in the document. Mail Merge: Create form letters, mailing labels, and envelopes. Used when similar letters have to be sent to several people. The names and addresses of each person can be merged with one single standard document and then printed out. Automatic page numbering: Numbers the pages automatically in a document Tables: This is an MS Word feature which allows a user to organize information into rows and columns. Multi columns:Arranges text in two or more columns that look similar to a newspaper or magazine. Macros: Allows a user to record or save frequently used keystrokes and instructions which can be executed later by running the corresponding macros. Foot notes and endnotes: You might use footnotes for detailed comments and endnotes for citation of sources. Headers; A header is the area in the top margin of each page where text can be entered. Footers; Footer is the area ion the bottom margin off each page where text can be entered. Advantages of word processing software over the ordinary typewriter. ❖ Easy and fast to make changes to the document. ❖ Has many features to create documents that look professional and visual appealing. ❖ Documents can be previewed before being printed. ❖ Documents can be saved for future reference and editing. ❖ It is convenient in making letters and mailing labels. ❖ It is possible to move blocks of text to different positions in the same document. ❖ One can insert and delete lines of text. ❖ The layout of the document can be altered before printing. ❖ All typing mistakes can be corrected. ❖ The document can be printed many times. ❖ Text can be added to a document without having to type it again. ❖ It can be used to mail documents unlike the ordinary typewriter. ❖ It canny create graphics such as shapes, frames etc. ❖ It can be used to create web pages. ❖ One can easily count the words in the document using the word count feature. ❖ It allows automatic insertion of footnotes and endnotes. Chapter 5: COMPUTER HARDWARE The information you need from a computer system to make decisions is produced by data processing activity. Software control data processing and dictates how and where data is stored and output. However, none of this activity can occur without hardware. In this topic we shall cover the computer hardware basics for input, processing, storage, and output. Objectives You should be able to; Describe the functions of the four basic hardware components of a computer system, identify the most widely used input devices, distinguish and between RAM and ROM Pre requisites You should have the basic knowledge of introduction to computing. Definition The term computer hardware refers to the physical components of the computer. Hardware means the components of a computer which can be simply touched. Hardware is categorized as input devices, output devices, storage and processing devices. 1. INPUT DEVICES An input device is any hardware component that can be used to enter data and instructions into a computer. Examples of Input Devices - Keyboard - Joystick - Bar code reader - Mouse - Microphone - Voice recognition device - Scanner - Webcam - Touch pad - Light pen - Optical mark recognition reader Keyboard Keyboard. An input device containing numerous keys that can be used to input letters, numbers, and other symbols. Most computers today are designed to be used with a keyboard—a device used to enter characters at the location on the screen marked by the insertion point or cursor (typically a blinking vertical line). Keyboards can be built into a device, attached by inserting the keyboard’s wired cable or wireless receiver into a USB port, or connected via a wireless networking connection Advantages of using a mouse -A mouse is user friendly for computer beginners. -A mouse is easy and convenient to use with a graphical user interface. -Using a mouse to select items or move to a particular position on the screen is faster than using a keyboard. -A mouse can be operated by one hand. Disadvantages of using a mouse. -It is not easy and convenient to input text with a mouse. -Issuing commands with a mouse is slower than by using a keyboard. -It needs some practice in order to control a mouse properly. -A mouse is not accurate enough for drawings that require high precision. -A mouse usually requires a flat surface to operate. -A mouse needs more desk space to operate when compared with a trackball or a touchpad. Problems that affect the proper functioning of a mouse. ➢ Dirt disrupts motion of ball. ➢ Nature of the roll surface. Ways through which mouse can be protected from the above problems -Cleaning the ball and rollers regularly. -Providing the correct roll surface or a mouse pad. -A void mouse falling or hanging on the chord by tying twists on both the mouse and keyboard cables 3. Track ball This is another pointing device that functions like a mouse. a track ball has a movable ball on top of stationary device that is rotated with finger or palm of a hand. a track ball is in built into the key board especially on some portable devices like laptop, phones e.t.c . 4. Touch pad A touch pad is a flat rectangular device that has weak electric fields to sense the touch as the users moves the finger tips. It used to control the pointer with a finger. The cursor follows the movement of the finger on the pad. You can click by tapping the pad surface. 5. Joystick This is a pointing device that consists of a vertical handle which looks like a gear shift lever mounted on a base with two buttons. It mainly used in video games in some computer aided design system and in accomplished robot system. 6. Light pen This is a pointing device that can detect the presence of light. These are used in high technological designs. They have a beam of light that is radiated into different parts of a specialized screen to input data. These beams of light are very small and sharp and therefore much précised. They are used in the designing of integrated circuits (ics), also used by health care professionals e.g. doctors and dentists work. 7. Touch screens Touch screen is an electronic visual display that can detect the presence and location of a touch within the display area. The term generally refers to touch or contact to the display of the device by a finger or hand. Touch screens can also sense other passive objects, such as a pen. Areas where touch screens are used ★ Touch screens are often used for information kiosks located in department. ★ Touch screens are also used for ATM machines to allow easy access of bank accounts. ★ Touch screens are also used in some places like stores, hotels, air ports, museums. Advantages of touch screen ✓ No extra peripherals are needed except the monitor. ✓ touch screen allows easy access commands, which are usually identified by words or symbols on the screen 8. Digitizer: This looks like the mouse except that it has a glass with a cross hair in the middle. The cross hair acts as a guide during the input of data. It is used in conjunction with a digitizing tablet. It is mainly used in cartography (map making and architectural drawing to accurately trace the outlines on a map. Scanning input devices These are hard ware that capture images of hard copy and converts them into a digital form for a computer processing. Examples of scanning input devices 10. Optical scanners This is a device that can read text or illustrations printed on paper and translate the information into a form the computer can use (digital form). It uses a laser beam and reflected light to translate hard copy image of text, drawings, and photos in to the computer in a digital form. The image can then be processed into the computer, displayed on the monitor and then stored on the storage devices like a flash disk. 5. 