Statement of Originality

I hereby certify that this study, which I now submit for the requirement of a Master’s degree in Language Studies, is completely my own work and has not been taken from the work of others unless such work has been cited and acknowledged by means of references.

Signed by: Ilyes SI MOHAMMED

Dedication

First and foremost, I am grateful to the Almighty God for his guidance and blessings without which we would not finish this work.

I wholeheartedly dedicate this work to my beloved mother and father who have been my main source of encouragement all along my academic journey.

And my dear brother.

Acknowledgments

I owe a special debt of gratitude to my teacher and supervisor Pr. ZoubirDendane, for his constant support, patience, motivation and immense knowledge.

I would also express my sincere gratitude to members of the jury, and all the teachers in the English department for their inspiration.

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Abstract

Allah, Ellohim, don’t they sound similar?. Salam, Shalom, maybe another coincidence, Tisa’ah, Tesh, three coincidences? , but the logical mind does not believe in coincidences therefore I daresay this is definitely worth a research.

In many languages you hear words pronounced similarly, especially within languages that have the same origin, or the same language family, belonging to the same tree language, or in general words to the same roots.

Semitic languages have marked a historical and continuous effects from the most ancient to the most modern, or to new languages or dialects and that might have caused death of other languages because of eras, and whole other factors throughout history of human tongue.

Arabic and Hebrew are two main Semitic sister languages that do still exist today, the two represent more than language slight differences but also a huge cultural religious contrast. Because of the same roots they share, I got curious in this research about the level of closeness historically speaking of development and on the language system itself, up to the current status.

Arabic as the language of Quran improved the tribes tongue and united them with one miraculous language, and became the language of classical Arabic and still in modern world. Hebrew and its people, in other words, mostly Jews, they experienced with the language different path despite of the historical religious depth back to the primitive Hebrew. Arabic as well have developed, but not forcibly similar to Hebrew, periodically and linguistically speaking. Which means historical part, and the language on how it is spoken, which means basically how It is structured and formed depending on a particular general period of time, and on comparison level with the other sister Semitic language, the whole latter is the goal of this research.

List of contents

Statement of Originality………………………………………………………………… I Dedication………………………………………………………………………………

Acknowledgments……………………………………………………………………….. III

Abstract …………………………………………………………………………… IV

List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………. V

General introduction……………………………………………………………………. 01

Chapter 1 : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew……………………………... 08 1.1 Introduction:……………………………………………………………………..

08 1.2 Arabic language throughout time…………………………………………………….

1.2.1 on early times:…………………………………………………………………….. 09

1.2.2 The coming of Quran:……………………………………………………………... 12 1.3 Historical development of Hebrew language………………………………………..

1.3.1 Hebrew; the language, between Early and medieval ages:……………………… 21

1.3.2 From Medieval to Modern time…………………………………………………… 23 Use of Hebrew at home:………………………………………………………………..

26 School :…………………………………………………………………………………..

Newspapers………………………………………………………………………………..

28 1.4 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………..

30 ChapterII Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies……….

2.1 Introduction:………………………………………………………………………….

34 2-2 General morphology of Arabic……………………………………………………….

2-2.1 The role of Morphology and Prosodic theory:……………………………………. 34

2.2.2 The relevancy with Arabic Morphology:………………………………………….. 35

2.2.3 Moras:……………………………………………………………………………… 35

2.2.4 Stress:……………………………………………………………………………… 36

.…………………………………………………………………:الصرف Arabic Sarf 2.2.5 38

2.2.6 Scales of Sarf:……………………………………………………………………… 40 4-1The Hebrew‘’Binyan’’:………………………………………………………………

2.3.1 Five main benyanim:………………………………………………………………. 43

2.3.2 Verbs and nouns………………………………………………………………….. 43 2.4- Comparison of the two Morphologies……………………………………………….

2.4.1 Phonological comparison:………………………………………………………… 48

2.4.2 Gender:…………………………………………………………………………… 51

2.4.3 Plural:……………………………………………………………………………… 53

2.4.4 The construct:…………………………………………………………………….. 53

2.4.5 Adjectives:………………………………………………………………………….. 54

2.4.6 Verbs……..……………………………………………………………………….. 55 5-2Morphological comparison……………………………………………………………

59 6-Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...

63 General conclusion………………………………………………………………………

64 References:………………………………………………………………………………

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List of Tables

Table 1: Arabic sarf scale ...... - 41 -

- scale ...... - 42 ( ل) Table 2: Letter

Table 3: active-verb binyanim ...... - 44 -

Table 4 : Hebrew Mishkal patterns ...... - 45 -

Table 5: Printed form & Word pattern ...... - 47 -

Table 6: Arabic & Hebrew pronouns ...... - 62 -

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General Introduction

General introduction

According to the Oxford dictionary, the word Hebrew means ‘’A member of an ancient people living in what is now ‘’Israel’’ and Palestine, and, according to biblical tradition, they descended from the patriarch Jacob, grandson of Abraham. After the Exodus (c.1300 BC) they established the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, and their scriptures and traditions form the basis of the Jewish religion’’

There is a relation between the word Hebrew and the religion of Judaism, it is not any simple word, it is something heavy in sense in the Jewish culture, and basically; the religion. Meaning the language and the people referring to the Israelites.

Religiously speaking The term Hebrew was mentioned thirty four times in the Hebrew bible from more than thirty verses, the word Hebrew or Hebrews, does not particularly refer to the language but also to a group of Semitic speaking communities, especially when they were a living nomads, during what’s known as the monarchic period.

In the biblical signification, the word Hebrew means to ‘’pass over’’ or ‘’traverse’’, yet the meaning is not so precise. In the roman era the equivalent Greek word for Hebrew which is Hebraios did mean the Jews as a whole especially those settling in the Roman province of Judea, Judea’s modern location would be round the southern mountains of Palestine.

Book of torah, which is what it is believed to be Moses’s book, torat Moshe, and in different words ‘’laws of Moses’, the symbol figure of Judaism, this is believed to be divine book from heavens was originally presented in Hebrew language, Hebrew as Arabic in Quran, it is to be a sacred language because of religious background and legitimacy because it is simply the language that talks of ideals represented as language of perfect and it talks to every believer in the content of the Torah.

Religion and especially in antique times and fresh earliest centuries that followed the relevancy of non secular texts, people were more spiritual than ever, and

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General Introduction nothing much powerful than word of god in belief, in eras witnessing the relevancy of these sacred books as a savior against common bad and evil. And so people recited and practiced and used in daily lives.

Torah like Quran brought lot of secular knowledge about life. And people adapted these words and recreated poetries and literatures backed up by a whole spiritual and linguistic mightiness.

Arabic of Quran, the book revealed to the prophet Mohamed, the symbol man of Islam that faithfully appreciated the book of his god ‘’Allah’’ sent to him. And so did the rest of his believers, they had faith in the words of Allah and read the words by heart, and prayed with words that is to be without any alike source of power within the words of identity, identity of Islam in Arabic tongue.

The sensitivity between Arab speakers of Arabic and Jews speakers of Hebrew wasn’t always a negative thing, because despite of the massive cultural religious contrast, one language affected the other, no matter of what took a lion part in affecting or on a pre-existence. But the spark was there, and still there, if you go to the middle east, and Jerusalem you will see such, when though each language has its class division , without shedding the political light over the superior significance of one language over the other, but over the linguistics, one might say it’s something normal if nearby communities have linguistically in common because of geographical positioning of these speakers, and interactions, even though sometimes forcible.

To be objective both Hebrew and Arabic have been given justice to be what they are considering all historical cultural political events, even if the track wasn’t practically the same to each.

Comparing to Arabic along the time, Hebrew language has seemed to be more soft and able to change though times since the sacred revelation. And sometimes you find it difficult to translate old texts, And on that writers of modern Hebrew are the first who would confirm, as EtgarKeret who thought:’ Hebrew is a unique thing that you cannot translate to any other language. It has to do with its history’, ‘I think that in

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General Introduction

Hebrew it’s like the language creates a more unique and specific universe even before the story’

Story and history are two main influencing factors, whole combination of events and that probably due to the spread of Jews in the world, especially before the second world war and then after. Not just their spread in the world, especially in the new world, be it America. But Jews are as well more united than Arabs in terms of blood solidarity , despite their existence in different part of the world rather than middle east, and so when Hebrew changes somewhere, it changes everywhere. In a word we can say Jews seem to be more innovative than conservative Arabs that thanks to Quran, they remained more linguistically antique and conservative.

That means regardless to the story and history that had both languages growing or resisting to change, Arabic is hard to change, or to innovate if it is the word, as Zoe Griffith said ‘ The importance of Arabic as a language is not going to go away no matter what happens in the middle east. Even if things cool down there— which I think is impossible in the immediate future-it will be an important language’

The change is not always bright, a language that is hard to change or to develop in a sense of present adaptation, maybe because of the attachment between people and sacred books, but that means that it’s a solid language even if it did not change much, it remained there, which doesn’t necessarily explain a weakness all the time. I’m not trying to say that Hebrew is a weak language, because if you want to look at the most vivid in a thorough linguistic sense; Arab speakers of Arabic today borrow lot of foreign words in their dialects , and it is being creating a problem of identity to the conservative opinion at these countries. But as well Arabs are to be blamed more than story and history. And what’s considered even more serious as when Arabs themselves think in such a way as when Nariman Youssef tweeted a reality ‘ ..’How do you translate a dialogue into a language that nobody speaks?’

Notwithstanding the surrender of typical Arab opinion to the reality of language failure in their present-everyday lives , and speaking of translation there are

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General Introduction efforts and more books that are actually translated to Arabic each year than they are to Hebrew.

So if you translate and you don’t have dominance and power in the tongue of your reader and knowledge enthusiasts who should elaborate, spread and reuse such knowledge in a ground of linguistic production which means original books and development, the latter that Arabs seem to lack in the last long centuries compared to other civilizations or nations, and that’s normally no two Arabs would disagree about, nonetheless an Arab saying goes like ‘’Arabs agreed on not to agree’’ that should not be our topic, but somehow highlights typicality of Arabs vis a vis the Jews.

As we cannot fairly judge a culture from perspective of morals, we are certainly allowed to judge a language in relation to scientific development achieved by people who use a given language, as English today, most researches are registered in English for the worldwide, that’s because English thinking has been gaining competent scientists and so, speakers onto the soils that speak English where in America for instance, most scientific inventions see the light in the new world.

Back to history and when we look at Hebrew role after Muslims that not so earlier than the thirteenth and fourteenth century they made sciences interesting ; Hebrew played a significant role in translating lot of works of philosophies and of medicine from the Muslims as IbnSina, ibnRushd, the latter significantly; it is thought that most of his works were saved in Hebrew translated books from Arabic only.

And therefore the Christian communities profited of the productive transmission by the Jew translators for presenting Muslims’ contributions into science, which made Hebrew a language of transition and a center of interest because it held that amount of translations, knowing that Muslims also translated some Greek works to Arabic, but for the Christian world, Arabic was not the friendliest language at that time. In the fifteen century Hebrew was obviously quite superior than Arabic in term of exposure to scientific communities such as in Europe, but these works of Muslim origin helped lot of Jew scientists to think through science. Muslims were thanked by science’ fruits makers of it, but yet they started to become past in

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General Introduction contributions and works that are to be presented in their language if there were anymore.

Referring to the Arabs living in the Arab lands ; Today more than four hundred and twenty million people that speak Arabic are counted and few other millions of non Arabs speaking Arabic who live in Arab lands or abroad. And comparing to Hebrew, the number of speakers is incredibly small on paper as it is estimated about five million, number that is counted of the people living in the middle east, knowing that number of Jews in the world is nearly seven million, however that of Muslims is estimated about a billion and half and all practitioners pray in Arabic.

In term of population and speakers, Arabic take the lion part, the arabs culture feed its own language and that’s normal like many most languages because any language happens to be a part of a culture, and same for Hebrew with the Jew culture, here it’s interesting when we use the term Jew we’re not referring only to someone who has faith in Judaism but as well to someone embracing his whole culture in which religion might takes part, and we will see the term Israelite later on, beyond that, the effect between language and culture is interchangeable. But to Tariq Ramadan it’s a little bit different when a religion like Islam is enrolled, Tariq even separated between a Arabic language and religion of Islam, when he said’ Arabic is the language of the Q’uran but Arab culture is not a culture of Islam’. This might sound tricky in notion, but still one has got to affect the other.

Within the culture besides religion as a part, spiritual side is present, and to the Jews this spiritual side is there within each of their twenty two letters of Hebrew alphabetic system for interestingly each letter represents a spiritual significance, for example the first letter ‘’Aleph’’ signifies the pulsating unbridled force or eternal god, the next alphabet ‘’bet’’ means container, ‘’Gimmel’’ refers to nourishment, ‘’Dalet’’ physicality, and ‘’Hey’’ a power of being.

Letters represent meaningful units in Hebrew and that differs with its sister language Arabic, because if you take each single letter of Arabic by its own , it means practically nothing. But on the other hand Arabic has twenty eight letters in the

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General Introduction

Alphabetic system, therefore Arabic and generally speaking is one of the most complex languages and not just comparing to Hebrew, for its enrichment in letters and in things we’ll have to mention on the next pages.

