ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education ISSN 2301-7554 Vol. 3, Issue 2, June 2015 http://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE

THE ARABIC ORIGINS OF ENGLISH AND INDO-EUROPEAN "URBAN TERMS": A RADICAL LINGUISTIC THEORY APPROACH

Zaidan Ali Jassem Department of English Language and Translation, Qassim University, Saudi Arabia E-mail: [email protected]

APA Citation: Jassem, Z. A. (2015). The arabic origins of English and Indo-European urban terms": A radical linguistic theory approach. English Review: Journal of English Education, 3(2), 145-165

Received: 10-04-2015 Accepted: 25-04-2015 Published: 01-06-2015

Abstract: This paper traces the Arabic origins of English, German, French, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit "urban terms" from a radical linguistic (or lexical root) theory perspective. The data comprises 130 such terms like abide, building, city, construction, courtyard, hotel, house, live, mansion, mason, palace, metropolis, residence, road, rural, sedentary, sojourn, stay, structure, tent, town, urban, villa, village, zoo, and so on. The results clearly show that all such words have true Arabic cognates with the same or similar forms and meanings, whose differences are due to natural and plausible causes and different routes of linguistic change. Moreover, the results support the adequacy of the radical linguistic theory according to which, unlike the Comparative Method and/or Family Tree Model, Arabic, English, German, French, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit are dialects of the same language or family, renamed Eurabian or Urban family, with Arabic being their origin all for sharing the whole cognates with them and for its huge phonetic, morphological, grammatical, and lexical variety and wealth. Also, they indicate that there is a radical language from which all human languages stemmed and which has been preserved almost intact in Arabic as the most conservative and productive language, without which it is impossible to interpret its linguistic richness and versatility on all levels. Keywords: urban terms, Arabic, English, German, French, Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, historical linguistics, radical linguistic (lexical root) theory, language relationships

INTRODUCTION semantic fields like numerals, religious, Jassem (2012a-f, 2013a-q, 2014a-k, love, democratic, military, and legal 2015a-g) has shown in forty one studies terms (Jassem 2012a-d, 2013a-q, 2014a-k, so far that Arabic, English, German, 2015a-f); in three morphological studies French, and the so-called Indo-European on inflectional and derivational markers languages in general are genetically (Jassem 2012f, 2013a-b); in nine related very closely phonetically, grammatical papers like pronouns, morphologically, grammatically, and verb 'to be', wh-questions, and case semantically or lexically to such an (Jassem 2012c-e, 2013l, 2014c, 2015d); extent that they can all be regarded as and in one phonetic study about the dialects of the same language. More English, German, French, Latin, and precisely, the Arabic origins or cognates Greek cognates of Arabic back of their words were successfully traced consonants (Jassem 2013c). Furthermore, in twenty six lexical studies in key ZAIDAN ALI JASSEM The Arabic Origins of English and Indo-European "Urban Terms": A Radical Linguistic Theory Approach

the theory was extended to the shown to be true cognates with similar examination of the Arabic origins of or identical forms and meanings, whose pronouns in Chinese (Jassem 2014h) and apparent differences are due to natural Basque and Finnish (Jassem 2014i) as and plausible causes and diverse routes well as demonstratives in eleven major of linguistic change. This entails that all (and minor) language families, making such languages developed, in fact must up 95% of the total world population have developed, from an earlier single, (Jassem 2015h). Finally, two papers perfect, suddenly-emerged Radical applied the approach to translation Language from which all human studies (Jassem 2014e, 2015b). languages emanated in the first place, The above studies have been and which could never have died out initially based on the lexical root theory but rather has fully, though variably, (Jassem 2012a-f, 2013a-q, 2014a-g, survived into today's languages, to 2015a-g) and subsequently on its slightly which they can all be traced, with Arabic revised and extended version, called in particular being the closest or most radical linguistic theory (Jassem 2014 h-k, conservative and productive descendant. 