6. barcode reader Barcodes are vertical strips or line marks or striped marks printed on retail products and other items. Barcode reader is a photo electric scanner that translates the barcode symbols into digital form of which the corresponding information about the items is relived from store computer and printed out for a customer as a receipt. 7. Optical mark recognition reader (OMR) This is scanning technology that reads pencil marks and converts them to the computer. OMR readers are often used for making multi choices, answer sheets; capturing data from questionnaires, interviewed environment forms, mark sheets etc 8. CCTV (closed-circuit television) camera cctv cameras can produce images or recordings for surveillance purposes, and can be either video cameras, or digital stills cameras. marie van brittan brown was the inventor of the cctv camera. 9. Biometric scanners Biometrics consists of methods for uniquely recognizing humans based upon one or more intrinsic physical or behavioral traits. 2. OUTPUT DEVICES An output device is any hardware component that can display information to the user Or An output device is any hardware component that converts in put into a form that is intelligible to end users. This can either be in visual, graphics, or audio Examples of output devices ✍ Monitor ✍ Projector ✍ Plotter ✍ Speaker ✍ Printer ✍ Facsimile machine Output is data that has been processed into information a usable form, called information Storage devices act as input devices when they read and act as output devices when they write. In details output devices include the following; 1. Display device (monitors & projectors) i) Monitors These are devices which are used to display the computer output. Information on a display device is called a “softcopy” because it exists electronically. There are two types/kinds of monitors which include; ☞ monochrome (one color) ☞ color monitors Advantages of using colored monitors ✍ They make the screen display more attractive. ✍ They can be used to highlight error messages and menu options. Disadvantages of using colored monitors. ★Screens with a lot of colors take longer time to process. ★More money is required for colored display. Categorizes of monitors (display devices) ☑ CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors. ☑ LCD (liquid crystal display) monitors. ☑ plasma CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors. These works like a standard television, a CRT monitor is made of small picture elements called pixels. It grows at varying intensities to produce colored images. Advantages of CRT monitors ☞They can produce fast and reach color sights. ☞They can be viewed from a very wide angle. ☞They are cheaper than LCD monitors. Disadvantages of CRT monitors ✓ They emit more emr (electromagnetic radiations) than LCD monitors. ✓ They consume more electricity than LCD monitors. ✓ They occupy more space. LCD (liquid crystal display) LCD of flat panel screen use liquid and crystals to create images on the screen normally used on portable computers such as laptops, digital watches, calculators, phones e.t.c Advantage of LCD monitors ★They consume less power. ★They occupy less space. ★The radiation emitted is negligible. ★They are portable Disadvantages of LCD monitors ❖usually more expensive ❖can only be viewed from a narrow angle Printers A printer is an output device that produces texts and graphics on a physical medium such as paper. The printer information output on a physical medium is called hardcopy which is more permanent than screen display (softcopy) The classification of printers Printers are classified into two: +Impact printers +Non-impact printers. Impact printers These are printers that produce a hard copy output with the print mechanism/heads physically touching the print media. Print media include; ★ papers ★ transparences ★ cloth Examples of impact printers include; ✍ dot matrix printers ✍ daisy wheel printers ✍ Ball printer printers. Non-impact printer Non-impact printers are those printers that produce a hard copy output without the print head touching the printing surface. They use techniques such as ink spray, heat, xerography or laser to form printed copy. Examples of non-impact printer are; ★ Laser printer. ★ Inkjet printer. ★ Thermal printer. Plotter A plotter is a sophisticated printer used to produce high quality drawings that can be quite large (e.g. width up to 60 inches) Advantages of plotter ✍ information produced is permanent Disadvantages of plotter ★The time to get the print output is slow when compared with display devices ★Paper is wastage for obtaining out put ★They are generally nosier than displays devices Common factors consider while buying a printer ✍ page per minute print out put ✍ memory of at least two mega bytes ✍ price of the cartridge or toner ✍ a availability of the toner or cartridge ✍ purpose for which the printer is going to be put to use ✍ Printer drivers. Most printer drivers are installed on a computer in order to enable the printer to communicate with a computer and can carry out printing. Facsimile \fax machine This is advice that transmits and receives documents on telephone lines. Documents sent or received via fax machines are known as faxes. A fax modem is a communication device that allows a user to store received electronic documents as fax. Multifunction machine This is a single piece of equipment that provides the functioning of printer, screen, photo coping machines and fax mail Advantages a multi functioning device takes up less space than having a separate printer, scanner , copy machines and fax machines it is also significantly less expensive than purchasing each device separately Disadvantages ★ if a malfunctioning machine breaks down it loses all its functions Terminal A terminal is a device with a monitor and key board. The term terminal can also refer to any device that sends and receives computer data. Kinds of terminals include;- 1. Dumb terminal It has no processing power and cannot act as a standalone computer and must be connected to server to operate. 2. Intelligent terminal It has memory and processor so it can perform some functions independent of host computer. 3. COMPUTER STORAGE DEVICES Storage refers to a media on which data, instructions and information are kept. Storage devices These are physical materials on which a computer keeps data, instructions for later retrieval or for future references. Units of data Bit Bit refers to binary digit which is the basic unit of data. bit is represented by either 0s or 1s Byte one consists of 8 bits e.g. 011100010 Word one ward consists of a least 16 bits or 2 bytes Types of storage devices There are two types of storage devices namely primary storage devices, secondary storage devices Primary storage devices Primary storage is the main memory which is also referred to as the internal memory. This is a type of memory/ storage on a computer which can immediately be accessed by the computer’s CPU. The primary memory is divided into two namely; ★ RAM (random access memory) ★ ROM (read only memory) RAM (random access memory) Ram is the working area during the processing of data. The data and instructions are temporally held in ram during processing and after processing and it disappears when you turn off the power of computer hence ram is volatile. ROM(read only memory) It is a set of chips that contains instructions to help a computer prepare for processing tasks. The instructions in ROM are permanent and you have no way to change them, short of removing the ROM chips from the main board and replacing them with another set. You may wonder why the computer includes chips with programs permanently stored in them. Why not use more versatile RAM? The answer is that when you turn on your computer, the processor receives electric power and is ready to begin executing