This richness of Arabic language is backed up by the vast geographical area that holds lot of Arab countries, and each country has different dialects, in classical Arabic you might find a word spoken in parts of Saudi Arabia that is as well used in a dialect from Southern Algeria, so the size of the Arab lands did not only make Arabic rich in words but as well made it enjoy a large area of speakers.

During the golden age of Islam which dated back between seventh and thirteenth century, Arabic was one of the most knowledgeable languages, and Muslim scientists at that time were much more religion-inspired, which means a higher intellectual commitment to the book of Q’uran and Arabic its original language.

For this research we have two research questions:

Have both Semitic languages changed through time?

We will see that Arabic and Hebrew have been through a lot of centuries that affected a language, and despite of being close languages, sometimes they took a totally different path for so many reasons, but somehow Arabic sustained most changes.

To what extent do they resemble morphologically?

For the fact of being sister languages, you would guess that they are the same in form, at least in pronunciation, however when you look carefully at each language’s morphology, those similarities of sound and form will not be identical by one to another all the time, and that means somewhere there is a difference, although they resemble but they are different , and that affect the pronunciation level, and that’s why you will hardly find a Hebrew speaker who can understand Arabic, and vice versa.

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Chapter 1

Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew

Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew

1.2 Introduction: Arabic and Hebrew as both Semitic language; must have their identical journey as relevant to the people from which they were named .i.e. Arabic from Arabs. Or Hebrew from Hebrews, and Jews. And basically everything had to start somewhere.

On this chapter we are going to talk about the word and character for Arabic and Hebrew if ever there were figures that might have to be met, not to forget the religious part, and to take the whole into consideration from analytical historical perspective.

Any language in human history had that period of time where brightness of its environment made it more special. And that does not exclude Arabic, either Hebrew.

In Arabic, there are roots we can mention, as generally we mentioned already the term Semitic, therefore I will attempt to get a little bit more specific for the fact that we know Arabic is not the only Semitic language. Which means so is Hebrew, and the path of each is interesting and worth mentioning.

By nature, humans are social creatures. And so do we refer to the first speakers of Hebrew and Arabic, and because could be early to mention we would have to come through the speakers of closely related tongues and how latter did with Arabic and Hebrew which we know by name today. You will see a brief lines on movement of these people in a time every human communication was super needed due to the rarity of inhabitants in such a region but also the difficult weather, especially in the Arab region and a bit too close. but that did not prohibit interesting human interactions to happen and to take words. That means so many things had happened, whether in a gap era before Quran that was to be revealed in a most perfect moment for Arab Muslims, and so you would see Hebrew language since Hebrew bible era to the latest time as briefly as possible.

Quran and as soon as it was sent down to the prophet Muhammad peace be upon him, suddenly became the most powerful as it did contain the word of Allah. A style of Arabic that was never heard before. And Hebrew bible representing more than

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew just a language to the Israelites but an identity too since the antiquity, We will see if this identity will change or remain but most interestingly along the language that concerns us more. After first dealing through division of Hebrew.If there were types of Hebrew.Before turning into the one modern meaning.

In general on this chapter we will see eventually what that was added to Arabic language after Quran. In other words briefly mentioning how Arabic changed or remained since different periods of time that I will try to be as careful as possible with. And the same thing with Hebrew. In other words I will try to find out whether both languages.i.e. Arabic and Hebrew; that is whether they have changed through time or remained the same, and if any had effects on the other from historical perspective.

1.2 Arabic language throughout time

1.2.1 on early times: There are so many stories concerning history and beginning of Arabic language, by those who believe in Islam, it is thought that first who spoke Arabic was Adam in the heaven. Some others say the tribe of Ya’rub Ben Kuhtan, on earth.

Ya’rub is a an ancient arab character as believed, yet sometimes the existence of this personal is seen arguable, lot of Muslim Arabs say that the prophet Ismail is his ancestor, and part of historians think that Ya’rub might be one of the grandsons of prophet Hud, and also known as Eber in non muslim perspectives, they estimated his era as of more than 8000 BC . And he was the first to write in Arabic, according to historians, but the Arabic that he wrote was likely mistaken to rather be Canaanite or Phoenician Arabic, and so Arabic was named after Ya’rub.

Arabic has been and is still considered one of most prominent Semitic languages, one of large number of Semitic languages in the world’s geography; from middle east to North Africa, it is derived from the big Afro-Asiatic tree as we stated, and that has also besides Arabic, Hebrew, Ethiopian and others.

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew

During the 7ThCentury , Arabic enjoyed a high emergence, it was during the age of Islam, that witnesses death of Muhammad, the prophet of Islam, and what he left to the world. And it was thanks to Islam that world knew Arabic language, and learned a different understanding towards Arabic peninsula that was less organized before Islam.

According to Farghaly (2010) Arabic language has developed from being obscure and non-prestigious language to a major world language.

On the second part of the 7th century, Islam gained more power, and built itself an empire, or what was termed ; the Islamic Arab empire, making a huge geographical expansion especially on 8th century when Islamic Empire made power all the way from Persia to Spain, and that was exactly during the 8th century.

Two main factors lead the spread of Arabic tongue through which are, trade and migrations, and generally it is what ancient Arabs did.

The Arabic writing system is traced back to the semi-nomadic Nabataean tribes who lived in parts of Syria and Jordan.

Speak of Nabataean, a group of French Saudi archaeologist discovered in Najran, Saudi Arabia a site according to Arab News report, what they found was unique, Nabataean writing on a stelae that is incredibly the oldest found Arabic script, preliminarily dates to 470 AD. This finding is a missing joint between Arabic and Nabataean, therefore the results add something interesting to the evolution of Arabic language, and writing particularly, for the basic reason that first Arabic was written in Nabataean alphabets. Archeologists divided Arabic into two sections; The ancient Sothern Arabic, amongst it ; Hadrami. Whilst the second section consists of the ancient northern Arabic, and amongst it; thamoudian.

The Arabs of the south did use the ‘noun’ as a definite article, and they put it on the end of the world. However Arabs of the north made use of the letter ‘ha’ as the definite article, and what distinguishes the fos’ha Arabic is the use of ‘alifwa lam’, in other words the definite article.

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew

As Arabs began writing, they had no identical Alphabets so they had to borrow a writing system. And some of these writings were written in Nabataean alphabets.

Arabic inscriptions have two main features, first of all they were rare at a time and second; form of letters developed very early, therefore after oldest inscriptions not so many changes occurred. Counting three hundred years putting aside the Namarah inscription of 328 and the Arabic papyrus of 643, which is the oldest.

Among the old Arabic inscriptions we must first mention oldest Arabic inscriptions consisting of ancient Arabic alphabets that were found in Nabataean temple of the pagan Arab Goddess Allat;

Another inscription does date back around the early years of 500, and it is trilingual Greek Syriac. Arabic inscription part that was meant as personal names , found in Zebed town, in Syria.

The next Arabic inscriptions dates back to the fifth century, and were located in Um El Jimal Jordan.

Damascus also was a theater of one of the old Arabic inscriptions, there they found what dates back to the year 528, the nearest time that witnessed Military expedition of the king Harith, who is a son of Ghassanid Arabs.

The closest inscription to the pre-Islamic era in the Arabic Alphabet appeared from Martyrium, in southern Damascus, findings were from records made by Sharahil, Zalim’s son, and that built the Martyrium, the year 568.

If you look at these inscriptions and you try to compare them to the original Quanic inscriptions, you will notice that not so many letter forms have changed.

The first Arabized people centered outside the Arabian Peniusula and there had been established! Around the seventh and eighth centuries (Donner 1981, Versteegh 1997). But the closest to classical Arabic was the tribe of Quraich, who

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew spoke something like fos’ha, the linguists differed in whether or not did Arabs of Quraich used case endings.

Basically there is a difference between pre Islamic old Arabic, and Modern standard Arabic. But mostly it’s a distinction of time. But what’s sure is that modern classical Arabic is descended from Classical one. Linguists generally agree that the Quran was sent in a classical Arabic word form, and particularly that of Abbasid caliphate, from a pre Islamic era.

1.2.2 The coming of Quran: The Arabic language must also have included the Egyptian antiquity and various dialects spoken by the tribes of Yemen and Abyssinia and,

There is a view that Arabic is the closest of the three sources to the mother tongue, because it has been isolated from the world’s other development and change.

Despite of the interesting attempts ;It is not possible for the researcher today to reveal the stages of the first emergence of the Arabic language, because History is not related only to the abundance of youth and development, and the stone texts that were removed from the bellies of the island, that are still very rare, the occurrence of these phases that came to the language was united. Its dialects and its words were known with evidence of reason and literary heritage, yet the Arabs were illiterate, maybe a contradiction but it was natural to arise from this and from the different situation and improvisation and from the frequent solution and travel and the effect of mixing words in language such as synonyms, and differences in dialects in substitution and expressions.

And was spread within different Arab tribes, whose speech was described with the term ‘’Tongue of Arabs’’, a term used to describe difference of Arabic speech inside Arab tribes, and the distinction was mainly Phono-Morphological one.

Tongue of Arabs was divided into two main kinds of Arabic, one of the north and the other of the south. But the north had the most lion’s part in term of dominance. And among them, Quraich.

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew

Arabs from different regions used to meet during monthly markets of the year between north and south for sale and shopping, and wandered from one to another. The nature of the meeting invited them to the argument by speaking and bargaining prices through opinions, besides flaunting with eloquence, and each expressing pride for belonging to their tribes and region, and usually this was served through poetry, something Arabs were famous of especially before Islam, when poetry used to be more than just literature, because at that time a poem might bring peace like it might bring war. The poet did something like public speech, and through his words he tries to show the best of a language, this had actually contributed to unify Arabic speakers at that time, and every poet applied the words that were common and well understood by all Arabs of the market. The main markets were , the so known Okad, Majna, and El Majaz.

Mecca was one big spot for trade caravans and commerce movements, mainly speaking during the second half of the sixth century, Mecca became then an attraction not only to Arabs, but as well from the farther Asian places, such as India. Mecca was considered to be a safe station because of the religious profundity it represented to her inhabitants who were basically Quraich people, and due to their interactions, the inhabitants of Mecca acquired about other cultures, including religions such as Christianity from the Sham region, or Judaism from yathreb or from Yemen. So they could learn from differences of others the culture of tongues and intellects, and adapted words, it was the most perfect ground for literature, mainly poets who found richness thanks to the diversity that was showing up in Mecca. Poets wrote and expressed their great Arabic until the time of Islam came with the book of Quran, a book that completed Arabic language, a century before that, Arabic had known an important passage in process of eloquence due to what had been remained from poetry of Pre-Islamic era, and less intensively from prose.

Linguists believe that the language of nearest west and centre of the Arabic peninsula were very familiar that they got to meet in the tongues of A3aribnajd tribes. That doesn’t mean for necessary the biggest of tribes, but the dialect everyone could understand, and the tribe whose Arabic was most understood by different Arabs were

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew

Beton, Hawzan, Tamim. It is interesting to mention Amina the mother of the prophet Muhammad who chose to send her son Muhammad to the homes of BeniSaad Ben Bakr from the Hawzans, so that the little Muhammad will get used of hearing from their tongues.

Other than Mecca, we must also mention the markets of Hejaz, and also a very interesting Arabic accent, that is the Najidia, which was common and understood on the market of Okad, and gradually the Najidia became gradually more than an accent, so almost everyone from every tribe began to understand.

The Quraich were lucky and smart, because they were the soonest to dominate this most complete Arabic and made it seem like it was theirs because of political power, but actually some do confirm that it is from ‘’a3arib najdcharaf’’. And or a’’لسان عربي مبين’‘ the Quran never mentioned the name Quraich, but it described it clear shown Arabic tongue.

Religiously speaking.Quraich had the honor for being the centre of Islam’s very first beginning, that is why historically they were the most famous Arab tribes, and this was not a coincidence for the simplest reason that they represented power. Despite of the political dominance, Quraich were not considered the most eloquent of the arabs, and they did not have one the best cream of poets.

IbnKhaldoun partly disagree when he thought Quraich enjoyed the most eloquent Arabic, however he confessed that Quraich did take a bit from everyone, except those who are not Arabs. And despite of the relation between an Arab tribe and another, they still had the most complete Arabic used and proved more effective in the Quraich environment than any other.

There is no doubt for a proof that pre-Islam Arabs had developed a basic writing system, and that is very evident due to the different findings of rock and stone writings which helped them preserve writing, and so they did on wood and animal bones. But the main purpose of writing was more like official notations such as cheques, conventions, and charters.

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew

Many authors have stated that Arabic writing is derived from what is named in Arabic as ‘’ El moosned el hamiri’’ also known as the southern writing, this type of writing had been introduced to the Cham region thanks to the Arab business caravans that were moving from south of the Arabic peninsula to the north, and so was it adopted by the Hijaz region later on.

Another team do have another view, relying on what have been found , this opinion goes that the Arabic language had been passing through an ongoing process of such a ‘’Nabatean writing’’ that they prefer to refer to, and that is to them derived from Aramaic, for the fact that the latter came from Phoenician writing. Researchers discovered from these archaeological goods, a similarity between Arabic letters in a style appearing much like drawing and the ancient writing pieces.