2015a-g), both deriving their name To aptly capture the close genetic originally from the use of lexical linkage between European and Arabian (consonantal) roots or radicals in languages in general, a new larger retracing genetic relationships between language family grouping has been words in world languages. The theory proposed, called Eurabian or Urban first arose as a rejection of the Family (Jassem 2015c: 41; 2015d). Tree Model or Comparative Method in This paper examines the Arabic historical linguistics for classifying origins and/or source cognates of urban Arabic as a member of a different terms in English, German, French, Latin, language family than English, German, Greek, Sanskrit, and the so-called French, Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and the Indo-European languages. The so-called Indo-European languages remainder of the paper includes four (Bergs and Brinton 2012; Algeo 2010; sections: (ii) research methods, (iii) Crystal 2010: 302; Yule 2014; Campbell results, (iv) discussion, and (v) 2004: 190-191; Crowley 1997: 22-25, conclusion. 110-111; Pyles and Algeo 1993: 61-94). In all the above forty one studies, the METHOD tightly-knit genetic relationship between Arabic and such languages was, on the The Data contrary, categorically established The data consists of 130 urban phonetically, morphologically, terms like abide, building, city, construction, grammatically, and semantically or courtyard, hotel, house, live, mansion, mason, lexically so much so that they can be palace, metropolis, residence, road, rural, really considered dialects of the same sedentary, sojourn, stay, structure, tent, language, where Arabic was found to be town, urban, villa, village, and so on in their source or parent language for English, German, French, Latin, Greek, several reasons (Jassem (2012a-f, 2013a-q, Sanskrit, and Indo-European languages 2014a-k, 2015a-g). In other words, Arabic, as well as Arabic, now all generally English, German, and French words of called Eurabian. Their selection has been all types and sorts, for example, were based on the author's knowledge of their frequency and use in today's fully ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education ISSN 2301-7554 Vol. 3, Issue 2, June 2015 http://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE natural English, German, and French (s)/, and /'/ for the glottal stop (Jassem conversations and/or texts as well as 2013c). Long vowels in Arabic are English dictionaries and thesauri. For usually doubled- i.e., /aa, ee, & oo/. ease of reference, the data will be arranged alphabetically together with Data Analysis brief linguistic comments in the next Theoretical Framework: Radical Linguistic Results section. Theory As for etymological data, all Data analysis utilizes the Radical references to English and Indo-European Linguistic Theory (Jassem 2014h-l, languages are for Harper (2015). 2015a-g), a slightly revised and more However, this etymology is not, like all generalized version of the original other similar dictionaries, without its Lexical Root Theory (Jassem 2012a-f, severe drawbacks owing to the many 2013a-q, 2014a-g). For the sake of unknowns, uncertainties, and the economy and brevity, the inquisitive seemingly illogical derivations or reader is referred to any earlier work for meanings of many words such as alley, a fuller account (e.g., Jassem 2015a-c, castle, county, dwell, farm, head, house, 2014a, 2013a, 2012a-b). mansion, office, pen, road, dining room, In short, the most appropriate street, track, etc. which make more sense procedure for