instructions. But because the computer was just turn on, RAM is empty-it doesn’t contain any instructions for the processor to execute. Even though programs are available on the hard disk, the processor doesn’t have any instructions to tell it how to access the hard drive and load a program. ROM chips It is also called firm ware which is a term used for software permanently stored on a chip. ROM chips in microcomputer contain instructions used to transfer information between keyboard, screen, printer, and other peripherals and the processor. These instructions are called ROM BIOS (basic input output system) There are three rom chips used in a special situation PROM – programmable read only memory. It is a blank chip on which the user/buyer can write a program on it with special equipment once is written it can’t be modified or changed. EPROM – erasable programmable read only memory This is a chip or a content that can be written on it and erased once using special equipment. EEPROM – electronically erasable programmable read only memory These are rom chips that are designed to be modified by the user for more than one time. DifferencesbetweenRAM & ROM RAM (Random Access Memory) ROM (Read Only Memory) -It is volatile -It is non-volatile -It is temporary -It is permanent -It is read and write -It is read only -It can be increased or changed or altered -It is normally not increased or changed or altered Note: Volatile means that it is not permanent and can be changed. It needs power supply to keep the data stored in it Reading: This refers to the process of accessing information from a secondary storage media / device. OrIt is the process of transferring information from storage media to memory (ram) Writing: this is the process of transferring information / data to secondary storage Secondary storage. This is also known as auxiliary storage which is designed to retain data and instructions and programs in a relatively permanent form. There are two main types of secondary storage. ✍ Magnetic storage devices. ✍ Optical storage devices. Examples of storage devices -Floppy disks. -Flash memory. -iPod. -Hard disks. -Punched cards. -Compact disks. -Magnetic tapes. -Zip disk. NOTE: The performance of the hard disk depends on the following factors. 1. Seek Time: Seek time is the time required to move a read/write head to a particular cylinder or track. 2. Rotational Latency or delay: This is the time required to reach the head at the beginning of an appropriate sector. Once a cylinder or track is selected, the disk controller waits until the read/write head reach the appropriate sector. 3. Transfer Time: Transfer time is the time required to transfer data, read data from the disk into main memory. Alternatively, it is the time required to write data on the disk from main memory. 4. Access Time: Access time is the sum of seek time, rotational delay and transfer time. Mathematically it is written as; Access time = Average Seek Time + Rotational Latency + Transfer Time Once the read/write head is in position, the read or write operation is performed. Typically, a disk can transfer several megabytes of data per second. Therefore, the value of seek time and rotational latency is in milliseconds. NOTE:Characteristics of secondary memory (storage). ✍ These are magnetic and optical memories. ✍ It is also known as back up memory. ✍ It is non-volatile memory. ✍ Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off. ✍ It is used for storage of data in the computer. ✍ Computer may run without secondary memory. ✍ Slower than primary memories. Different types of secondary storage devices there exists different types of secondary storage devices, each of them suitable for a different purpose. They mainly differ in the following aspects: ☞ Technology used to store data ☞ Capacity of data they can hold ☞ Size of storage device ☞ Portability of storage device and ☞ Access time to stored data. Currently the most common forms of secondary storage device are: Solid state. Solid state storage devices have got no moving parts and data is stored and retrieved from them in a similar manner as it would be from computer memory. Examples of solid state devices include; memory cards, flash disks Optical Disks Optical Medium: Optical medium is a non-volatile storage media that consists of a flat, round, portable disc made of metal and plastic that is written and read by a laser. Magnetic Tapes. Magnetic Medium: Magnetic Medium is a non-volatile storage medium. Magnetic disks use magnetic particles to store items such as data, instructions and information in disk's surface. 3. PROCESSOR COMPONENTS A processor consists of three main parts which include the following; -Control unit (cu) -Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) -Registers Parts of the CPU Control unit This is a part of the CPU that tells the rest of the computer system how to carry out programs instruction, i.e. directs the movement of electronic signals between ram and input and output devices. Arithmetic logic unit It performs arithmetic operations e.g. addition, subtraction, multiplication and division and logic operation Register/ memory unit. Registers are temporary high speed storage area that holds data and instructions that are being used shortly by the computer. System clock. The system clock controls how fast all operations within a computer take place or how are performed and the operation Speeds are measured in MHz. The speed at which a processor executes instructions is called clock speed or clock rate. Each tick is called clock cycle and a CPU requires a fixed number of clock cycles to execute each instructions. For every instruction, the control unit repeats a set of four basic operations called the machine cycle or instruction cycle. Most processors used by personal computers today support pipelining. Pipelining: This is when the CPU begins executing a second instruction before first instruction is completed, and the result is faster processing. Most new processors can pipeline up to four instructions. Superscalar CPUs have two or more pipelines that can process instructions simultaneously. The basic operations of the machine cycle are: i) Fetching: It is the process of obtaining a program instruction or data item from memory. The time taken to fetch is called instruction time. ii) Decoding is the process of translating the instruction into commands that the computer understands. iii) Executing is the process of carrying out the commands. iv) Storage. Refers to keeping of information after processing. Machine cycle / clock cycle / instruction cycle. There are basically four operations of the CPU that comprises a machine cycle or clock cycle. When the CPU begins fetching second instruction before completing machine cycle for first instruction, this processing is called pipelining. Pipelining Results in faster processing. CHAPTER 9: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING. Communication means have been developed on top of the traditional manual and mechanical modes of communication for individuals and organizations to communicate more effectively. A person can now communicate through contemporary media like mobile phones and over the internet. It is therefore important that you are introduced to basic data communication and ICT networking infrastructure and services in order to come to terms with contemporary data communication facilities. In this Chapter you shall be introduced to different modes of data transmission, networking and the different kinds of networks that exist in the technological world. Objectives You should develop basic skills, knowledge and expertise in the use of contemporary communication facilities like computers, mobile telephones, Internet among others Definition Data communication:- This is the process of transmitting data signal from one point to another through a network. Components of data communication system A Communication system has following components: 1. Message: It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of text, numbers, pictures, sound or video or any combination of these. 