Arabic caligraphy back then was naked off dots because of the direct relevant effect of Nabatean, and that what was found on rocks, in places like Sinai where they found writings dating back between 210 and 253 A.D. And in the north west of Saudi Arabia in what is called MadâinSâlih, a text dated back to 267 A.D. There is another engraved text in the region of Hauran between the south of Syria and North of Jordan, the date of it is 270 A.D. Despite of similarity, it is very hard to read and understand those texts, because as compared with the third century, the Arabic we know today is practically different.

One of the oldest engravings or physical texts of Arabicdates back to 327 A.D , in Namara, south of Palestine , found on the grave of Imrou’lQays, who is the described as the king of Arabs in terms of poetry and style. For visual part, this Arabic is closest to the first Islamic writing for it contained almost same form of letters, and similar words, it was such an important time of era for the Arabic language development. For about the most engraved text in the Arabic calligraphy is from the year 513 A.D, and it is called the engraving of Zabad, not to mention the engravings of Harran, and Oum El Jimal , the latter dating back to 567 A.D. What is remarkable is that the primitive Arabic line is not very far from Nabatean, and due to this influence, Arabic was still not fully independent, and to create its own reality, two centuries were

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew needed when within the people of Hijaz from the old Saudi Arabia. However they practiced more of an academic Arabic, for official purposes.

The time of Quran was to be the next and absolutely a very crucial step, Quran came down a gift from heavens, and have been ever since playing the highest role in completing the Arabic language, with an impressive style; and a level of eloquence that until today Muslim scholars are continuously trying to figure it out. Quran did unify all the Arabic tongues of those who accepted the faith of Islam, Quraich accent did have so much in common with Quran, but the latter had enriched it with a more complete vocabulary, besides giving new meaning to many words, and it was the reason at a sooner time to make Arabs look at it scientifically, and create for their own the sciences of Arabic language. Quran did actually make Arabic famous thanks to wonders of eloquence and the style for convincing others as if it were truly talking to them and to the reader particularly.

Once Islam had spread out from Quraich, Arabic did spread with it, the first stop it did at the southern regions where they spoke the ancient southern Arabic, automatically the Arabic of Quran conquered the speakers of southern Arabic. It as well replaced the Aramaic in the Cham region besides Irak, and then again thanks to Islam, the greatest Arabic came all the way through the red sea to the east of Africa passing through Sudan, and reaching extreme north where people spoke Berber, but eventually they were highly influenced by the language of the new religion. The Arabic wave of Islam arrived to the European continent, like Spain, and Mediterranean islands.

Arabic since then to the middle of the first century from the Muslim calendar .i.e. Glottal stop. ,السكونremained written unpronounced without vowels and sokoon Linguistically speaking Arabs then got mixed with non Arabs, still it did not affect the language because they were enjoying the bright sun of Islam at that time along Arabic , so the rhythms were created. A fear had raised the soonest back then that many rhythms would affect the Quran. It urged the jealous scholars to find a solution, El Aswad, Eddouali was the man, he wanted to unify the pronunciation of Quran so people who read will not deviate, what he did was adding dots with different colors on

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew

which is ,الفتحة ’letters of Quran, to mean it to be pronounced with ‘fat’ha approximately the vowel(a), also he put dots below letters to indicate the the vowel (e), Arabic then was becoming the ’الكسرة‘ pronunciation for el kasra prestige not just of Arabs or Muslims in faith but in the world, however that did not make the tribes or the badawiyeen, speak a total Arabic, because they got their accents, the latter from the other hand got influenced by the mother language with time, even though it created a bit of gap when it comes to social status or individual knowledge. But off the limited social use, Arabic language was getting enriched more than ever.

During the first Abbasid era, Islamic civilization enjoyed an unprecedented status of science and especially cultural influence that spread from the east to the west, until the land of Spain, as a door to Europe, and as Europe itself. This period also provided the speakers of Arabic so many translations by Arab translators with scientific enthusiasm which had to enlighten the Muslim and Arab scientific candle , not to mention adding some words from other pro, or geographically farther cultures.

Authors started writing more and more, so they did with books of Arabic language sciences and bit of different literature. Despite of the rise of Arab countries on the age of Abbasid, Arabic remained the one thing in common after religion of Islam. Cultural and scientific movement rose in Cairo, Kairouan of Tunisia, Halab in Syria. Not to forget Baghdad of Irak. And Cordoba in Spain. Since then Arabic has been adapting with western development that had come on later times, and for note, Arabic was upon the time spoken as a second language by many westerners.

What is interesting is that Arabic after all these centuries remained existing and haven’t changed through time except for sake of adaptation with the new scientific terms mainly because technology and the effects of foreign languages, more particularly English today. As an international language, and the language of science and technology, in a modern era, when sadly Arabic survived only through religious books, speaking especially of the Holy Q’uran, and a decent literature.

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew

1.3 Historical development of Hebrew language

1.3.1 Hebrew; the language, between Early and medieval ages: At this point as we are more interested in the Hebrew language development, it would interest us the most to talk about the Hebrew bible to specify since then with the coming eras and main changes occurring to the Hebrew language.

The biblical Hebrew is an archaic form of Hebrew which is Canaanite Semitic, classic Hebrew or biblical Hebrew is practically not used anymore, it evolved from the language written in the bible and ancient scripts to the evolving versions of Hebrew, the biblical Hebrew passed through different steps mainly on the writing level, adopting Phoenician alphabets around 12th century, and the term Hebrew was not meant to refer to the language, yet it may be a language of mutual intelligibility with modern Hebrew.

This ancient Hebrew of Hebrew bible was spoken around 10 th century BCE, and people were using it in everyday life, then it developed to Mishnaic Hebrew until the fifth century CE., a language of Mishna , first written oral Jewish tradition found in the Talmud, or what is known as Rabbinic collections, redacted by Rabbi Judah ha- Nasi(usually called simply "Rabbi") at the beginning of the third century CE.

Mishnaic Hebrew is divided into two languages, one of the tannaim (70-250 CE), and the language of Amoraim speakers (3rd- 5th century CE), the tannaitic is found in the Mishna, while the Amoraic characterizes the Jerusalem Talmud, or also called Palestinian Talmud which is whole set of Jewish teaching traditions transmitted by Jewish scholars for centuries in their existence in Palestine as historically claimed. Amoraic also characterizes the Haggadic Midrashim and Babylonian Talmud.

The early Mishnaic Hebrew, changes occurred at the vocabulary level and guttural one, some Hebrew consonants were confused with one another and a significant number of words had been borrowed from Aramaic. However Mishnaic was not an everyday spoken language, and remained a liturgical language.

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew

On the Medieval Hebrew times between 6th and 13th century , Hebrew language had known more new effects from other languages borrowing more words from Arabic, Greek and Spanish, and most remarkably Greek and the so called piyyûṭ ; a Greek word describing a liturgical sacred poetry mixed with religious prayer, it is still recited on the Jewish festivals and occasionally on Sabbaths(1). This poem as well inspired Spanish poets between 900 and 1250.

The piyyûṭ poem brought an important addition by giving fresh meanings to ancient Hebrew classical words and coining new ones.

This era also added lot of words in Hebrew’s vocabulary, a number estimated between two thousand and three thousand terms of philosophy and science, the effects were inspired mainly from Greek and Arabic. Innovation concerned grammar as well, and on this door classical Arabic inspired the innovative grammar of medieval Hebrew, works of eminent Hebrew grammarians such as Judah ben David Hayyuj and Jonah ibnJanah. At that time Arabic language was a tongue of production, and the fact is many Jewish theological works were made in Arabic in order to translate for people who did not understand Hebrew and that included religious texts , and so the Jews wanted their language to adapt and create for its own features of a rich a language, and it did not matter if it borrowed terms or brought a new grammar breath from languages as Arabic, the language power back in time, the lingua franca.

From the tenth to the twelfth century, Jewish literature had witnessed its golden age, and lot of these medieval poems are translated into English today, a lot of these translations are made in verse’s form. The Jewish presence in Spain found warmth under the Multi- cultural environment of Islamic Spain , the Jewish poet YehudahHalevi (1075-1141) expressed it best when he said “A light thing would it seem to me to leave all the good things of Spain’’

The middle ages Hebrew in general continued of being a written language in the rabbinic literature, not with an originally pure grammar, but a mixture of other languages.

1 - Sabbath, a religious Jewish day between Friday evening and Saturday evening. - 19 -

Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew

Despite of foreign linguistic influences, Hebrew retained its pronunciation, yet different forms of pronunciation developed with time. By the tenth and eleventh century Hebrew reached a creative level. Arabic was an important mean of knowledge , and so most grammar works at that time were produced in Arabic. In the thirteenth century, Italy became the new centre of linguistic study and especially on as far as Hebrew was concerned , many significant translations were made to Hebrew by that time.

Before middle ages almost no Hebrew codex was preserved , however from the late middle ages thousands of Hebrew manuscripts were saved, and they represented a great deal of material from diaspora (1).

From the same later era ;Hebrew books began to be produced in Christian Europe, Islamic Spain, and in North Africa according to A Historical Atlas of Jewish People.

The most remarkable improvement during Hebrew’s middle language besides improving the grammar system, not less interesting than grammar, vowel signs were created as well.

Before the emergence of Masoretic text ( 10th- 11th century), only few people could read the bible in its authoritative text in synagogues without the influence of languages people spoke instead, with the fact that Masoretic was not the original text of the Hebrew bible.

In the eighth century Jews had to at least understand three languages in order to understand religion, biblical Hebrew, Mishnaic concerning study of Mishna and Aramaic with all about Talmuds and Targumim.

By the second half of the first milenium CE, Masoretic system emerged and started to be adopted in Tiberias, later in other places around Yemen, Palestine, and Babylonia. Eventually almost every Jew became able to read the Hebrew bible crediting efforts to the standardization of biblical vocalization.

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew

A literary genre that marked the significance of the medieval Hebrew literature was poetry, so many Jewish poets wrote in their Hebrew language even in Arab lands, however most of these poems were religious in content, while in the Christian land, the Hebrew poetry varied in topics. The Jews and purposely they stressed importance over the Hebrew language that represented identity more than anytime especially in an era when Muslims enjoyed power. One of the greatest Jewish historians of the 20Th century, SaloMittmayer Baron, who said‘’Perhaps in no period of human history did preoccupation with the correctness and purity of the spoken and written language which had become such a deep concern for educated classes as during the Islamic Renaissance’’.

Jews had brought so many ideas from Islamic world through translation of the Muslim scientific and philosophical contributions, it is through this process that Hebrew grained a lot of words, that at the beginning some might have thought it would become more of jargon than adding new part into Hebrew . As a result Jews did not only enrich their language but some of the Christian European vocabulary as well. This was actually very significant for science, because it helped Europeans to be updated with latest Islamic development which would make certain basics of their own. Speaking on the language at least.

1.3.2 From Medieval to Modern time The shift from medieval to modern Hebrew language had taken several slow steps, the 16th century might be the starting point for transition, remarkably envisioned by the Hebrew play A. dei Rossi’s Me’orEinayim (1574) by J Sommo, and most significantly the realization of the first Yiddish Hebrew dictionary by Elijah Levita who was a Jew German Italian author.

It is important here to say something about Yiddish language, that shaped lot of this process of Hebrew’s medieval development and on the little later on, it shared with Hebrew so many words and phrases from Yiddish itself.

Yiddish is a Jewish creation, however for many occasions the term Yiddish has been associated with German, most generally than specific the term Germanic that

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew refers to an indo European ethno linguistic group of northern European origin ,Yiddish in a double contentYidishTaitsh " or Jewish German", regardless of religion, the term Germanic or German made sensitivity amid the Jewish rational view about Hebrew. Yet this did not hide the fact that Yiddish is very rich of Germanic grammar, and even both non standard German and Yiddish used to be basically considered as regional dialects, however standard German is more distant than Yiddish.

The 12Th century dates the first found documents of Yiddish language, however its origin may be quite earlier than this date, approximately the 9Th century as scholars dated in relevance with Ashkenazi Jews movement, Diaspora who had come to contribute in creation of a language based on German vernacular, but as well Hebrew, of Aramaic, Slavic and Romance languages, and for this reason it is classified an Indo European language Germanic language, native to central and eastern Europe, Ashkenazi as ethnicity.

The Diaspora as scattered between east and west; lived in both lands ruled by Christian as far as Europe is concerned and Muslims whom they lived side by side especially in middle east. Jews in middle ages mainly between( eleventh and twelfth century ) were a fragile target by the ruling Christians of Europe, in a time Roman emperor Constantine was converted to Christianity and therefore Jews were not very welcome, even further they were accused by these crusaders of crucifying Jesus.

Contact with Muslims was much warmer even peaceful, Jews lived with Muslims and had a touch with through many things besides commerce, in literature, arts, food and architecture, where Jews left traces in different parts of Arab world such as synagogues like the Algiers Grande Synagogue in Algeria, this region of North Africa was close to Spain where Muslims had built a civilization, and Jews were protected under the peaceful shield of Muslim power and there they as well left architectural traces, for we can mention the so called Santa Maria La Blanca in Toledo, Spain, and Barcelona where Jewish population lived and from it emerged many interesting figures among them scholars, like the scientist Abraham bar Hiyya. And

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew between thirteen and fourteenth century the Jews became a valuable structure of Barcelona’s Catalan community estimated more than four thousand Jews. They spoke Catalan and let Hebrew for liturgical matters or with other Jews.