genetically relating if derived straight from Arabic as shall English and Arabic words to each other be seen in section (3) below. Therefore, can be summed up as follows: it has to be used with care and (i) select a word (in any given discretion. semantic field), e.g., abide, dwell, live, Concerning Arabic data, the (ii) identify the source, daughter, or meanings are for Ibn Manzoor (2013) in sister language meaning (e.g., the main, Ibn Seedah (1996: 13/79-120), English or Latin) on the basis of Altha3alibi (2011), Albabidi (2011), especially word history or e-dictionaries like mu3jam alama3ani etymology. It is essential to start (2015), and the author's knowledge and with meanings, not sounds or use of Shami (Syrian) Arabic as a native sound laws as the former are more speaker. All the genetic linkages between stable and change less than the Arabic, English, German, French, Latin, latter which do so extensively; for Greek, Sanskrit and so on are exclusively example, all the sounds of a given mine, unless otherwise stated. word might change beyond In transcribing the data, normal recognition while meanings very Romanized spelling is used for all much less so and in a rather limited languages for practical purposes. way; so the meaning will lead you Nonetheless, certain symbols were used to the cognate naturally whereas for unique Arabic sounds: namely, /2 & the sounds will get you lost 3/ for the voiceless and voiced definitely, pharyngeal fricatives respectively, /kh & (iii) search for the equivalent meaning gh/ for the voiceless and voiced velar and form in the target, parent, or fricatives each, /q/ for the voiceless reference language (e.g., Arabic), uvular stop, capital letters for the looking for cognates: i.e., sister emphatic counterparts of plain words with the same or similar consonants /T (t), D (d), Dh (dh), & S forms and meanings, and ZAIDAN ALI JASSEM The Arabic Origins of English and Indo-European "Urban Terms": A Radical Linguistic Theory Approach

(iv) finally explain the differences in madd(at) 'extension; lying' via lexical shift; form and meaning between the or, as a whole, from Arabic jathama 'to stay' cognates lexicologically, or makatha 'to stay' via reordering and phonetically, morphologically, and turning /j & th/ into /k & d/. Agrarian (agriculture, grow) via Old English semantically as indicated. As a æcer 'a field', from Latin agrarius 'of the matter of fact, finding the right land', from ager 'a field', from Greek agros ' cognate on the basis of its meaning a field', from Arabic 3aqaar 'a field, earth' first often leads you to the resultant or 2aql 'a field' via /3 (2)/-loss and changes automatically. passing /q & l/ into /g & r/; or qira2 'farm; unbuilt and unplanted area', qira2i That is the whole story simply and truly. (adj.) 'city dweller' via /2/-loss and No fuss, no mess. For example, passing /q/ into /g/. See cultivate. consider abide, live, dwell below. Alley (alleyway) via Old French alee (Modern allée) 'a path, passage; a going', from aler Statistical analysis 'to go', possibly short for Latin ambulare 'to walk', or from Gallo-Roman allare, from The percentage formula will be allatus 'having been brought to', direct used for calculating the ratio of cognate from Arabic 'alla 'go, speed up', 'aala words or shared vocabulary (Cowley return', or lai(at) 'a bending; a bent (road)'. 1997: 173, 182), which has been fully See way. described in earlier papers (Jassem Apartment (apart, part, depart, partition) via 2012a-f, 2013a-q, 2014a-k). French, from Latin partem (nom., pars) 'part, division', related to portio 'a share, RESULTS & DISCUSSION portion', from Arabic batr, 'abtar (adj.) The results will mainly focus on the 'cutting' via reordering and lexical shift Arabic lexical (consonantal) radicals or (Jassem 2013m-n). Architecture (architect) via Middle French, roots of English, German, French, Latin, from Latin architectura, from architectus, Greek, and Sanskrit urban words and from Greek architekton 'master builder, the changes that involved them. The director of works', from (i) arkhi- 'chief', exact quality