2. Sender: It is the device/computer that generates and sends that message. 3. Receiver: It is the device or computer that receives the message. The location of receiver computer is generally different from the sender computer. The distance between sender and receiver depends upon the types of network used in between. 4. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message is carried from sender to the receiver. The medium can be wired like twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable or wireless like laser, radio waves, and microwaves. 5. Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication between the devices. Both sender and receiver follow same protocols to communicate with each other. Characteristics of data transmission All forms of data communications have several characteristics; ☞ Signal type- analog versus digital ☞ Transmission mode- asynchronous versus synchronous. ☞ Direction of flow- simplex, half duplex, full duplex. Types of data signals Data signal is an electromagnetic energy which represents the data flow. Data transmitted can be voice, text, video, sound, image or a combination of these (Multimedia). Traditional telephone lines transmit analog signals. Computers transmit digital signals. 1. Analog signal: When we speak, we transmit continuous sound waves, or analog signals. An analog signal is a single continuously varying wave. An analog signal has two characteristics; frequency which expresses the number of times the wave fluctuates and amplitude which means the size of voltage or magnitude of wave form. 2. Digital signal: A digital signal consists of a series of on-off electrical pulses –bursts rather than waves. It can also refer to a discontinuous electrical signal, expressed as discrete burst in on/off electrical pulses. Modulation -Demodulation Data cannot be transmitted from one computer to another computer over a traditional telephone line as a digital signal. Rather, the sending computer’s digital data must first be converted to analog form. After the analog signal is sent through the phone line, the receiving computer must convert it back to digital form. This converting/ reconverting is called modulation/demodulation. Modulation. This is when a digital signal is converted into an analog signal so that data can be sent over phone lines. Demodulation. This is when an analog signal is converted back to digital form so that the transmitted data can be processed by the receiving computer. The device for translating digital signals into analog signals and back is called a modem. One modem must be attached to the sending computer, another to the receiving computer. Direction of transmission Another characteristic of data transmission is direction. Data is sent in one direction, or it is sent in two directions in two types of ways. There are three types of data transmission, namely; 1. Simplex transmission In simplex transmission, data travels only in one direction. An example is a traditional radio or television broadcast. The viewer or listener cannot communicate back through the radio or television receiver back to the broadcaster, but it’s only the station which communicates to the user. Another example is data transmission used in museum rooms. Environmental devices send information about temperature and humidity to a computer, which adjusts environmental settings automatically. However, the computer does not send data back to these devices. 2. Half-duplex transmission In half duplex transmission, data communication is two-way, but data travels in only one direction at a time. A sender must first send the data before the recipient can reply. An example, if two police officers are communicating using a ‘walkie talkie’ radio, one has to say “over” to mark the end of every statement in order for other to respond. 3. Full duplex transmission In full duplex transmission, data is transmitted in both directions simultaneously. An example of full duplex can be found in computers that are sending and receiving data on a network. Transmission modes: Asynchronous and synchronous Asynchronous transmission In asynchronous transmission data is sent one byte (or character) at a time. Each byte is preceded by a “start” bit and a “stop” bit. In effect, each byte is wrapped in its own “electronic envelope”. Asynchronous transmission is expensive and so is widely used with microcomputers. However, it is also relatively slow. Synchronous transmission In synchronous transmission, blocks or “packets” of several bytes at a time are transmitted without “start” or “stop” bits. Header and end bits are inserted at the beginnings and ends of blocks. Synchronous transmission is used by large computers to transmit great volumes of data at high speeds. Complex and expensive timing devices must be used to keep transmission activities synchronized. Synchronous transmission is rarely used between microcomputers. Transmission speed: Bandwidth The transmission speed of a channel is referred to as its bandwidth. Bandwidth: -This is the maximum amount of data that a transmission medium (network cables) can carry at given period of time per second OR this is the measure of how much information/bits that can flow from one place to another per second. Narrowband describes a channel in which the bandwidth of the message does not significantly exceed the channel's coherence bandwidth. Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measurement of the range of frequencies over which the channel can be considered "flat", or in other words the approximate maximum bandwidth. A baud is a data transmission speed of a bit per second over telephone line using a modem. ISDN line ISDN stands for Integrated Services Digital Network, which is hardware and software that allow voice, video and data Transmission digital signals over ordinary telephone copper wire. It is five time faster than phone modem. It also supports two phone lines so that you can talk on the phone on one line while connection on the internet on the other. Many telephone companies provide ISDN line which perhaps 2 or 3 times costly compared to a regular monthly phone service. Advantages of ISDN over Modems include:- -ISDN provides significant greater speed for data transmission; they are 5 times faster than a modem. -ISDN allows multiple devices to a signal. A single ISDN line support two phone calls and two phone numbers and a third data link while a Modem support one phone line. -ISDN provides crystal clear digital voice even if the other party is still on an analog line, you will hear a clear call which is not the case with a Modem -ISDN is an affordable alternative to leased lines in terms of cost. -ISDN provides a continuous connections while a Modem provides a periodic dial-up service Broadband is used to refer to data transmission using ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) ADSL is a means of transmitting digital signals using telephone lines and can be faster than narrowband. Coaxial cables, fiber optic cables, microwaves and satellites are commonly used to provide broadband. ADSL is considered to be the successor to ISDN Base band signal: - is a digital signal that is generated and applied to the transmission medium directly without modulation. Attenuation: - This is the decrease in magnitude and energy as a signal progressively moves along a transmission medium. Or refer to as signal loss in strength as it is transmitted along the media. If the signal is not boosted (amplified), it will be lost