In middle ages, exception was more than a general of a rule, with a small oral literature in possession, which as a fact was not a written one, and the written Hebrew was not spoken, but rather language was a lingua franca between people sharing same religious faith or even a high prestige. Examples as the Latin as a medieval language of Catholicism in medieval Europe, or Byzantine Greek, Classical Arabic is western Asia, or Sanskrit in India. These languages were basically taught from religious practices inspired from religious texts. The case with Hebrew is close. Latin shares in common as first of all they were during the same middle era of age and as main written languages in diglossic Europe where more than a language were used by almost same community. Latin resulted in different counterparts in written language, this happened between fourteenth and seventeenth century. And Hebrew remained the handwriting of Jews without rivalry reaching the nineteenth century.

In close modern Europe the world there was rejecting any central religious authority of feudal authority and that is the case of Latin the highly important medieval language in Europe. Jews had no urge to take down Europe’s transitional linguistic state considering the importance of Church where it was hard to touch its Latin religious symbol. To the Jews, Hebrew became gradually a tongue of resistance against the Christian one. This might seem as parallel to Christian tongue. Besides Europe represented no match of comparison since Hebrew had come from farther land, and an interesting extension of time, something Christians would likely recognize, and the idea of nationalism based on territory seemed unfamiliar one to the Jews for the fact they never had an identical national presence over a territory, but the Jews had the seeds of nationalism in their heads since that time for the next generation to try realizing, moreover the nationalism was to be identical to the tongue of biblical Hebrew, so much more of religious view over their Hebrew language.

Hebrew got in power adopted during the enlightenment, or the age of reason in Europe between the end of seventeenth century and the prelude of nineteenth one.

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew

Despite of brilliancy Jew figures achieved in Europe whom they as well wrote in Arabic and other languages, so did speak Judeo-Arabic affected by Arab hosts, and so many fiction works that were made with this mixed language, so their very mother Hebrew language remained basically liturgical and ceased to be spoken in its raw form with time. For this near death of a language, a feeling hard risen from Jews to do the efforts in order revive this language and realize that lost identity held by their language.

As it is strange talking of revival of a language dating back to the oldest of time, it is as natural to have vital balance even though it happened to be little when looking back at extraordinarily complicated rich history of Jews and their ancient culture. Which means in other words a lot of work.

Hebrew was used as a common tool of communication between Jews who did not share same spoken tongues which forcibly and gradually was making of Hebrew a little more than language of prayer and a century and half ago to twenty first century Hebrew was nobody’s tongue, until emerged a driving force of one man who was determinant with enthusiasm to push that Hebrew not only into revival on which he was a main figure but also the transformation into a modern time Hebrew.

Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, the linguist with a vision who opened his eyes to life in Lithuania 1858 and during the late nineteenth century he came to what is called today Israel. Eliezer wanted of Hebrew to be spoken in every Jew’s home, he settled in Jerusalem and from there he started working on realization of his goal.

As most little Jew boys he began to learn biblical Hebrew and the holy book of torah, over next childhood years. Elizer studied as well Mishna and Talmud, so he became identical between Talmudic and Biblical

His family expected him to become a Rabbi and so for the expectation his parents sent him to seminary there he opened his horizon in a time he was exposed to Hebrew in the age of enlightenment, and as far as languages were his general second

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew concern besides Hebrew one, Elizer learned also , German, and Russian, and French, speaking of French he finished his studies at Sorbonne university, he was passionate about many things such as politics that he studied particularly the politics of middle east

Ben Yehuda came to Palestine during the year 1881 in an environment that was Jewish for more than half of the actual population, those Jews who represented about 54% were basically two main ethnic groups, the Ashkenazim from eastern Europe and Sephardim who were Mediterranean Jews, the two groups had different pronunciations of Hebrew , even different culture regardless of religious common.

Ashkenazim usually spoke Yiddish, they did not appear as a one community because most of them were scattered in different parts of eastern Europe, and had a Yiddish part of influence in Hebrew language that by its part influenced the former , Ashkenazim groups were coming to Palestine mainly for spiritual and study purposes, whereas Sephardim had been in Palestine since a bit of earlier generations and had different tongues for they spoke Arabic and Ladino, the latter was the name of Mediterranean Jews , or in other words Sephardim’s language, a language that had a mixture of Hebrew, Greek, and medieval Spanish, even some Turkish words, all represented through a modified Hebrew characters of a language. Sephardic pronunciation was a sort of a prestige for Jews at that time.

Arabic was main language in the region while the other groups used their languages, generally speaking the Sephardic pronunciation was what Jews use to communicate with each other. At his arrival Ben Yehuda was able to communicate with Jews in Palestine using Hebrew. Sephardic spoke Hebrew with non-Sephardic, and so were Ashkenazim able speaking Hebrew with him.

Vocabulary system of this environment was solid despite seemingly little speaking communities, there was a hybrid of Biblical Hebrew and Talmud, and vocabulary system was taken in an exchanging way sometimes depending on the speakers, yet each spoke their own native tongues , as for those who came out of Palestine, besides the presence of Arabic, this richness was to be early effect on

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew modern Hebrew language. Basically they all spoke a sort of Pidgin Hebrew to get along, and it was getting generalized with new comers who provided a community that needed communication.

On the process of revival, the region witnessed waves of Jewish European immigration, they can be divided into two groups, the first one had more than thirty thousands of Jews, a wave that arrived between 1882 and 1903, a decade later another wave of forty thousand Jew made it to Palestine particularly between 1904 and 1914, inside both groups there existed of idealist urban Ashkenazim unfamiliar with farming life that made significant part of Palestine, these people enrolled into farming communities, it was something new to what they got used to, because of difficulty in merging, they were to be called Semi-isolated farming communities, this ground became a fresh theater for the revival of Hebrew and allowed for creation of a simple system of language, in another words they made a switch, by using very simple words to make each other understood.

The revival of Hebrew by Ben Yehuda went through a process elements, that by looking at them they make sense for a plan of a future vision.

Most eminent ones are summed-up as below:

Use of Hebrew at home:

Home is considered the first school where one learns his language , as it is the case for children, on the revival process things had to start not only from children but everyone, this view was fairly the idea of Ben Yehuda supported by his wife, they together stressed on using language at home before that it becomes easy in daily life. This seems all to be a challenge, for they had a hard mission to accomplish, from two enthusiastic individuals, of which Ben Yehuda was the head of it.

What made it sound even more impossible is that Ben Yehuda was not fluent on the spoken Hebrew, and his wife was worse than him, this seemingly needed a life time effort.

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew

As a start, Ben and his wife began from their very house. For revival, lack of native speakers makes the task harder, Ben Yehuda thought to start with their new born to make of him a monolingual speaker of Hebrew, their son ‘’Avi’’ was about to spend seven years hearing only Hebrew, but because his parents did not speak greatest deal of Hebrew, Avi had to wait four years to speak only a basic Hebrew, this was considered to be a worry for his parents for that Avi was slow in learning his first- ever-heard language, the experiment did not seem to be the best, and so not the best example that any other family would want to try with their new-born ones.

Ben Yehuda emphasized on his attempt by stressing on the usefulness of house input , he did not convince many families at first, so decently few ones wanted to try, and to do that families had to switch sometimes between native language and Hebrew especially when parents are not fluent in speaking Hebrew, and so child might occasionally end up hearing few other words from another language than Hebrew, and not to be monolingual. Eventually, apparently the house was not enough for a child to develop a language that he would speak good enough. And so another element had to come on the line.

Home is not forcibly the main element in making a child apprehend a language well , if society did not speak any.

School :

Always in Palestine, Ben Yehuda met someone interesting, NissimBechar, a school principal who had experience with Sephardic students, but with Ashkenazim it would be different if not to say difficult, Nissim proposed to Ben Yehuda to teach in Hebew to make end to the problem. And that was it, By using Berlitz method Ben began teaching only in a basic Hebrew before falling ill later on. These few months of teaching helped Ben Yehuda by putting him in the position of an influence, and eventually besides students, he especially influenced lot of other teachers, who ended up being inspired.

The use of Hebrew at school expanded with time, and lot of subjects began to be taught in Hebrew, gradually the question became ‘’Which subject should be taught

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew in Hebrew?’’ rather than ‘’Should school teach in Hebrew?’’. Two opinions were proposed. One of nationalists who wanted every subject to be taught in Hebrew and conservatives who preferred it for favor of Jewish subjects only.

With this debate, the position of Hebrew rose to a higher status, and people began to consider socially in their lives, starting from Jewish houses and schools, especially the children that became fluent in Hebrew raising in their heads a sense of belonging to the one Jewish community, while parents remained slightly late in fluency of Hebrew in comparison with their children, and that created a sort of a linguistic gap between the old and the young. So eventually and ironically the old had to listen to the young, and learn from.

Children had to grow so the next generation would better adapt with Hebrew and become fluent, the children who became parents played a major role in the process of revival of Hebrew.

Newspapers

Outside European continent, newspapers had never existed before the arrival of Ben Yehuda, the contrary in Europe where Hebrew papers already appeared, Ben Yehuda thought of a good exposure for the Hebrew newspaper, and that to be in Palestine.

Biblical Hebrew was not actually enough for a practical use in Newspapers, so Ben Yehuda brought a system which he named Total Hebrew, for he figured out the language needed

more loan words, before fetching in any, Ben Yehuda went back to Talmudic and Medieval Hebrew, because of familiarity these two share with biblical Hebrew, to make it easily applicable.

As a fruit of his work Ben Yehuda got a pidgin Market Hebrew, but familiar terms did not suffice, there Ben had to use some modified words from other sources, a matter that did not please lot of his people.

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew

Ben Yehuda realized that people needed a richer vocabulary, yet he faced resistance and objection. And people would need to learn how to pronounce unfamiliar words, and also understand their social use.

In the nineteenth century, the language of Jews had begun gaining revival’s privilege in Palestine a bit more interestingly than being elsewhere where Jews had difficulty at times to preserve their culture and language and also experienced a burden of both accepting but especially of being fairly absorbed by different host societies, many of the Jews immigrated to Palestine in order to make for themselves a secular being or society aiming at making of Hebrew the language of their society. Efforts were made to revive this language. However during the first waves of Jewish immigration into Palestine, the Jews had their traditional society in need for preserve in order to keep a vivid identity in this new kind of a different society, and a bit sensitive one, religiously speaking, after living together for a certain time, and getting used to difference of tongues particularly the Arabic Palestinian tongues, Hebrew was still not a common tongue, yet they had to use what they knew of Hebrew.

For the early modern Jewish society in Palestine, the teaching institutions had to face the scientific and literal growth of Europeans languages, for simplest reason that they were the means for science and studies, Hebrew language had to find itself within these languages especially for the Jew perspective, the Jews and learners of Hebrew that shared part of early modern Jewish society in this region; had realized a significant aim when they adapted Hebrew language in Kindergartens.

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew

1.4 Conclusion Arabic had gone a lot of time before the modern age, and what Arabs speak today is not totally the same the very first ancestors spoke, not blaming the language itself but sometimes also the changing world, but what is for granted is that this language sustained a lot even though we live in a very challenging age in a world scientifically taken by the non Arabs. So this could change meanings or add couple of words. And not forcibly the core of it.

Staying in the Arabic language development itself, seemingly the societies are always changing, and so is the type of interaction between Arabs and Arabs, Arabs and non

Arabs, or between any human and human ; that is no more the same. However one should likely not exclude religious part, and the identity of Arabic speakers that the majority of them are Muslims. Religion and if not carefully interpreted might create sensitivity between people, especially if they lived approximately or totally in the same region, so it becomes more than just a language-language interaction but a whole cultural contrast, where onto religion is a part. However things cannot be that bad all the time.

Arabic and Hebrew mean a lot in many terms especially to the Arabs and Jews.

In scope of development and change, Hebrew had come from very far, that is from the walls of religion and conservative primitive generations, In term of History Hebrew is not that simple to specify, for there were sometimes types of Hebrew that some might confuse with other languages, or even with societies that held the name of Hebrew in sense of belonging to the Israelites. People back then spoke Hebrew but definitely not the one they spoke today, and that’s actually the case for most languages, because a given language evolves with time, unless it met the faith of extinction. Speaking of extinction, the language of Jews had first biggest challenges that threatened its existence because world had been changing sometimes, and Hebrew and its speakers had no choice but to try adapt if not losing itself for languages that

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew were taking power in science and literature, and sometimes living in a society like the Arab Muslim one, the languages contact made Jews speak a Hebrew that is close to Arabic, approximately same happened during European renaissance, even though the European rising was the biggest hit, so at beginning, so many Jews, especially many writers and even scientists had nothing but to give up to the European languages, but not forever, because this way Hebrew would remain only the language of religion, so it had to wait for a serious determination to make of Hebrew stand on its feet, and adapt to modern age, that had taken time, because Elizer Ben Yehuda had to borrow lot of words, for Hebrew that was late to modern age development. Eventually and slowly Hebrew adapted, and had itself a status of a living modern language after lot of time.

However when we look at each, Arabic and Hebrew, we realize that Hebrew had been through a more of a dramatic path, Jews risked losing their identity many times, their language almost was about extinction, and they came back from far, with lot of borrowing, and adopting a grammar system, that resembles to Arabic, what did make Hebrew threatened is also lack of an identical society in past.