of the vowel is, therefore, of from Arabic ra'ees 'head' where /s/ generally secondary importance for became /kh (k)/ (Jassem 2015e) and (ii) having little or no semantic impact tekton 'builder, carpenter', from Arabic whatsoever on the final output (Jassem Taqqa(t) 'beat, knock, break', 2012-2015). daqqa(t)/dakka(t) 'beat, dig, knock, hammer', or Takhkh(at) 'build, knock, dig', turning Abide (abidance, abode) via Old English abidan, /T (d) & q (kh) / into /t & k/. gebidan 'remain, wait, dwell', from Arabic Area via Latin area 'level ground, open space', 'abada 'dwell, stay', 'aabad 'place'; or baata direct from Arabic 3araa' 'open space' via 'remain, dwell', bait (n) 'house' where /t/ /3/-loss. became /d/ (Jassem 2015g). Attic 'top story under the roof of a house' via Accommodation (accommodate) via French, Latin Atticus, from Greek Attikos from Latin accommodatio(nem) 'lodging', 'Athenian, of Attica', direct from Arabic from accommodare 'make fit, adapt', from (i) Taaqa(t) 'a small, narrow window; a ad- 'to', from Arabic ta- 'derivational affix' ventilation wall opening' via lexical shift via reversal and turning /t/ into /d/ and and turning /T & q/ into /t & k/. (ii) commodore 'make fit', from commodus 'fit', Avenue (venue) via Old and Middle French from (a) com- 'intensive prefix; together; avenue 'way of access, arrival', from Latin like', from Arabic kama 'as, like' and (b) advenire 'to come to', from (i) ad- 'to', from modus 'measure, manner', from Arabic Arabic ta- 'derivational affix' via reversal ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education ISSN 2301-7554 Vol. 3, Issue 2, June 2015 http://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE

and turning /t/ into /d/ or al- 'definite r/-merger or burj 'tower; a high article' via /l/-merger into /v/ (Jassem structure' via lexical shift and turning /j/ 2013a, 2015d) and (ii) venire 'to come', into /g (y)/ (Jassem 2013c, 2015a). See from Arabic faana 'to go' or fanna 'drive burg. away (camels)' via lexical shift; or direct Capital (capitalization, capital city, money) via from Arabic fann, afnan (pl.) 'straight tree Old French, from Latin capitalis 'of the branches' or fanaa' 'courtyard' via lexical head', caput 'head', from Arabic jabhat shift. 'forehead' via lexical shift and passing /j Bathroom (bathe) via Old English bæth & h/ into /k & Ø/; qubbat 'top, dome', 'immersion in water, mud; bathing water', turning /q/ into /k/; or qabaD 'hold, German Bad, from Arabic saba2, sibaa2a(t) catch, capture' in which /q & D/ passed (n) 'bathe, swim' via reversal and turning into /k & t/. See city. /s & 2/ into /th & Ø/; or batha 'to sweat' Castle via Old English castel 'village; or baththa 'to mix (food) with water' via stronghold', from French and Latin lexical shift. See room. castellum 'castle, fort, fortified village', Bedroom (bed, bedding, embed) via Old diminutive of castrum 'fort', perhaps English bedd 'bed, couch, garden plot', related to castrare 'cut off', direct from German Bett, from Arabic bait 'house; plot' Arabic qaSr, qaSar (v) 'palace; shortening, via lexical shift and turning /t/ into /d/; cutting'; /q & r/ evolved into /k & l/ biTaa2/baT2(at) 'flat, low land', baTa2 (v) while /S/ split into /st/. 'lie/lay down', turning /T & 2/ into /d & Ceiling via Middle English ceil 'put a cover Ø/; or, more properly, from Arabic mahd or ceiling over; cover wall with panels', 'bed', merging /m & h/ into /b/. See probably from Middle French celer 'to room. conceal, cover with paneling', from Latin Booth via Old Danish both 'temporary celare 'conceal', straight from Arabic dwelling', from bold (Old Saxon bodl) kallal/jallal 'to put a top over, to cover', 'house', German Bude 'booth, stall', from turning /k (j)/ into /s/. Arabic bait, al-bait 'house, the-house' via Citadel (city) via Middle French citadelle, lexical shift and turning /t/ into /th/. from Italian cittadella, diminutive of cittade Bridge (-burgh; burg, borough, Cambridge, 'city', from Latin civitatem (nom. civitas) Hamburg, Edinburgh, Loughborough) via 'city', straight from Arabic as for city. Old English brycge 