along the way and may never reach the destination. Attenuation or signal loss is corrected by placing a signal amplifier called a Repeater. Packet is a maximum-fixed length block of data for transmission. A packet also contains instructions about its destination. Packet switching: - Packet Switching is a technique for dividing electronic messages into packets for transmission over a wide area network to their destination through the most expedient routes. The benefits of packet switching are; ★ It can handle high volume, traffic in a network. It is used in large networks such Tele net. ★ It also allows more users to share a network. ★ Messages are sent over a long distance COMMUNICATIONS NETWORKS Information gains value if it can be shared through a computer network. A network is a collection of data communications hardware, computers, communications software, and communications channels connected so that users can share them. We describe networks according to three categories: ☞ Types- private and public ☞ Sizes-LAN, MAN,WAN, and international ☞ Configuration-star, bus, ring and token –ring Types of networks Networks are two types: private and public. Computer network A computer network is a collection of computers and other devices that are connected together to enable users to share hardware, software, and data, as well as to communicate electronically with each other. Computer networks exist in many sizes and types. For instance, home networks are commonly used to allow home computers to share a single printer and Internet connection, as well as to exchange files. Small office networks enable workers to access company records stored on a network server, communicate with other employees, share a high-speed printer, and access the Internet. School networks allow students and teachers to access the Internet and school resources, and large corporate networks often connect all of the offices or retail stores in the corporation, creating a network that spans several cities or states. Public wireless networks—such as those available at some coffeehouses, restaurants, public libraries, and parks—provide Internet access to individuals via their portable computers and mobile devices; mobile telephone networks provide Internet access and communications capabilities to smartphone users. Most computers today connect to a computer network. Private Network A private network is a network supporting the voice and data communications needs of a particular organization. Usually this is a business organization. Business organization with geographically separated facilities and a need to transmit large volumes of data or voice messages install their own private networks. The southern pacific railroad, for example, was one of the first such organizations. Towers in its microwave communications network can be seen along its major rail lines. Public Network A public network is a network providing subscribers with voice and data communications over a large geographical area. In such cases, subscribers pay a fee to use the network. Examples of public networks are AT & T, sprint, and MCI, which are called common carriers. Some public networks offer teleconferencing and multimedia conferencing services: Teleconferencing:This is the electronic linking of several people who participate in a conversation and share displayed data at the same time. Multimedia conferencing: multimedia conferences allow users not only to see and hear one another but to work on text and graphics projects at the same time. The term Transmission media refers to the physical or non-physical link between two or more computers in which a signal can be made to flow from source to destination. Size of networks Computer networks can be classified using several aspects but the most common classification is according to size. The three most common are: 1. Local Area Network 2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) 3. Wide Area Network (WAN) Other related types include 4. Intranet. 5. Extranet 6. Internet. Local Area Network (LAN) This is a computer network that covers (spans) a relatively small geographical area, like one building or a group of buildings close together such as school campus. Metropolitan Area networks (MAN) This is a network that covers a metropolitan area like a town, city or suburb. The MAN size typically covers a radius of between 5 to 50 km. Wide Area Network (WAN) This is a network that covers a large geographical area such as a country, a continent or the whole world. WAN consists of many local area networks connected together to form one large network such as Telnet, Internet. Differences between lans and wans ★ A WAN covers a wide geographical area than a LAN users are within confined geographical area ★ WANs unlike LANs usually send data over telecommunication links. ★ In the recent past, WANs often used larger computers as file servers well as LANs used typical file servers ★ WANs are often larger than LANs and have more terminals or computers liked to the network. ★ A WAN can link two or more LANs using gate ways and bridges. A gate way or bridge is a device that is used to connect two separate networks e.g. two LANs in separate buildings. Intranet: An intranet is a local version of internet within a company or organization. It offers same features as global internet (www, TCP/IP), but in a localized environment such as factory site or university campus whereby the authorized users are employee of the company. Extranets: If a company has an intranet and allows limited access to it by people outside the company, then the intranet is referred to as an extranet. Purposes (Advantages) of networking The advantages of setting up computer networks include: Resource sharing A resource in the network environment means any component that can be attached to the network for access by users. This includes - Hardware sharing: sharing of expensive peripheral devices such as laser printers, scanner, and fax machine among many users of company. - Program and data sharing: in most organizations, people use the same software and need access to the same information, which could expensive to a copy of software for each employee. - Access of same data on a shared storage device hence updates are easily made accurately, - Network links all employees using groupware hence work together online on shared project. Better communication - Remote communication refers to transmission of data signals between two communication devices at different geographical locations, through remote communication people can share ideas and gives freedom to network users who can work from home just if they were in their offices(Telecommuting) - One of the greatest features of networks is electronic mails which cheap, fast and convenient means of communication. Distributed processing facilities Distributed processing refers to run the same program or databases on different networked computers. This mode of data processing has advantages on the network o In case of failure of one of the computer, does not affect the operation of the other terminals o Processing load is shared equally hence no time wastage. Cost effectiveness Networks are cost effective in organization. Although the initial purchase and laying down of components may be expensive. Access to databases Networks also enable users to tap into many databases whether private or public databases of on line services, hence making research simple. Security of information Today data baked up on a networked storage device shared by users to avoid data loss. Computer network is reliable because data is transferred with minimum error from source to destination Limitation (demerits) of networking Moral and cultural effect - The internet has chat-rooms and messaging services that may enable teenagers to meet