Arabic had been through a lot as well, but what is as much interesting is that not many things changed, be it with grammar, big deal of vocabulary, even we know lot of old Arabic words are not used anymore, and Arabic language had never risked extinction even today, but we cannot deny the modern effects of English, French and science languages on Arabs.

Arabs soonest as Quran was sent from heavens , they contemplated on it and created sciences of Arabic language, so from the start they felt urge for preserve and also they had their territory, and identical society which is not the case with the Jews, particularly Hebrew speakers

What we can say is that Arabic had been approximately the same for longest time that is at least since Quran was sent, in a much more stable linguistic and social territory. That helped it remain nearly the same, especially the influence of Quran whose many verses are recited by Muslims five times per day. So Arabic was even luckier with the coming of Quran that its style speaks old to modern.

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Chapter I : Historical development of Arabic and Hebrew

Out of Religion, Hebrew was nearly dead for long time especially the eras of Islamic power, or European renaissance, and people lost hope to revive it, and so because it almost ceased be used out of the religious walls, it lost a lot of time, and had to come back from very far, and even when we try to look at the Hebrew of bible and Arabic of Quran, we will notice that Arabic of Quran is and had been more realistic in many terms, for Quran spoke of all aspects of human life and made comprehend many things, and changed things in human life that never ceases to evolve.

And Arabic gave lot to Hebrew vocabulary due to coexistence during Islamic age, also in term of vocabulary, and so did European languages give to Hebrew language.

So if we look fairly at all these facts; Arabic is stronger and more influential, remained basically unchanged since very long comparing to Hebrew and even to many other languages, could be Arabic is more complicated which made it a hardcore in term of change, and the existence of Science of Arabic languages proves that right, even if Hebrew is trying to catch up.

Actually there is more than one way to look at Arabic and Hebrew, for history and development we have exposed some main periods for both, however there is a need to talk about how these languages are different yet similar as Semitic languages, and about the form or morphology in other words the thick characteristics that makes one language different than the other at an extent and written to be heard in a way, as emphasizing on words structure and morphology and much less on phonology, which we will be dealing with on the next chapter.

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ChapterII

Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

2.1 Introduction:

After we have seen the historical part of what had both Arabic and Hebrew gone through throughout history to be what they are today, on this chapter I am willing to talk about the two Semitic languages from morphological level, about the specifications of word structure, and I will try to cover up some main elements like word stems, and root, and slightly a bit of the phonological aspect, which is not the main priority on this memoire, and very particularly at this chapter.

We will at first talk separately about each language’s morphology, however not from a very thorough angle, so we will have something more to say when we reach the final element of the chapter where we would view both morphological systems comparatively. In order to specify the goal of this chapter, we would briefly have to look at the historical evolution again, concerning morphological aspects, and not forget analyzing differences or similarities of Hebrew and Arabic plural, gender, construct, adjectives, verbs, derived words, and finally pronouns, so we come up at the research question for this chapter, that is whether both languages resemble morphologically or not, that is at a defined extent if there is one.

2-2 General morphology of Arabic

2-2.1 The role of Morphology and Prosodic theory: Morphology as a part of linguistics is interested in the structure of language words, all of what makes a word, such as prefix, suffix, ….the term morphology could also mean a part of grammar system in a given language, it is also in different words an internal study of a word structure, as it was shown by Matthew (1974), while some linguists referred with Morphology as the analytical study of words ‘meaningful parts (McCarthy, 1991).

Study is maintained by a main idea which is prosodic morphology, a hypothesis that claims that both templates of reduplicative and of templatic morphology are referred to in terms of authentic of prosody units that are mora, foot, and the syllable, without forgetting the phonological word, this hypothesis from

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies prosody morphology requires that the vocabulary of prosody units in addition to stress, syllabification, epenthesis, compensatory lengthening, poetic meter, and rhymes.

2.2.2 The relevancy with Arabic Morphology: In McCarthy (1981), it was indicated that a word form like Kuttib is expressed via three morphemes, from the root “k-t-b” , and also what he called vowel melody /u- i/ which is described in term of grammar ‘’perfective passive’’, besides templatic morpheme CVCCVC, this form is also named as CV Skeleton that takes into account the variance of morphological shape, with the latter; the three parts realize basics of autosegmental phonology.

The main prescription is within the so called prosodic theory or traditional system of language versification, which is expressed within the aspects of prosody, on this process there are two cords of coordination that are classified in Arabic, it is وتد and peg سبب basically a distinction between two types of sequences, being the cord

Cord is made of a syllable, that could be a heavy, or light syllable. On the other part the peg is made particularly of continuity of heavy syllable preceded by a light syllable.

is also considered in arabic the foot, particularly called ‘iambic وتد The peg foot’

2.2.3 Moras: Moras as being of the peg’s basic features, it could be prescribed as when basically a syllable with one mora followed by another syllable with two moras which equals the forms of the heavy Cvv and CvC syllables. Another example of moras comes as a result of the resolution phenomenon, showing in meters named ‘Wafeer’ and ‘Kaamil’, in a verse, poet may be able using two light syllables or one heavy we .and this is a case of Mora counting ”متفاعلن مفاعلتن‘ get what we refer to in Arabic as That particular case is when a light syllable takes place of a single mora, while two moras are occupied by two light syllables. Equivalence is excepted to be a balance.

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

is ”سجع" and the rhymed prose ’’القافية’‘ The traditional typology of the rhyme dependent on the part of ‘heavy syllable’

In Arabic each case of rhyme is identical from others by the placement of heavy syllable in a given verse.

2.2.4 Stress: Stress in Arabic leads to the same point as with rhyme situations, for in fact there is a remarkable discrepancy when it comes to stressing with Arabic words, and not any explicit proof on this point that had existed from classical era.

Below we can notice stress placement.

Final------Penult------Antepenult

ياكل ياكلوكتب

The stress rule might be levelled down as in the statement below :

1- Stress occuring on the final syllable in condition if we have CvvC or CvCC.

2- Stress occurring as the penultimate syllable in condition of having

Cvv or CvC.

3-Or, it stresses the antepenultimate.

The case one occurs mostly if not only in classical Arabic. Our observation is that penult happens to be stressed if it is bimoraic, or stress will happen on the antepenult.

On metrical stress as relevant to its typology with stress feet indicated by Hayes(1987) and McCarthy & Prince (1986), elaborated on basis of Hayes survey (1985). This is basically as stress pattern derived by foot which is called moraic. This kind of foot includes particularly two moras and it is to be stressed on the left.

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

Heavy/ light distinction

Partly speaking, Arabic language’s phonology as well offers evidence of the heavy/light distinction.

We must take into consideration a process case using relevant term from we can ”االفعال الجوفاء“ Brame(1970), the choice in vowel length is within hollow verbs see an example for this below:

قالقلت-

يقوليقلن-

/Yaquul+u/ /Yaquul+na / Original form

(Yaquulu) (Yaqulna) Short spoken form

In the case of closed syllables there’s a direct interpretation case in moraic conception. In Arabic, the heaviest syllable is always one with two moras, while long vowel must possess both together. However CcV also has two moras.

Joining these two points, we notice with sense that there should be an incompatibility between the long vowel and syllable final consonant.

Many most languages, including Arabic, the vowel’s length gives path under the pressure of consonant that there might be an option that it could be unsyllabifiable, we can again sense this in informal examples as specifically shown below:

Input form:

(Yaqulna =yaquul+na)

Derived form:

(Ya q u l na = yaqul+na)

In Arabic language, medial syllables starts basically with one consonant, yet initial sequences of two consonants happen. This is formulated well in verbs with

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

or what might be referred همزة الوصل derivatives that possess what is called in Arabic to in English as ‘’elideable’’ glottal stop.

these are property forces, a ’’افتعل'‘ from the weight stem of ’ا نتشر‘ Such as ’’استفعل’‘ longer stem form is to be

Phonologically speaking the initial glottal stop and the vowel that comes after are not to be elided but are considered within process of syllabification, for example the stem form may be pronounced ‘ fta3ala’ isolation the ‘I’ that in all it should rather be written and pronounced ‘Ifta3ala’.

There are some different phonological situations in phonological phrase or a given utterance:

Postpausally: if ta3al (Utterance)

Postconsonantly: qad if ta 3al

Speaking of stems again, we might find not less but also more than a simple Cv, CvC, or Cvv. Something identical with Arabic language is that all stems in Arabic finish with a consonant, therefore with applying this rule; the Cvv and Cv stem final syllables are not correct to the principles of Arabic language.

:الصرف Arabic Sarf 2.2.5 If we look at the most accurate term for morphology in Arabic we would have ,(ص ر ف ) Sarf. A word taken from the verb’s root (الصرف) what is called in Arabic which means to change something or turn it into something else.

...... "ال يقبل هللا منه يوم القيامة صرفا وال عدال".

الحديث ص مسلم من كتاب الحج باب المدينة

ص 996

will be (عدل) nor its equivalent ( صرف ) In translation: Neither forfeiture accepted from him.

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

is the changing of the basic صرف In definition from another context, the term root into different forms in order to create other words that share the root and provide with the past tense, and (قطع) changes into( َق ْطع) another meaning. For example the root (يقطع) it becomes

includes the whole set of derivatives that comes from the root, such as (الصرف) participles, word’s passive active forms,and adjectives. Basically it is a science that is concerned with the forms of words and it describes why there might be weak words, or strong words produced as sounds. This term actually meets with the English term morphology that from its part as well requires a part of phonology.

There have been some difference in trying to explain the term morphology and The earliest figures who made a purpose for .(الصرف) of what it deals exactly with or this science wasIbn al-haajibwithin his commentary on Ash-Shaafiya, and he declared “ Morphology is the science of word origins, by them the condition of the forms of the words as known without their declensions”.

However there were some opponents who argued about the core term of Ibn al-haahib’s morphology, Al-radhi was the most eminent mainly.

But today most scholars agree on the term, and no hard debates have been counted during modern era.

Arabic Sarf is divided into two parts:

( األسماء المتمكنة) and nouns ,(األفعال المتصرفة ) Derived verbs

Any other words that are not on these two, they are no to be taken into Arabic sarf’s concern. For example Aphabets, and pronouns with all their types; personal, relative, and demonstrative, and nouns such as conditional or interrogative, or smallest or verbs that have less than upon three letters, for a word or a ( اد,كم ) nouns such as verb should be at least of three letters in root , and so is with foreign nouns, and rigid ,( بئس ,عسي ) verbs for example

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

2.2.6 Scales of Sarf: As it has been noted above, most Arabic words come up with a root of three letters, scholars needed to organize and classify, and that what they did, when they and ( فعل) classified these words into three original letters to give us the separated word they considered the latter as a scale, through which a given word is to be measured. By as the second letter (ع ) ,as the initial part of the root ( ف)dividing this root, we get as the last part of the root. The forms of the word are scaled within this ( ل ) root, and scale, and as particular vowels and consonants are not distinguished.

:for practical reasons( فعل) Sarf scholars made choice of the word

First of all, most words in Arabic consist of three letters, and that is identical ( فعل) to the word scale

speaks of an action verb and each ( فعل) Semantically speaking, the word scale .( وقف, صافح ,دهب )such as فعل verb indicate an action or

Letters represent sounds, and are significant in making meaning in a given word, and so they represent necessity on every given Arabic word, and so they cannot be subject of deletion.

فعل) As we mentioned about relation between sound and letter, The word scale ) is made of three separate phonetic sounds, and each letter in scale is pronounced from a different physical part.

comes from the back ع is produced via lips, while ف As an example the letter .is made in the centre of mouth ل of speaker’s throat. And

The usefulness of the Sarf scales is that they define the characteristics of a given word and made point if the word is original, increased or decreased in form, the scale also serves in identifying the type of letters and what there are of consonants and vowels, and basically the root of the verb, its weakness point and strength point.

Below we are going to see how the Arabic Sarf scale is used, through showing the word, meaning, and its scale:

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

Word Meaning Scale َفعَ َل Ate أَ َك َل

فُ ِع َل Wasstolen سٌ ٍر َق

َف ْعل Eye َع ْين

فٌعُ ْل Ear أٌذُ ْن

َفعَ ْل Nothingness َع َد ْم

فِعَ ْل Grape ِع َن ْب

فِ ْعل Category ِص ْنف

فُ ْعل Lock قُ ْفل Table 1: Arabic sarf scale As we have just seen in the table above; that the standard scale perfectly follows the exactly the articulation of the word to wear its accurate articulation.

requires from the scale to follow up أ َك َل As an instance, the word verb ofأ articulation of vowels on consonant, and so because there is ‘’fat’ha’’ in the letterَ ,from scale will be carrying the ‘fat’ha’ as it is shown upon َف the word, the first letter . َل as in َل and finally , َك as in ع َ then

عين is ع while theَ , فاء الكلمة is called أ َ that is أَ َك َل The first letter from the verb الم الكلمةit is called ; ل and for the final letter ,الكلمة

( ُ ) ’’Same will follow up dependently either with’‘dam’ma

( ُ ): kasra’’ as in this example’‘

( ُْ ) : ’’Or ‘’soo’koon

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

In case when a word’s root consist of more than three letters and the added letters are hard to detect for the main reason that they are from original built of the word and so the meaning is reliable on them, therefore the scale is expanded in length to adapt with the word form. If the word is made up of one additional letter, in other words; four letters, and so in case of four letters; the scale will use one additional :as you can see in following table ( ل) letter

Word Meaning Scale

فَ ْعلَ َل Neglect أَ ْه َم َل

ف ْعلَ ْل Croissant م ْن َج ْل

فَ ْعلَ ْل Refuge َم ْل َجأ

ف ْعل ْل Moss ط ْحل ْب scale ( ل) Table 2: Letter 4-1The Hebrew‘’Binyan’’: As we have seen some major details on morphology of Arabic language or “Sarf” the equivalent Arabic word for morphology, on this Hebrew part we will explore some of the main areas of interest in Hebrew Morphology, for the latter we would mention the Hebrew word for Morphology and that it is ‘’Binyan’’.