'causeway over a river' City (citizen; civic, civil, civilization, civility) and German Brücke, from Arabic burj via Old French cite, citet (Modern cite) 'tower; a high structure'; /j/ became /g 'town, city', Spanish ciudad, German Stadt, (Ø)/. See Burg. from Latin civitatem, citatem (nom., civitas) Build (building) via Old English byldan 'originally citizenship, rights of a citizen; 'construct a house', from bold (Old Saxon community, state', from civis 'townsman', bodl) 'house', direct from Arabic ballaTa direct from Arabic jidda(t) (judd, jaddat, 'build with stones', balaaT (n) 'rock; roof' juddat) 'river side; a place; city; a KSA sea via lexical shift and passing /T/ into /d/; port and city' or related jaadda(t) 'road' or balad 'village; earth; stay' via lexical via lexical shift and turning /j & d/ into shift. See booth. /s & t/ (cf. civic and Arabic jifs/jafees/jibs Burg (-burgh; borough, Hamburg, Edinburgh, 'weak, coward, vicious; lowly person, Loughborough, berg, iceberg) via Old English bastard'; civil from Arabic fisl/fishl burg, burh 'a dwelling with a fortified 'coward, rascal, lowly' via reordering and enclosure' and German Burg 'castle', from lexical shift (Jassem 2015e)). Arabic burj 'tower; a high structure'; /j/ Close (closure, enclosure) via Old French, evolved into /g (Ø)/. See Bridge. from Latin clausus, claudere (v) 'to shut, Bury (Canterbury) via Old English byrgan close, confine, put an end to', direct from 'bury, raise a mound' from Arabic qabara Arabic qalaS 'close, shut' or khalaS 'finish, 'to bury' via reordering and /q & end'; /q (kh) & S/ became /k & s/. ZAIDAN ALI JASSEM The Arabic Origins of English and Indo-European "Urban Terms": A Radical Linguistic Theory Approach

Condominium (condom, dominate, domain) yard', from Arabic qaSr 'palace; lit., via Latin condominium 'joint sovereignty', shortening, enclosure' via reordering and from (i) com- 'together', from Arabic jamee3 turning /q & S/ into /k & s/. Therefore, 'all, together' via /3/-loss and turning /j/ it may be incorrect to derive it from (i) into /k/, kama 'like' via lexical shift or com- 'together' above and (ii) hort, hortus ma3a 'with' via reversal and turning /3/ 'garden', from Arabic 2arth 'farming; into /k/ (Jassem 2013a, 2014c) and (ii) garden' where /2 & th/ became /h (k) & dominium 'right of ownership', dominari (v) t/; Arabic works both ways, though 'dominate' from Arabic deen(un) 'control, (Jassem 2013q, 2015e). See yard. domination', turning /n/ into /m/ Cultivate (cultivation, agriculture) via Latin (Jassem 2014e, 2015e-f). cultivatus, cultivus 'tilled', from cultivare (v) Corridor (current, concur, occur, recur) via 'till, cultivate', from cultus 'lit., cultivated, French 'long hallway', from Italian tended; care, labour, cultivation, culture, corridore 'a gallery; lit., a runner', from worship, reverence', from colere (v) 'to till', correre 'to run', from Latin currere 'to run, from Arabic qal3 'uprooting, removing move quickly', from Arabic karra 'to roll, plants', qulla3 'a good plant; dry mud' via run'; or jara 'to run', jaria(t) (n) 'stream', /3/-loss and changing /q/ into /k/; 2arth, turning /j & t/ into /d/. 2iratha(t) 'cultivation', turning /2, r, & th/ Cottage (cot) via Old English and French cote, into /k, l, & t/; 2aql(at) 'growth, plantation; cote 'hut, cottage', from Arabic koot/kuwat farm' via /2 & q/-merger into /k/; kala' (Kuwait) 'an opening in a house/wall' via 'herbs, grass; pasture' via lexical shift; ka2l lexical shift; kookh 'a shed' where /kh/ 'grass turning into green' via /2/-loss and became /t/; 2aTTa(t) 'a hut', turning /2 & lexical shift. See agrarian. T/ into /k & t/; or khushsha(t) 'a petty Design, Urban (signal, insignia; signature; house' via reordering and turning /kh & design; designate, designation; consign; resign) sh/ into /k & j/. via Latin designare 'mark out, devise, County (count, countess, viscount; account, choose, appoint', from (i) de- 'out', from recount, discount) via Anglo-French, from Arabic ta- 'derivational affix' where /t/ Latin comitatus 'jurisdiction of a count', became /d/ and (ii) signum 