peers and adults on the net whom may have bad intentions. - Access to pornographic and other bad material has made the fight against social problems, bad sexual behavior and drug abuse more complicated. Over reliance on the network - Some organization over- relies on the network and incase of the server breaks down the entire organization activities are bought to a halt. High initial cost - The initial cost of buying network hardware and software and installing the network is high. Risks and threat - It is an increased risk of data corruption. Since many users will be using the system, there is a greater chance of data being corrupted (damaged). - There is greater risk from viruses. Because they are easily spread between computers are part of a network. - Organization finds it very challenging to guard information system from constant threats of illegal access. Components that required for networking A computer network is made up of several standard components which are classified into three categories namely: ★ Data communication media ★ Networking software ★ Communication devices ★ Work station or computers. Data communications media A data communication medium is a pathway used to for carrying data/information from one point to another, which is from source to destination. Various devices on the network are linked together by means of communications media (channels / paths). Data communication media can be divided into two namely:- 1. Communication Using Cables. 2. Wireless Communication. Communication using cables This is a data communication media where data signals are transmitted through physical pathway. There are several types of network cables but the most common ones are:- -Twisted pair cables -Coaxial cable -Fiber Optic Cables Twisted pair cable This consists of two insulated copper wires twisted in a spiral pattern to minimize electromagnetic fields around the two wires as transmit data also called crosstalk. It is the cheapest, most common media for both analog and digital signals. These cables are mostly used to data signals form transmission. There are two types of twisted pair cables are: a) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) b) Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) The difference between the UTP and STP is that STP has a brand shield which is wrapped around the wires to protect them from electromagnetic interferences called ‘Electric Noise’. Advantages of twisted pair cable ✓ Installation equipment is cheap and readily available. and ✓ It is cheap and available because of mass production for telephone use. ✓ It is easier and convenient to install. Disadvantages of Twisted Pair Cable ★ It suffers high attenuation ★ It is sensitive to electromagnetic interference eavesdropping. ★ It has low speed on data transmission compared to other cables. Coaxial Cable Coaxial cable has a central inner copper core and an outer sheath of copper mesh that are insulated from each other. It resembles a cable which connects a TV to an antenna. Coaxial cable is more expensive than twisted pair and is used to transmit voice, video and data. Advantages of coaxial cable ➢ It is very stable even when under high loads. ➢ It has a large bandwidth (up to 1Gbps) compared twisted pair. ➢ It is more resistant to radio and electromagnetic interference than the twisted pair cable. ➢ It can carry voice, data and video signal simultaneously. Disadvantages of coaxial cable ✓ Thick coaxial cable is hard to work with. ✓ It is relatively expensive to buy and to install as compared to twisted pair. Fibre Optic Cable The fibre optic cable is made up of thin strands of glass that transmit data signal in a form a beam of light. The fibre optic cable is made of core, cladding and the outside jacket Core: Thisis the central part of the cable and it is made up of hollow transport glass or plastic. Cladding: - This is a protective surrounding of the core. It is a cut covering layer of the core. Jacket: it is outer covering of the cable. Advantages of Fibre Optic Cable -It is immune to electromagnetic interference and eavesdropping. -It is fast and supports high bandwidth. -It can be used for long distances because it suffers low attenuation. -It can be used in hazardous places (highly flammable) because it doesn’t generate electrical signal. -It smaller and lighter than copper cable. Disadvantages of Fibre Optics Cables -Connectivity devices and the media are expensive. -Installation is difficult because the cable must be carefully handled. -It is relatively complex to configure. -A broken cable is difficult and expensive to repair. Wireless communication This is type of communication medium that is used to transport data signals from one point to another without physical connections. Examples of Wireless Connections -Micro ware systems... -Satellite transmission. -Antenna. -Radio communication -Infrared transmitter -Bluetoo Advantages of a Wireless connection -Wireless medium is flexible in operation as compared to cable that is devices can be moved around without losing access to the network. -Wireless networks can span a large geographical area. -Wireless communication can take place via satellite even in a very remote area connection is possible. Disadvantages of a Wireless connection -Initial cost of setting up wireless communication is very high. -It is relatively difficult to establish or configure. Communication devices These are devices used as interfaces or junctions between terminal devices. Terminal equipment are devices at both ends of the communication link such as a computer. Network Interface Card (NIC) Network Adaptor or NIC is a circuit board that creates a physical link between the computers through transmission media. A network interface card is plugged into an empty expansion slot on the motherboard. However, most of the computers today come with onboard network interface controller. Hubs A hub is a hardware that connects a large number of computers and broadcasts received data to all the computers or other devices attached on the same network. That is, a hub consists of multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets. Bridges Bridges connect one LAN to another. A bridge can forward data from one LAN to another, and can filter out data not intended for the destination LAN. The purpose of using a bridge therefore is to: - Extend the length and number of stations - Reduce overall traffic flow by allowing broadcasts only in destination LAN. Switches A network switch can perform similar functions to hubs and bridges. Unlike hub, a switch forwards a packet directly to the address of network device it is intended for without broadcasting. Repeaters A repeater receives signal from one segment of network, cleans it to remove any distortion, boosts or amplifies it to another segment of LAN. The repeater enables the network to eliminate attenuation problems. Router The router interconnects different networks and directs the transfer of data packets from source to destination. Each network has a unique identifier or address called the network address or IP address. Gateways A gateway is any device that can be configured to provide access to wide Area Network (WAN) or internet. One of the devices is router. However a gateway may not be necessarily a router, it may be a computer configured to provide access to the internet. Connector: The RJ45 are attached to the terminals of the twisted pair cables. Network software It is communication software that manages the transmission of data between computers and other devices attached on the network. Network software can be classified in two main groups namely: - 1. Network Operating system (NOS). 