Binyan was mentioned as some say might have been first used in the book of Ezekiel holding the sense of structure and form, yet Binyan is used in slightly different cases on which the verb’s root might come into. So it is mainly envisioned in grammatical context, and if we look for a translation in English language we will find terms as: form, modification, verb pattern, or stem. The translation is especially different from that of Greek or Latin if we adapt the term conjugation, because in these two languages it means generally relationship between morphological part of language and language grammar components.

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

Hebrew is not an exception in significance of verb/morphology analysis, and that’s the matter with all other Semitic languages, under which Arabic is classified as sister language, but the differences are with grammatical functions in relation with A different morphology or Binyan.

2.3.1 Five main benyanim: The word in Hebrew might be conjugated to set of benyanim systems that are counted seven at peak. Among them, two that are passive analogues of other two and are not conjugations according to Mark Aronoff the author with the sense he adopted in his book entitled Morphology by itself: Stems and inflectional classes. Taking these aside we will count five main benyanim.

Mark Aronoff used ‘qtl’ as a root standard to the five remaining benyanim, particularly in the third person masculine, singular, and perfect. In Hebrew there are traditional glosses of binyan, it is a paradigm of the prefixed and unprefixed.

2.3.2 Verbs and nouns Verbs are inflected in tenses view to gender and number of subject.

In imperative, there is an indication of number and gender, and for every binyan we get a thirty forms-binyan, and the forms are very regular.

Semantically speaking there is absence of idiosyncratic forms in the paradigms, however in other words we have a condition of inflection.

On the following table we will have a view on binyan system, following a general root system that most of it binyan names were used for words in the biblical text that recorded more than 70% of words root are presented in as ‘qal’, 32% in ‘hif’ il’, 28% as nif’al, about 27% of ‘pi’el’, and 11% in ‘hitpa ‘el’. And though the table content is seen sometimesfalsifying according to Berman 1978. But it is worth looking at.

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

Binyan name 3, masc, sg, perf. Gloss Qal qatal ‘To kill’ nif’ al Niqal ‘To kill oneself’ Pi’ el qittel ‘To massacre’ hif’il hiqtil ‘to cause to kill’ Hitpa’el Hitqattel ‘To kill oneself’ Table 3: active-verb binyanim from the book of Mark Aronoff’s Morphology by Itself: Stems and Inflectional Classes- page 124

The binyan names as shown in table have been issued as they hold gaps when you try to characterize a word, and if that indicates anything, it indicates a sort of weakness when we identify tenses, etc. For this reason being issued, Waltke and O’Connor gave binyan a new structural name, that he called ‘’ System of derivational Morphology’’(1990, 350), this seems more fair in dealing with morphology, details and sub details, whilst it is generally known that binyanim as treated by Waltke and O’Connor; as having characteristic of a derivational system in contrast with an inflectional one.

To give judgment of what we have mentioned, it is essential to say that the most adequate dealing with Hebrew morphology, particularly ‘’Hebrew verb’s Morphology’’, it does appear to mind more of a direct treat, for the fact that Binyanim are derivational like we mentioned besides they are within lexeme-formational categories, and the inflection falls in between, tense, aspect, mood forms. This is confirmed by most Modern investigators on Hebrew Morphology (Bolozky, Ornan, et al).

There is a variable difficulty when dealing with Hebrew because it is necessary to make distinction between Biblical Hebrew and Modern Hebrew as it is spoken in middle east today, for there are no native speakers of Biblical Hebrew, Bolozky 1982, gave a fine account of Modern Hebrew as spoken in Middle east today.

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

Bolozky made an initial point, by talking of the binyan name ‘’qal’’ which is numerically most common, has no practical significance in the making of modern Hebrew verbs, and so has not the other binyanname that is ‘’nif’ al’’, while the most influential binyan names that could lead in forming new verbs are: ‘’pi’el’’, and secondarily ‘’hitpa’ el’’

Besides verbs’ binyan system, the noun binyan that is as a system; is similar to what is called the mishkal, in other word ‘weight system’ the two are identical in general, made of templates (carrying prefix, or suffix), we see below HebrewMishkal patterns taken from Berman 1978, where in this table there is a sharp difference between them in term of grammar. We will see as well the root, through which we sense word’s main letters.

Mishkal Example Gloss Root Gloss CaCCan ‘rakdan’ ‘dancer’ Rkd ‘dance’ ‘batlan’ ‘loafer’ btl ‘loaf’ ‘saxcan’ ‘player’ sxk ‘play’

CaCiC ‘parix’ ‘cumbly’ prk ‘crush’ ‘Savir’ ‘Breakable’ Sbr ‘break’ ‘Kari’ ‘Readable’ kr’ ‘read’ maCCeC maspex ‘Funnel’ Spk ‘pour’ mafteax ‘Key’ ptx ‘open’ maghec ‘Iron’ ghc ‘press’

miCCaCa mispara ‘barbershop’ spr ‘cut’ mirpaa ‘clinic’ rp ‘heal’ minhara ‘tunnel’ nhr ‘flow’ CaCeCet ademet ‘measles’ Dm ‘red’ xazeret ‘mumps’ xzr ‘return’ kalevet ‘rabies’ klb ‘dog’ Table 4 :HebrewMishkal patterns

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

After made notice of the table, it is as fairly logical to say that Mishkal system is not an obligation for what is not inflectional, in a whole Mishkalim are not inflectional classes.

In Hebrew, and unlike the case with verbs, nouns have no paradigms, for the main reason that Hebrew has no case affixes except the definite object which is a separated part and a case marker, as there is basically a marker for gender and number, which is one of the facts in Hebrew, however the Morphology of these details is not that simple or easy to explain. What for sure is that markers cannot be classified as inflectional either. The relation then between Mishkalin and Binyanim is a general one, that might put us in confusion, but there is a way to look at Mishkalim regardless of the generality identification, it is quite important to know difference between grammar and morphology, Mark Arnoff made analysis that binyanim are inflectional classes from which lexemes are assigned which is having do with forming words by basing on the similar unit generalizing number of limited words due to following certain rules, Arnoff described them ‘lexeme rules’ as ‘Clearly derivational’ referring to binyanim as well. But he made a distinction that these rules have limited functions, or as having no further functions. And so some things in Hebrew are secondary in function for when they are no inflectional in noun classes.

Speaking of Hebrew language, the whole verbs and most nouns and adjectives are made of roots as we have seen, the word might consist between two and four consonants, such roots are to be embedded in phonological word patterns to create language words.

Roots like word patterns are of abstract forms, so they are morphemes holding particular meanings, it is as interesting to read what (Berman 1978) stated‘’ Although these morphemes carry some semantic and syntactic information, their meaning is often obscure and changes for each root-pattern combination’’

The absence of equivocal rules for word meaning production and combining roots might be most accurate explanation. As an example the word ‘Zimra’ (singing) is

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies derivation of the ‘zmr’ root. It is composed first of all from root and the phonological pattern(_i__a)

The root ‘zmr’ references to anything singing related, however phonological pattern may not be always one, which in our example as (_i__a), and it is usually used for feminine nouns that are influenced by the root. Other examples might follow up to mean as many different meanings that still would be close or a bit to the content of singing. For the word Zamar itself does mean ‘singer’ which is made by combination of root ‘zmr’ and the phonological pattern( _a_ _a_), and in this case there was a reason for doubling the second consonant in order to make a syntactic information for profession (singer). The root might be used differently when meaning words other than professions, as an example the word ‘tizmoret’ (Orchestra) is formed by a combination of the root zmr with the phonological pattern ( ti_ _o_ ) using both vowels and consonants, with this phonological pattern we create a form of feminine word, however the same phonological pattern can be applied for other words than of feminine indication, forming different verbs and nouns, following a given root respect.

Word Printed form Word pattern Meaning /zamar / Zmr _a_a_ a male singer /zemer / Zmr _e_e_ a song /zameret/ Zmrt _a_e_et a female singer /zimra / Zimrh _i_ _a Singing / zamir/ Zmir _a_i_ A nightingale /tizmoret / Tzmort ti_ _o_et an orchestra /mizmor/ Mazmor mi_ _o_ a psalm /zamarut / Zmrut _a_a_ut singing profession Table 5: Printed form & Word pattern Although two morphemes can basically compose a Hebrew word, the meaning expressed by one word or another does more rely on semantic basis than merely on a word’s phonological pattern.

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

One more aspect to register for Hebrew morphology is the way which by two morphemes are combined for use. The most common type of morphological formation in inflected languages consists of affixation of an element to a base morpheme (Matthews, 1972)

Root and pattern combination is considered the most eminent typological feature of word formation, mainly speaking in verbs, a consonantal element that is being a ‘’root’’ is discontinuous for it is inserted into discontinuous vocalic pattern with the extra contribution of particular consonant to create a word form:

balat ‘protruded, stood out’

hivlit ‘made conspicuous, stressed’

hitbalet ‘was outstanding, excelled’

blita ‘protrusion, bulge’

baluta ‘gland’

tavlit ‘relief’

havlata ‘prominence, emphasis’

muvlat ‘conspicuous, salient’

hitbaltut ‘prominence, excellence’

- From Discountinous to Linear Word Formation in Modern Hebrew -

2.4- Comparison of the two Morphologies

2.4.1 Phonological comparison: In Arabic there are twenty eight consonant phonemes, and twenty three for its Semitic sister Hebrew, as Semitic languages the two do have in common, however the number of voiced and voiceless fricatives in Arabic is much more than in Hebrew. In

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

Arabic some consonants function as separate phonemes, yet they have merged in Hebrew.

‘Emphatic’ is named to some consonants, it is assumed that they are pharyngealized: In Arabic ta(T), dad(D), za(Z) and sad(S) while in Hebrew tet(T).

Arabic Hebrew

Dad(D), za(Z), and sad(S) sade(S)

Ha (X) and ha (H) het(H)

Ayn(9) and ghayn(g) ayin(9)

ta(F) sin(C)

dal(V) zayin(Z)

-Phonological structure of Verbal roots in Arabic and Hebrew-Bernard NehemiaBechra. P.10

As influenced by morphological system, Arabic consonants are pronounced very similarly to the classical Arabic language of Quran, and the pre-Islamic literature.

The canonical written consonant texts of Hebrew bible was established during the first millennium BC, but was formalized between 600 and 900 A.D by Masoretes in Tiberias.

The sin (C) and the sin(c) were used through the same sign in Biblical Hebrew (BH) representing different consonants phonemes. The sin (C) in Hebrew may have been a lateral coronal fricative as it is still in Modern South Arabic. (See Moscati et al. 1969)

Prior the era of Masoretes, the phonetic distinction between the samek(s) that its sign was used in Biblical Hebrew, while the sin(C) was gone. The trait was alone lost in the velarized(Pharyngealized) consonants qof (q) and tet(T) within Hebrew’s traditional pronunciation.

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

In general the sade in Hebrew(S) used to be pronounced as a coronal affricate a bit after the living Biblical era, basically speaking of Mishnaic Hebrew which witnessed the same phonetic distinction between consonsants, while other changes occurred, only the spelling that had remained traditional so to stay identical with old Hebrew texts. Bernard NehemiaBachra on his study book Phonological structure of Verbal roots in Arabic and Hebrew. P11, said :..In addition it should be noted that the merges of Arabic consonant phonemes in Hebrew occur within the groups of coronals and the gutturals, while the variation in the pronunciation of Hebrew phonemes all concern coronal fricatives..’

In North-West Semitic languages and in many of the dialects of Arabic, stops can be spirantized under certain conditions (Mosccati et al. 1969. 9.5, Fischer abdJastrow 1980).

Following Masoretic tradition over Biblical Hebrew, the following stops( bet(b), gimmel (G), dalet (d), kaf (k), pe (p), and taw(t) are spirantized. This specification was already in used during 4th century BC, or much before. And spearking of spiranitzation, it takes places in one of three conditions, or morphologically speaking, ‘a three root positions’ in all forms of nouns and verbs paradigms, by emphasis on any three root positions, at any case where these particular consonants are either syllable final or as when are preceded by an open syllable.

Today’s modern Hebrew kept spirantization of bet (b), kaf (k), and pe (p) as confirmed by (Juon and Muraoka, 1991).

Speaking of what had been kept, Arabic, generally kept much of its classical morphological system and a bit less than much on phonological level that still knows variation until today.