'signal, mark, from Latin comitem (nominative comes) token, symbol', signare (v) 'mark out, mark 'companion, attendant', from (i) com- with a stamp, adorn', from Arabic naqsh 'with' above and (ii) ire 'to go', from Arabic 'sign, decoration', tanqeesh (n) to which raa2 'go' via /2/-loss; however, it comes, reversal and turning /t, q, & sh/ into /d, as a whole, from Arabic naaqiT (naqeeT) (n) g, & s/ applied; or Sana3, taSnee3 (n) 'a slave's master; slave; count/countess' or 'make' via reordering and turning /t, S, & niTaaq 'scope, area, belt' via reordering, 3/ into /d, s, & g/ (Jassem 2013c, 2014g). lexical shift, and turning /T & q/ into /t See urban. & k/ (Jassem 2014g, 2015e). Digital (digital camera (chamber), digit, Country (countryman, contra, contrary) via digitalization, index, indexical, ten, decimeter, Old French, from Latin terra contrata 'land decameter) via Latin digitus 'finger', from lying opposite or spread before one', from Greek deka 'hand, finger, ten', from Arabic contra 'opposite', straight from Arabic quTr dija(t) '(food-filled) fingers, hand' (Jassem 'country; side' via lexical shift, turning /q 2012a, 2014g). As to –al, it derives from & T/ into /k & t/, and inserting /n/. As Arabic al- 'the' via morphological shift to terra, it comes from Arabic thara 'earth', (Jassem 2013a, 2015f-g). passing /th/ into /t/ (Jassem 2013f). Dining room (dinner, dine) via Old English Countryside (countrysider) See side. disner (Mosern diner) 'to eat, dine', direct Court (courtship, courtyard, Royal Court) via from Arabic 'idam 'food', passing /m/ Old French cort (Modern cour) 'king's into /n/; or Ta3am 'food', turning /T, 3, & court or residence', from Latin cortem, m/ into /d, Ø, & n/ (Jassem 2014a). See accusative of cors (earlier cohors) 'enclosed room. ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education ISSN 2301-7554 Vol. 3, Issue 2, June 2015 http://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE

Direction (direct) via Latin directio(nem), from 'to stand', from Arabic saT2(at) 'place, flat dirigere 'set straight', from (i) dis- 'apart', surface', saTa2 (v) via /2/-loss and from Arabic Taash 'apart, afloat, spread turning /T/ into /t/. See realty. out' or shatta 'diverse, apart' via reversal Farm (farming, farmer) via Old French ferme 'a and turning /T (t) & sh/ into /d & s/ rent, lease', from Latin firma 'fixed and (ii) regere 'to guide', from Arabic raqa payment', firmare (v) 'to fix, strengthen', 'to ascend, straighten', changing /q/ into from firmus 'firm', direct from Arabic /g/; or direct from Arabic Tareeqat(un) 'a thamar 'fruit; farming; orchard', thaamir way', Tarq (adj.) 'straight', passing /T & 'farmer' via reordering and changing /th/ q/ into /d & k/. into /f/. District (restrict, string) via Old French, from Feudal (feud, feudalism, feudalist) via Latin Latin districtus 'restraining of offenders; feudalis, feudum 'feudal estate, land jurisdiction', from distringere 'hinder, granted to be held as a benefice', from detain', from (i) dis- 'apart' above and (ii) Gothic faihu 'property', Old High German stringere 'draw tight, press together', from fihu 'cattle', Middle English feodary 'land Arabic Tareeq(at) 'road, way', Taraq, inTarq renter', from Arabic faddad 'rich landlord' (v) 'knock, hit', via lexical shift and or related faddan 'cultivated land; farming turning /T & q/ into /st & k/; or zarnaq 'a cows' and fadad 'loud or low voice'. wall' via lexical shift and splitting /z/ into Flat via Old English flett 'a dwelling; floor, /st/. ground; level, smooth', Old High German Door (doorway) via Old English dor/duru flaz/flezzi 'flat, level; floor', from Arabic 'large door, gate', German Tür (Old High falTa2 'sloping (land); flat (foot)' via German turi), from Arabic daar 'house', /2/-loss and turning /T/ into /t/; falaat dawwaar 'lit., turning; door' via lexical shift; '(grazing) ground' or balad 'village, or radda(t) 'a shutter; a door's half; door' country; earth; dwelling' via /b & via reversal and lexical shift. See way. d/-mutation into /f & t/. Dwell (dwelling, dweller) via Old English Gang (gangway, go, ago) via Old English gang dwellan 'mislead, deceive; originally lead 'a going, journey, way', German gang, astray', dwale 'nightshade', Old High Gothic gagg, German gehen 'go', from German twellen 'to hinder, delay', from Arabic jaa'a 'come', majee' (n) via lexical Arabic Dalla 'to mislead, deceive', Dhalla shift (divergence) and turning /j/ into 'stay, remain', and/or Dhill 'shade, /g/; or hajja 'escape', merging /h & j/ into shadow'; /D(h)/ became /d/. Thus, the /g/. different senses come from formally Garden (yard) via Old French gardin/jardin similar but semantically different Arabic 'garden, palace grounds', from Latin words, merged into one. hortus gardinus 'enclosed garden', from Electronic (electricity, light, leuk-) via Latin Old High German garto (German Garten) electrum, from Greek electron 'amber', 'garden', Old English geard 'fenced direct from Arabic 'alaq(atun) 'brightening, enclosure, garden, court; house', Gothic shining' via lexical shift, turning /q/ into gards 'enclosure; house', direct from /k/, and /r/-insertion. Arabic jidar, judran (pl.) 'wall; garden' via Embankment (bank, Riverbank) via Old reordering and passing /j/ into /g/ or English 'slope, edge of a river', from Old jannat 'garden' via reordering, turning /j Norse banki, Danish banke 'sandbank', & t/ into /g & d/, and /r/-insertion. See from Arabic banak 'stay', nabk 'high land' zoological. via reordering and lexical shift; or janib -Gart (Stuttgart; -grad, Leningrad) from 'side' via reversal and changing /j/ into Arabic qariat 'village, town'; /q & t/ /k/. developed into /g & d/. See -grad. Estate (station, stand, estate realty) via Old Gate via Old English geat 'gate, door, French estat, from Latin status 'state, opening, hinged framework barrier', Old condition, place, position', from stare (v) Saxon gat 'eye of a needle, hole', Old ZAIDAN ALI JASSEM The Arabic Origins of English and Indo-European "Urban Terms": A Radical Linguistic Theory Approach

Norse gat 'opening, passage', German large house', from hospes (genitive hospitis) Gasse 'street', from Arabic qaaTi3 'a barrier, 'guest, host; lit., lord of strangers', direct crossing' via lexical shift and turning /q, T, from Arabic 3azzab, 3izba(t) 'offering food & 3/ into /g, t, & Ø/; or waSeed/sad 'gate; to guests; such a place'; /3 & z/ became shutting' via reordering and turning /S (s) /h & s/ while /b/ was lost. Otherwise, & d/ into /g & t/. straight from Arabic haDhal 'stay', -Grad (Leningrad, -gart, Stuttgart) from splitting /Dh/ into /st/. Arabic qariat 'village, town'; /q & t/ Hotel (hostel, hospital, host) via Old French developed into /g & d/. See -gart. hostel (Modern hôtel) 'inn, lodgings', from Habitat (habitation, inhabit, inhabitant) via Latin hospitale 'inn, large house', direct Latin habitat 'flora and fauna; lit; it from Arabic as in hostel. inhabits', from habitare 'to live, dwell', House via Old English hus 'shelter, house', frequentative of habere 'to have, posses', German Haus, perhaps connected to the direct from Arabic bait, 'abiat (pl.) 'home, root of hide (v), from Arabic 2awsh 'house; house', bee'at 'environment' where /'/ courtyard; den' or 2awza(t) 'property, became /h/; or habaT 'to live, sit; lit., possession, enclosure' via lexical shift and descend, go down', habeeT(at) (n) turning /2 & sh (z)/ into /h & s/. 'low-lying place', turning /T/ into /t/. Hut via Old French hotte 'cottage', from Hall via Old English heall 'spacious roofed Middle High German hutte 'hut, cottage', residence, house; temple; law-court', hell perhaps related to Old English hydan 'to 'hell', German Halle 'hall', direct from hide', direct from Arabic 2aTTa(t) 'a Arabic 2all, ma2all 'home, house; living' or shelter; a temporary station' and/or 3illia(t) 'lofty house'; /2 (3)/ became /h/. related 2ooTa(t) 'enclosure', 2aTTa (v) 'to Headquarters (headship, heading, behead) via live in; stay', or 2a'iT 'wall' via lexical shift Old English heafod 'top of the body or and passing /2 & T/ into /h & t/. slope; chief person, ruler', German Haupt, Impasse (pass, passage, pace) via French, from Latin caput 'head', from Arabic jabha(t) Latin (i) in 'not', from Arabic in 'not', and 'forehead' via lexical shift, turning /j/ into (ii) passare 'pass, walk', from Arabic as in /h (k)/, merging /b & h/ into /Ø (p)/, pass. and turning /t/ into /d/; qubbat 'top, Industry (industrialist, structure) via Old dome', turning /q, b, & t/ into /h, f (= h), English, from Latin industria 'activity, zeal, & d/; otherwise, straight from Arabic diligence', from (i) indu 'in, within', from haadi 'head, chief, guide'. See capital & Arabic 3inda 'in, at' via /3/-loss or hinat quarter. 