2. Network Protocol Network Operating System (NOS) These are operating systems designed to manage the network, computers ability to respond to services request. Examples include Windows NT, XP, Vista, Window Server 2003, Novel Netware, Unix, and Linux. Functions of NOS -It provides access to network resource e.g. printer and all folders. -It enables nodes on the network to communicate with each other more efficiently. -It supports inter-process communication i.e. enables the various processes of the network to communicate with one another. -It responds to request from application programs running on the network. -It supports network services like network card drivers and protocols -It used to implement security features. -It monitors the operation of the network. It is possible for the network administrator to tell who is using what and when. -It records and fixes errors in the networks communication. Network protocols Protocols are set of rules and procedures that govern communication between two different devices or computers on the network. For instance, protocol in your communication software, for example, will specify how receiving devices will acknowledge sending devices, a matter called hand shaking. Protocols will also specify the type of electrical connections used the timing of message exchange, error-detection techniques, and so on. Examples of protocols include: -Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP)- An internet protocol for transferring e-mail -File transfer protocol (FTP) - an internet protocol for file transfer. -Transmission control protocol (TCP)-This is responsible for delivery of sequenced data over the network. -NetBEUI- A local area network protocol that establishes communication sessions between computers. It is for Microsoft or IBM networks only. -Internet protocol (IP) and Netware protocols are for packet forwarding and routing. -Sequential Packet exchange (SPX), is a part of Novel internet work packet exchange for sequenced data. A server A server is a powerful computer that runs the network operating system and allows resources shared over the network. ORServers are dedicated computers on a network that perform one or more functions on behalf of the other computers. Work station A workstation is simply a personal computer connected to a LAN. The basic difference between a standalone computer and a workstation is that the latter has communications capabilities added to enable it to exchange information with other computers and devices on network (nodes). WLAN Wireless local area network (WLAN) differs from a cabled LAN in that computers use wireless link to connect to network instead of using a cable. The wireless connection is made possible by two set of components: wireless access points and wireless NICs Wireless LAN can be used in places that are difficult or impractical to use a cabled LAN for examples building with many rooms or a large hall. Hence it more flexible; users can be in any location in a building or outside still accessing the internet services. Types of LAN LAN can be divided into two categories based on how the computers communicate with one another: ● Client/Server network ● Peer-to-peer network Client –server LAN Client-server LAN consists of requesting computers called the clients and supplying devices that provide a service, called servers. The server controls communication and shared network resources. Server(s) will also have software that manages: e-mail and internet access. The server may be dedicated to provide a particular function or service requested by the client. A large LAN may have several servers to perform different tasks. For instance; a) File server: A file server is a computer that stores the programs and data files shared by users on LAN. It acts like a disk drive but in a remote location, whereby network users store files or retrieve files on the server as if they were using their own hard disk. b) Print servers: A print server coordinates the printing on the network. However, in small networks both file and print management functions are performed by the file server. c) Database server is a computer on a LAN that stores data. Unlike file server, it does not store program files. d) Other servers: All kinds of servers can be installed on the network e.g. the fax service i.e. connected to a shared facsimile machine. A LAN user can create a document to a fax server which in turn facilitates transmission of the document via the fax machine.. Peer-to-peer LAN It allows every computer to communicate directly with every other computer on the network without relying on the server. A user can access data from any computer on the network and vice versa. Peer-to-peer LANs are limited to about ten machines, after which the performance drops and the system becomes cumbersome. They are mainly in small businesses and departments. Name: …………………………………………………………… Index No. ………...... Signature: …………………...... S850/1 Subsidiary ICT Theory Paper 1 July / Aug. 2017 2½ hrs Uganda Advanced Certificate of Education MOCK EXAMINATIONS Subsidiary ICT Paper 1 Theory 2 hours 30 minutes INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES: Attemptall questions in this paper. This paper consists of 20equally weighted questions each carryingfive(5) questions. The maximum mark for the paper is 100%. Write in dark blue pen in the spaces provided on the question paper. Allanswers should be in the spaces provided. Noadditional materials (answer sheets) are provided. For Examiner’s use only 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Total Turn Over 1 (i) State this computer’s processor speed. (01mark) ……………………………………………………………………………………… (ii) State the name of the operating system supplied with this computer. (01mark) ……………………………………………………………………………………… (iii) What is the name of the processor chip installed on your computer? (01mark) ……………………………………………………………………………………… (b) State any two factors considered when choosing an operating system to install on personal computer. (02marks) ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 2. (a) Apart from the monitor, suggest two other OUTPUT hardware devices a student presenting club talk would need to enhance his talk to a big audience of students. (02marks) ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 2 (b) International companies may use video conferencing instead of face to face meeting. Describe the use of any three hardware devices in video conferencing. (03marks) ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 3. (a) The table below shows some examples of ICT’s,the profession/occupation line where they apply and how they are used in the stated profession. (05marks) ICT Profession/line of Application of ICT in that device occupation profession/occupation line a) Metal Used to detect those in possession of detectors harmful weapons at entrances of all public places. b) Medicine/Healthy c) ATM Banking industry machine d) E-commerce Allows buying and selling of products among sellers and consumers online. e) Data projector 4. (a) Explain two reasons why your teacher prefers students to store class work on a compact disk rather than the internal hard disk of the computer. (02marks) ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… (b) Student X has been authorized to copy 2GB video game. How many 1024MB flash disks will he need to accommodate the game?(03marks) ……………………………………………………………………………………… Turn Over 3 5. C:\users\admin\project Works\community progs\BusiaX\safewater.pdf. (a) How would you refer the underline phrase above?(01mark) ………………………………………………………………………………………… (b) List the last subfolder where the file in the underlined phrase is saved. (01mark) ………………………………………………………………………………………… (c) …………………………….. is the primary directory where the file is saved. (01mark) (d) Study the phrase above and suggest the file type………………………… (01mark) (e) Which account name can one log onto to access the file in the underlined phrase above. (01 mark) ……………………………………………………………………………………… 6. (a) A secretary has commanded a printer to print. Then she realizes that the printer is not responding. Suggest three reasons that could have caused the problem. (03marks) …………………………………………………………………………………….