Arabic and Hebrew morphologies as identical in description they are Semitic sisters and have in common as languages of same tree, and as far as morphology is

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies concerned, it is quite typical that they are based on consonant root system, consisting between two and four skeletal consonants holding a general concept completed with certain patterns of vowels, and prefixes, suffixes, infixes added to.

For the nouns, and in the two languages, it can be preceded by a definite article, for example: ‘al’ in Arabic, while it is the ‘ha’ in Hebrew, and are prefixed in relation to the word to be defined, and the article is invariable in both number and gender, in other words applying with all words, yet in both languages there are some causes of ambiguities.

Arabic language, there is assimilation of the ‘l’ of article preceding dentals, sibilants and n( N, DH, T, D, S, sh, z, r, dh, d, th, t ) and are called ‘’the sun letters’’ because the equivalent word in Arabic ‘’shams’’ and that for a case, one of shams’letters will be used in beginning of a given word. The outcome would be that the initial consonant letter will be doubled in term of pronunciation, even if it is still to seem only one consonant on the written form, as an example: al+ramlo, (The sand), and is pronounced as ‘’arramlo’’, as in the example; al shams, al nahr. Pronounced as follows: ashams, annahr.

In Hebrew, the first consonant on the word becomes doubled, but when the first vowel is ‘’e’’, the article then will be ‘’he’’.

2.4.2 Gender: In a matter of sense, nouns are either masculine or feminine, in Arabic and so in Hebrew, the final phoneme that characterizes feminine noun is ‘a’, but on written form, the’ a’ is not written but pronounced, and at the end ‘ta marbouta’ is written in Arabic . And the silent ‘h’ following the pronunciation of ‘a’.While In Hebrew by an ‘h’ which could also follow the ‘a’ pronunciation but is also silent.

These are called specific markers, and they do revert to the letter t in writing whenever a prominent suffix is attached to a given word, they are sounded but are distinguished through a special spelling.

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

Historically speaking, feminine ending used to be ‘at’ in Proto-Semitic, and the ‘t’ usually was not pronounced, with this we might open door for Semitic declension, a phenomenon which is still sustained by Quranic Arabic, and the standard one.

Words like feminine gender marked by the original final ‘at’ used to be followed by a three cases ending; nominative, accusative, and genitive. For example the Arabic word for city ‘madina’ in the nominative case was to be ‘madinatun’

As far as history is concerned, Arabic had been more conservative than Hebrew, and even many other Semitic languages.

Proto- Semitic as well knew declension similarly, case endings were identical with definite Arabic, and until today members of family’s, like ‘ab’(father), akh(brother), and basically in constraint state , the case endings remain the same.

Still on antiquity side, Hebrew does yet possess suffix ‘ah’, that completes the nouns indicating directions, that could possibly be remained from old accusative. For example: ;ereça (lit. “to the land”, i.e. middle east land”). “;eth”as a preposition plays the role of an accusative marker for definite nouns: “qaH ;eth habasar” (=take the meat < “basar”= meat; “qaH”= imperative of verb “laqaH”, to take). An example of ‘’eth’’ use is witnessed on the book of Genesis :bereshíthbara; ;èlohím ;eth hashamayimwe;ethha;ereç (In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth).

For both accusative and genitive, concerning dual endings; áni [alif + nún] for nominative and -ayni [yá; + nún], and the final as a declension ending is to be lost. The same declension endings are found in classical Arabic’s plural words, only an exception for external plurals, and for the oblique cases .i.e. accusative and genitive ; are not spelled as in the same way as nominative.

Arabic masculine words end in consonants, but some exceptions as: ‘Umm, yad, ukht’ (Mother, hand, sister). While the case with Hebrew, the majority of nouns

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies of abstract nature are denoted to as feminine, that includes other noun consonant ending in another feminine ending marker than ‘h’

2.4.3 Plural: Staying with Hebrew, the plural form is as simple as straight, for to make plural masculine you adds ‘im’, while for feminine you add óth’ white few modifications of vowels into Shwas, as an example: Tov >Tovím - Tovah>Tovóth (good).

For Arabic plural, there is an indicating system of plural forms to follow up, the exception falls on words containing more than four consonants. Apart from exception, the majority of Arabic words realized their plural by changing vowel patterns and in some cases they acquire affixes, and the four letter words remain most highly predictable.

The plural shape would be as the following root consonantal models and their identical words:CaCáCiC: Assadik (friend), note that with similar plural, the feminine ending is dropped. CvCCvvC base nouns are usually of people, and they basically follow the plural shape’CaCáCiCa’, for instance: Ustadh>;asatidha( professor-professors)

The three consonants word case; there are no basic rules, but to learn them from dictionaries.

CiCCa: Kit3a, kita3 (piece, pieces)

CuCCa: Nukta, nukat( joke, jokes)

2.4.4 The construct: The construct, practically construct state like it is called in western grammars as expressed through some indo European languages, it is very common in Semitic languages. In indo European languages there is what is called as ‘genitive case’, or ‘preposition’, Even though it has other marking roles.

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In modern Hebrew, it is essential to stress that the construct state is uniquely used to create some phrases, such as ‘a football game’

‘‘This is no suprise to me, since the Hebrew construct is quite intrincated in what concerns voweling and suffixes, being in this respect more complicated than Arabic’’ Quoted from MaurícioCarvalho on Arabic and Hebrew compared.

In Arabic, the possessor comes after the possessed thing, so for example; Car of the father would become ‘Car the father’.

In the construct state suffixes like of dual and plural lose the final nasal, and it takes vowels modification in Hebrew, so as just noted above, in Arabic, the final n will be lost. And for the Hebrew case, the final m will be lost.

On the Hebrew case, there are as well other changes occurring, and that is before the lost ‘m’, for example the Hebrew word ‘Beney’ is basically ‘Benim’ without omitting the m.

2.4.5 Adjectives: Looking through adjectives, demonstratives, pronouns, and verbs, and inanimate nouns, Mauricio found no basic explanation, but generally speaking, in both languages and a bit more especially with Arabic, big amount of words take ‘a’ to become feminine.

Semitic languages make no distinction between nouns and adjectives so well (much like Latin), so for example in Arabic, instead of saying the big book, they rather say ‘the book the big’, and you realize the noun came before the adjective, this is different to English, as when an Englishman says’ I want the yellow one’, referring to something colorful, and so in Semitic languages, we don’t need to write the equivalent of the word ‘one’. And like Arabic, the same thing goes with Hebrew, like the following example: ‘haSeferHagadol’. In translation; ‘Sefer’ would be ‘book’, and ‘gadol’ is the adjective ‘big’. And again; the adjective is preceded by the noun.

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If you look at the Arabic adjective, you sense a comparative superiority structure, aCaCC, and when C2 and C3 are the same, they will result in the formulaaCaCC, with last consonants doubled. So we have as examples; saghir/asghar( small/ samller ). Basit/absatt’( simple/ simpler), this implies on adjectives that have no more than three consonants, words as such like ‘Masi’hi(Christian) do not follow the previous models. And in order to make superiority with this case; one can use the relevant noun plus word model as ‘akthar’(more), and the preposition ‘min’ which is ‘more’ in English. An example ‘Al jazairakbar min Almania’( Algeria is bigger than Germany).

In Hebrew, which is simpler than most of its sibling languages, as far as adjectives are concerned; it has not got very complex rule nor an exceptional one. And the superiority in Hebrew goes like this:

‘hú; gadol min hayeledh’- if translate it as it is you will get the following English statement(He is big from the kid), but the original meaning would be( He is bigger than the kid). But this is more on the classical Hebrew side.

In Modern Hebrew, they use the word (yóter) to signify ‘more’ besides the preposition ‘min’ that signifies ‘than’ as previously explained, and the ‘mi’ as the shortened version of it. And so we need to follow the next model example : the more elegant adjective + yóter construction: yóter Ham or Ham yóter = warmer.

2.4.6 Verbs: Like any language, verbs happen to be conjugated, and certain modifications might take place, either by root changing, or adding affixes.

All verbs have their base forms, and taking for instance the third person masculine singular or what might be called ‘perfective singular’, note that we know there is a gender difference, like all Semitic languages.

Because verbs are concerned, this would lead us to talk about stems, we are normally aware that there is what is known besides perfective stem , also an

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies imperfective one, the latter and former need suffixes to be added to. Let’s take the following examples of Arabic conjugated verbs in first, second and third pronouns masculine: katabtu, katabta, kataba, the final vowel, which is a short one as you can sense, this short vowel is only maintained when pronominal suffix is added, while for the imperfect, the final short ‘u’ is omitted. Something to count for Arabic verbs when conjugated is the presence of ‘dual’, represented by the pronoun ‘homaa’, while for the plural the verbs takes long ‘u’ at the end, which is spelled as (waw + alif), plus (na) in some cases. Also there is dual and plural feminine. For Hebrew, the second person plural feminine is used in elevated style by modern tongue. And sometimes in many Arabic dialects the plural verb form is lost, or the end is completed modified, depending on region and sometimes on the verb itself. In Arabic and in the case of normal verbs, the second vowel (C2) receives in the Arabic imperfective, like most native language speakers over the world, Arabs do make mistakes, and some might use a very distinguished vowel system, on both perfective and imperfective.

Generally speaking, Arabic and Hebrew conjugation not surprisingly do meet with tense, and what is interesting is that the perfective of complete actions makes equivalence to European languages past tense, while the imperfective telling actions not totally complete is adopted by present tense, and future tense.

In Arabic there is the prefix ‘sawfa’ to use before the verb telling about future, however in modern Hebrew, they use the imperfective just for future, and to do that, they also use the old present participle as a verb conjugated in present tense declining as an adjective: kotev, kotvah, kotvím, kotvót.

Verbs such as those with semivowel, or glottal stop, or with letters that sustain their roots, or verbs whose last consonants are something like (h-b-b) from Arabic (yohibbo), or (to love) in Arabic.

There are some verbs in north west Semitic group ending up with (n), and one of the core root is this (n), especially when this n is what is to be the first consonant (C1) The verb then loses the n, and that because it already gained a prefix.

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

In a case when the second consonant happens to be a semivowel , that is to say (y, w), changes will happen as follow: ’a’ will be placed between first and third consonant, because the middle of root of verb’s noun that is lost.

We are directly talking of Arabic word examples like: (nawm, sleeping), the verb would be (naama, yanoomo), the w of nawm is lost, and took its place a long (a) in past, and a long (o) in present of the verb, and the same example will repeat with the verb of the noun (mw t) death.

To meet the point with Hebrew, we shall take the Arabic noun (qiyam) which means standing in English. In the present, both Arabic and Hebrew verb for qiyam, would be yaquum. But also the past form would be qam. Except that in Arabic the past ‘qam’ makes the a longer(qaam+a). In Arabic, the formula for the perfective is CaCC and for the imperfective yaCvCC. In Hebrew, CaCC and yiCvCC.

In Semitic languages the derived stems are very innovative for with one simple verb you can create other ones, and the new verbs merge mainly after vowel modifications, and from then adding prefixes to the stem, however changes in form might sometimes exaggerate the meaning for more or less, or just totally change it.

In order to bring Arabic and Hebrew to the point, we should state first that Arabic has nine derived conjugations, any by each there is an active form and a passive form. But on the other hand Hebrew has six derived conjugations, from which three are active, and three others as passive. And we should note here that a simple verb is considered an active one as well.

From Arabic we can take the base form of the verb (fa3ala) To do. While for Hebrew words, the verbs stem formula may be referenced to the Hebrew verb (Pacal), the Hebrew equivalent of the verb to do. The Hebrew verb qaTal, and the following is the structures or Binyamin possible list of derived stems as taken from MaurícioCarvalho’sArabic and Hebrew Compared:

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

niqTal - often functioning as the passive of the binyamqaTal (or simple verb) - imp. yiqqaTel, imperative hiqqaTel

hiqTíl - often causative

húqTal - often the passive of hiqTil

qíTTel - often transitive intensive

qúTTal - is the passive of qiTTel

hithqaTTel - often intransitive of qiTTel

By considering morphology before semantics, we need to note what follows: As a common between both languages, they both and basically share similar intensive stem system, despite of differences in some derived stems. So in order to raise power to the meaning, the Arabic verb qatal is to become qattal( to kill many people) While the Hebrew version; qatal turns to qattel. Also to mean( kill lot of people).

In the imperfect case, the first consonant (C1) keeps its vowel, and the exception is on the simple verbs only. For example:

The Arabic Yuqattil, and the Hebrew yéqaTTel, as you can see the Arabic prefix on the verb Yuqattil is voweled as ‘u’ instead of ‘a’ as in verbs of root(yaf3alo), and that happenes whenever a derived stem is structured by radical doubling. Causative case of stem is obtained with a prefix a in Arabic, and hi in Hebrew, we would have the loss of vowel from C1, but in Hebrew the C2 obtains a vowel like the following example: aqtal- hiqTil meaning (causing to kill).

More similar intensive stem verbs from both language to meet with different prefixes; as with the Arabic prefix ta, and hith in Hebrew, therefore we can make the following examples: taqattal, hithqaTTal, meaning (to fight until death).