… ………………………………………………………………………………….…… ………………………………………………………………………………….…… (b) Explain the following modes of printing in power point presentation. (01mark@) (i) Handouts …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… (ii) Slide …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… 7. (a) Recommend at least one measure the school administration can employ in order to; (i) Protect the computer from electrical damages(01mark) …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… 4 (ii) Prevent loss and /or damage of data files (01mark) …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… (iii) Provide a favorable temperature to the computer users and hardware. (01mark) …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… (b) Suggest how the computer laboratory attendant can (i) Improve the speed and general performance of the computer.(01mark) ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… (ii) Reduce risk of threats like sniffers, spyware. (01mark) ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 8. (a) Define computer servicing. (01mark) ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… (b) Kasadha suspects his computer to be carrying a virus because it has reduced its functionality speed. He however chooses to continue using it without servicing it because it still functions any way. Give two possible risks that Kasadha is exposed to. (02marks) …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… Turn Over 5 (c) As an A’ level subsidiary ICT student, explain any two safe computer practices to guard against computer viruses. (02marks) …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… 9. (a) What is parallel processing ? (02marks) …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… (b) Complete each sentence below using one item from the list. (03marks) A bar code reader a dot matrix printer a graph plotter a graphics tablet An Inkjet printer Web browser A track ball a web cam a sensor (i) ………………………………... is used to input data to a microprocessor controlled weighing scale. (ii) …………………………………is an output devices used to produce large hardcopies of car designs (iii) …………………………… are examples of communication application software 10. (a) State two rolls of an operating system concerning management of software. (02marks) …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… (b) A part from entertainment, of what other importance is a screen saver? (02marks) …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… (c) Mention any oneutility software that you know apart from a screen saver. (01mark) ……………………………………………………………………………………… 6 11. (a) Explain what is meant by cloud computing. (02marks) ………………………………………………………………………………………. …………………………………………………………………………….………… (b) Outline any three benefits of cloud computing. (03marks) ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 12. (a) Tick TRUE or FALSE next to each of these statements.(05marks) TRUE FALSE File extension forpower point program is .doc DTP software is used to create magazine A working knowledge of HTML is helpful when creating web pages WORM is characterized by its self-propagating behavior A graphical User Interface uses icons to represent applications 13. (a) Differentiate between intranet and extranet? (02marks) ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… (b) Outline any two benefits of networking a set of computers for an organization. (02marks) …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… (c) List down any one example of network operating system. (01mark) ……………………………………………………………………………………… Turn Over 7 14. (a) Check by putting a tick in the cell where the communication media is best used. (05marks) Communication medium Wireless Physical network Bluetooth Coaxial Microwaves satellite infrared 15. (a) Riham company uses custom made applications while Nile breweries company uses off-shelf applications. Write down any three advantages Riham has over Nile breweries. (03marks) …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… (b) Differentiate between freeware from shareware. (02marks) …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… 16. (a) A part from an E-mail service, Mention two other services that that available on internet. (02marks) ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… (b) Outline two advantages to abusiness of using email to send messages to other businesses ratherthan using fax machines. (02marks) ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 8 (c) Identify any one Internet service provider in Uganda. (01mark) ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 17. (a) Explain the following as applied to cell referencing. (01mark @) (i) Relative cell referencing ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… (ii) Absolute cell referencing ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… (b) Write the file extension for MS Excel 2007. (01mark) ……………………………………………………………………………………… 18. (a) Explain the meaning of intellectual property rights. (02marks) …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… (b) Outline any three ways of protecting intellectual property rights of software developers. (03marks) ……………………………………………………………………………….……… ……………………………………………………………………………….……… ……………………………………………………………………………….……… ………………………………………………………………………………….…… 19. (a) Write the initial procedure of booting a computer system. (03marks) ………………………………………………………………………………….…… ………………………………………………………………………………….…… ………………………………………………………………………………….…… …………………………………………………………………………………….… Turn Over 9 (b) Under what circumstances may one be required to perform a warm boot? (02mark) …………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………….… 20. The manager of a bookshop uses database to store data about the books he sell. This is part of the database. Title of book Fiction Number in stock Next order due Full circle N 15 20/11/10 Sanditon Y 15 18/11/10 Vanity fair Y 20 16/12/10 The old curiosity shop Y 10 23/11/10 (a) Suggest an appropriate primary key for this table.(01mark) ……………………………………………………………………………………… (b) Using the data above,write down one item of data for each data type below. (04marks) (i) Boolean …………………………………………………..…………… (ii) Alphanumeric…………………………………………………………. (iii) Date…………………………………………………………..……….. (iv) Numeric……………………………………………………………….. END 10 11 S5 ICT2 TOPIC: SPREADSHEET Read about spreadsheet and answer the following questios (a) Describe a spreadsheet. (b) Give three examples of spreadsheet software. (c) State five features of spreadsheet software. (d) Give five uses of spreadsheet software. (e) State the advantages and dis advantages of electronic spreadsheet as compared to manual spreadsheet. (f) How do you - Insert a worksheet - Rename a worksheet - Delete a worksheet - Save a workbook with another name (g) Write the operators used in spreadsheet for - Addition - Subtraction - Multiplication - Division - Exponent (h) Describe the following errors. - #NULL! - #DIV/0! - #VALUE! - #REF! - #NAME? - #NUM! - #N/A (i) With examples, explain the following: - Relative referencing - Absolute referencing - Mixed referencing Scanned with CamScanner Scanned with CamScanner Scanned with CamScanner Scanned with CamScanner Scanned with CamScanner Scanned with CamScanner Scanned with CamScanner Scanned with CamScanner Scanned with CamScanner LITERATURE P310/2 CLASS: S5 1. From your reading of the play Oedipus the King, discuss the role of the gods. 2. Discuss the following characters in the play Oedipus the King. a. Oedipus b. Jocasta c. Teiresias d. Creon