This similarity is not a coincidence because according to the linguist Andrew Bayles on his article of Arabic and Hebrew as distinct languages published on Quora.com-8 Mars 2019. He confirms that Arabic and Hebrew have a lexical

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies similarity of around 58%. Andrew goes far and said that both languages were one before they were split, on his Article Andrew gave multiples examples to stress a similarity or difference at least on the form which is what interests us the most as we are through this research looking from morphological angle:

The word ‘la’ in Arabic or (No) in translation; does sound similar to the Hebrew version ‘lo’ slightly different even though they do mean the same thing. And other similar words like Arabic salām and Hebrew šalôm. Andrew Bayles explains about this example where hesaid: ‘’In fact, there’s a general trend that words with ā in Arabic have ō or ô in Hebrew..)

There is also another frequent rule, that in many cases words that are similar in form with Arabic and has the d sound in Arabic, it will turn into z sound which is sometimes doubled, for example: arabicHada, and hazzèh. Meaning (this) in both languages.

5-2Morphological comparison a- (K-T-B) derived words

Words in any language show not only the effect from verb to nouns, but also are recognized through a root system, so as far as the two sister languages are concerned; One main feature that makes both languages most familiar to their speakers is the root K-T-B. As you will read below, Andrew Bayles on his article selected some Arabic words derived from the root K-T-B, and then he did the make a selection of some of the Hebrew words derived from the root K-T-B

b- Some Arabic words derived from the root K-T-B

kitāb ‘book’

kātib ‘writer’

kutayyib ‘booklet’

katabat ‘clerks’

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

maktaba ‘library; bookstore’

katība ‘document’

katā’ib ‘document’

iktitāb ‘registration’

muktatib ‘subscriber’

kātaba / yukātibu ‘to correspond (exchange letters)’

iktataba ‘to be registered’

istaktaba ‘to cause to write’

c- Some Hebrew words derived from root K-T-B:

kattåḇ ‘reporter’

kattåḇå ‘article’

k'ṯôḇèṯ ‘address’

k'ṯīḇ ‘spelling’

taḵtīḇ ‘prescript’

m'ḵuttåḇ ‘addressee’

k'ṯubbå ‘[Jewish] marriage contract’

hiḵtīḇ ‘he dictated’

hiṯkattéḇ ‘he corresponded’

niḵtaḇ ‘it was written’

d- Pronouns and suffixes

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

Like other Semitic languages, Arabic and Hebrew instead of using separate words, when it comes to possessive personal adjectives, both sister languages attach suffixes to the word possessed.

-Object personal pronouns such as (me, you, him..);are used as suffixes as well, this is applied with one exception basically like the possessive suffixes. The first personal pronoun does the exception, talking of ‘me’, in lot of Semitic languages they more or less assume the form ‘ni’ part.

Addition of these suffixes causes the initial vowel of some longer( no less than two syllables) becoming one of the four Shwa’s, it is important to remind that these suffixes make the feminine ending(at) to both writing and pronunciation. Let’s look up at the following Arabic example :

Madina, madinati.( City, my city)

Suffixes are not a certain just on prepositions, but as well interrogative words, like this example taken from middle eastern Arabic(informal) Kayfak? ( How are you?), (kayf = how), like what happens with the construct state. Nowadays Hebrew they make use of the preposition ‘shel’ or the English preposition ‘of’, except that when it is used, one would have to add ‘i’ after ‘shel’. So someone from there would say: SeferSheli, or (My book).

When you read both Arabic and Hebrew pronouns you will see a high similarity between both languages, not only in the gender used pronouns, but also you will notice that they in most cases begin with the same syllable, and vowels change like sometimes from the Arabic ‘a’ to the Hebrew ‘ i’ or to ‘u’. Or consonants do change stress position from a language to another:

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

Arabic pronoun Hebrew pronoun Meaning Ana Ani I Anta Atta You Anti Att You(feminine) Huwa Hû He Hiya Hi She Nahnu Anaḥnû We Antum Attèm You(plural) Antunna Attèn You(Plural feminine) Hum hém They Hunna Hén They(feminine) Table 6: Arabic & Hebrew pronouns

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ChapterII :Comparative view between Arabic and Hebrew Morphologies

6-Conclusion On this second chapter, morphology was the concern of a part of comparison between the two, though not on a very fairly equal level, because the two languages are not compacted, for there is what makes Arabic, and as well there is what makes Hebrew like Hebrew. But the conclusion would be that Arabic has morphological characteristics from which we distinguish between verb, noun and etc. The form of the Arabic words seem to be more original, not just as from an Arab point of view, and what might support this is the non-continuity of Hebrew language throughout the time. So Arabic morphology and compared to Hebrew’s, is very close for the fact that Arabic letters sound very much alike, but the other part cannot be a coincidence, because if we look at for example, the word pronoun Ana, versus Ani. Anta versus Atta.Or la as lo in Hebrew, meaning ‘no’. Sometimes we notice a slight modification. That does not mean this is all what Hebrew is about, because we see difference as when we say ‘my ’Shel+I which for possession. For we can say morphologically, they are very close, as well phonologically. With the slight thought that Arabic sounds and articulate more original.

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General conclusion

The topic of languages is very vast, not because they may share in common or not but it is sometimes very hard to either distinguish or make similar, even if they were languages of one family, or one tree. Arabic and Hebrew languages throughout history witnessed with people ups and downs, their paths were not always the same. Talking of the first primitive Semitic Hebrew or Semitic Arabic, we would notice how each developed to what they are today.

The history of a language like Arabic, takes us back especially us as natives, we do feel the sense of originality and sometimes antiquity, as the Quran is in itself, and we imagine Quran is the most right as a reference for Arabs, and Muslims around the world who used it for praying at least five times a day. The context of religion is sharp on the edges, because religion does actually separate the two sister languages, not basically in linguistic but more of a cultural link, that sometimes either Arabs or Jews feel so strange to each other despite of the approach and similarity of a language itself, and the blood, how not and both are descended from Abraham.

If we look at the main steps of Arabic language, that is also to mean main historical periods of Arabic Muslim world, Arabic before the arrival of Quran was not so very organized and not even united. Quraich tribe however was an exceptional tribe in a an exceptional place, Saudi Arabia, Quraich that represented a limitless market for people coming from near and far, it did something very interesting to the Arabic language even though the aim was primarily if not only a business aim, this had affected on the language, so big traders of Quraich needed to communicate and get along with foreign traders, and so the interactions enriched the language and made it famous, something necessary to learn for foreigners.

The Quraich business period was only a fresh ground for the greatest coming event that is the arrival of the holy book Quran, and there in its content, emerged brilliant explanations or life and in a very unprecedented style. At that time among Jews too many were living in the Arab Muslim world, and they somehow had to adapt

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General conclusion with the majority who were Arabs and Muslims, eventually a part of their linguistic identity was bit damaged at least socially speaking. As effort to make balance they spoke mixed Arabic Hebrew dialects.

Hebrew language however is not too little comparing to Arabic, but time was changing into different point, because religiously speaking in the books of Judaism, and Hebrew bible, you have got a linguistic heritage, because they have lived within different cultures, the Jews had a lot going on the Arabic peninsula and even bit towards Christian lands. And looking at the Quran you notice the many stories of Jews, who absolutely used their tongue. But Hebrew and the Jews knew a cut of time on the post world of religious Jewish antiquity, and some of them spread in a little part of Europe, or in Arab Muslim world, and later on the Americas, after lot had changed.

The Jews most of the times of history have lived within different communities, got interested in knowledge , science and literature, and really improved the world at an interesting extent. And when religiously linguistically speaking, the Hebrew language remained only in some of Jewish houses. This made the modern Jews, to lose link with the ancestors, for the reason one, they have had no land, and two as a consequence each time they had to adapt with a different community.

Back to the Arabic language, after Quran it filled the hearts and minds of most Arabs, it inspired Muslims toward science, for it revealed so many secrets about life. Which is an advantage, we are not allowed to compare with books of religion on this little research, but Quran seems more advanced intellectually, and even in a general life scope, than other books of god. And that helped Arabic language, and made it a language of science, on the golden age of Islam.

So the Arabs and Muslims, had known no significant cut and the link had continued until modern times. The Jews and despite of their contributions in most significant modern science life, needed a language revival and to get rid of the mixture of different tongues, and again to make for their own a language they can speak and read not only in ancient religious textbooks, that at some time some Jews themselves did not know how to read. So a sort of a revival was a big demand, yet it was seen

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General conclusion impossible, and so it happened. The Jews succeeded to make a language of their own, written spoken again out of the religious doors, and they succeeded in adapting new words, because it is needed like most languages who may need to used different jargons or for words they have not reached yet to be translated, for different reasons. Arabic language on the modern times failed in the scientific connection with the world, and at this point, Hebrew took a bit of a height, not too much but an improvement versus Arabic.

Arabic language had remained most of its form, yet it did the borrowing but the grammar, style, and most words are still there, actually Arabic is so rich that there are too many forgotten words meaning so much different things. So the Arabic language in term of grammar and vocabulary at some extent, linguistically speaking it survived and had not failed in the test of time. And had been appearing more solid than Hebrew language that only lately got itself back by such late efforts.

So on this point we can say Arabic is historically more consistent, more rich especially by the coming of Quran. Other factors helped as the land or presence of continuum of societies, no matter the little differences. But Hebrew, and even historically it is not very clear, and sometimes difficult to understand even if you were a Jew specialist of Hebrew, those textbooks are very different as a kind of Hebrew, and it is not the Hebrew of Today. However Arabic had remained almost the same, and textbooks, literature and science, tell about it. And even more actually, we can say sometimes Arabic have been helping Hebrew, modern age mainly speaking. The grammar system itself was inspired by the Arabic language.

A similarity that cannot be denied, when you hear the two languages you could hear a close relationship of letters. The two languages, primarily today speaking, they are the most saved Semitic languages, as a truth, but also so many words out there and there, sound similar, and that only an ignorant would deny. That does not mean we have to hear the sounds only, but at the structures, the form, at the morphology of each one of them.

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General conclusion

Carrying this research on morphological part, I really enjoyed the similarity, and loved to collect some words. Something that is sure is that Hebrew speakers do have ability to pronounce some Arabic letters, which I was thinking they only existed in Arabic language.

Arabic sarf shows us many details of what Arabic word might be and might مفاعلتن and from there verbs relate, and for nouns فعل become to be, following roots as etc.. we have seen nouns, verbs but also adjectives, pronouns and gender for متفاعلن two.

Hebrew Binyan is no much different in basis, except it does follow lot of roots that we cannot specify, and that if it shows something it shows how much Hebrew had gone on modern time. We have seen a similarity in form, in alphabets, and pronouns. Also in a similarity in family members, and in greeting.

In Juresalem today Arabic is considered as a second language, they have not become to be absolute twins, but they have been together since long, and that could not be a coincidence , so without bringing back the topic of religion, two tongues living nearby, can only make effects relationship. It is true morphologically and phonetically they are very close, and also that does not mean Hebrew had never affected Arabic, but the Arabic language remained and sustained for lot of time. And it is most complex, how not and it has language sciences of its own.

At the end we can say that Arabic and Hebrew as Semitic language are very close and naturally has to be similar no matter the steps Hebrew had made, but Arabic had been around in almost the same structure for very long. This similarly we sense on phonology and morphology which should not be very surprising if we were specialists or bit of languages amateurs.

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References

References:

History and Development of the Arabic Language By Muhammad al- Sharkawi

In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language By Joel Hoffman

Modern Hebrew: The Past and Future of a Revitalized Language By Norman Berdichevsky

How the Hebrew Language Grew By Edward Horowitz

https://discoverdiscomfort.com/arabic-hebrew-similarities-differences/

https://www.arabacademy.com/quranic-arabic-vs-modern-standard-arabic/

https://www.oneforisrael.org/bible-based-teaching-from-israel/what-does-the- word-hebrew-mean/

https://www.almrsal.com/post/218638

تطور و حسنبربورةالعربيةاللغةنشاة

Arabic Language: Historic and Sociolinguistic Characteristics Ibrahim Al- Huri

https://www.learnreligions.com/arabic-language-in-islam-2004035

A History of the Hebrew Language By Angel Sáenz-Badillos

Studies in Hebrew Language and Jewish Culture: Presented to Albert van der ... edited by Martin F.J. Baasten, ReinierMunk

The Phonology and Morphology of Arabic By Janet C. E. Watson

Arabic: A Linguistic Introduction By Karin C. Ryding

The Word in Arabic edited by GiulianoLancioni, Lidia Bettini

Roots and Patterns: Hebrew Morpho-syntax By Maya Arad

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References

A Field Guide for Encountering the Israelis in Their ... By Angelo Colorni

Tower of Babel: The Cultural History of Our Ancestors ByBodie Hodge

Ancient Hebrew Morphology Gary A. Rendsburg Rutgers University

Arabic Morphology and Phonology: Based on the Marāḥ Al-arwāḥ by AḥmadIbnʻAlīIbnMasʻūd

The Phonological Structure of the Verbal Roots in Arabic and Hebrew By Bernard NehemiaBachra

The Renaissance of Modern Hebrew and Modern Standard Arabic: Parallels and ... By Joshua Blau, YehoshuaʻBlau

Hebrew Study from Ezra to Ben-Yehuda edited by William Horbury

Linguistic and Cultural Studies on Arabic and Hebrew: Essays Presented to ... By Moshe Piamenta

Themes in Arabic and Hebrew Syntax edited by J. Ouhalla, U. Shlonsky

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