'here' via /h/-loss, turning /t/ into /d/, Highway (height) via Old English heh/heah and lexical shift, and (ii) struere 'build' as 'lofty, tall, exalted', Old High German hoh in structure. (German hoch), from Arabic shahiq 'high', Infrastructure via Latin (i) infra 'below, later, merging /sh & h/ and turning /q/ into than, smaller than', English under, German /g (Ø)/; or hiah (haih, haihat, 'aiha) 'far, unter, and Sanskrit adnah, from Arabic away' via lexical shift and turning /h/ adna 'lower' via reordering and /d & into /gh (Ø)/. See way. n/-mutation into /f & r/; or naafir 'going Home (homing, Hamburg, Birmingham) via up, bulging' via lexical shift or divergence; Old English ham 'dwelling, house, estate, and (ii) structure below. village', German Heim, Greek kome, from Inn (in) via Old English inn 'lodging, Arabic 'umm 'home, residence; country; dwelling, house', probably from inne (adv.) road; origin; mother', passing /'/ into /h/; 'inside, within', direct from Arabic 2aana(t) 2ima 'protected (land); property' (cf. 2awm 'a bar' via lexical shift and /2/-loss; or 3an 'flying around') or khum 'petty house', 'in, on, about' via lexical shift and /3/-loss turning /2 (kh)/ into /h (k)/. (Jassem 2014c). Hostel (hospital, host) via Old French hostel Kitchen via Old English cycene, from 'inn, lodgings', from Latin hospitale 'inn, Germanic kokina, Old High German ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education ISSN 2301-7554 Vol. 3, Issue 2, June 2015 http://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE

chuhhina, German Küche, from Latin city, capital city', from meter 'mother', cocina/coquina 'kitchen', from coquinas 'of from Arabic 'umm(at) 'mother' or 'ama(t) cooks', from coquus 'cook', coquere (v) 'cook, 'maid' via /r/-insertion and (ii) polis 'city' ripen, digest', from Arabic sawa, istawa below. 'to cook, ripen', sawi (n) or shawa, shawi (n) Modern (modernity, modernism, modernize) via 'to roast, grill, barbecue'; /s (sh)/ split into Middle French moderne, from Latin /k & tch/ besides lexical shift (Jassem modernus 'modern', from modo 'just now, 2014a). in a certain manner', from modo 'to the Live (life, alive, living room) via Old English measure', from modus 'measure, manner', lifian/libban 'to live, have life, to be, from Arabic madd(un/at) 'extension' and experience', German leben, Old Norse lifa related mudda(t) 'time' via lexical shift; or, 'to remain, to live, to continue', Greek as a whole, from Arabic madeena(t), mudun liparein 'to persist, persevere', from Arabic (pl.) 'city, town', madani (adj.) 'urban' via 'alabba, labba 'to stay, live; love; escape' via lexical shift and /r/-insertion. reordering, turning /b/ into /f/, (and Moor (mooring, morass) via Old English mor /r/-insertion in Greek); 'alfa (alfa'a, lafi'a) 'swamp', Old High German muor (Modern 'stay alive'; lafa 'come, stay' (cf. love & Moor) 'swamp, sea; moorland', direct from elope from the same Arabic root as well; Arabic marr 'water, rain, sea', maraa2 also leave via Old English laefan 'to 'water area; den' via lexical shift and remain; have left, bequeath' from the same /2/-loss; or direct from Arabic mar3a, root or Arabic falla 'leave' via reversal maraa3 (pl.) 'grazing land' via /3/-los or (Jassem 2013n); leaf from Arabic riff 'tree boor 'disused land' by passing /b/ into leaves' where /r/ became /l/; peel from /n/ (Jassem 2013n). Arabic lafa'a 'peel' via reversal and turning Motorway (move, movement, motion) from /f/ into /p/ (Jassem 2013m, 2015a). Latin motor 'lit., mover', from movere Lodge (lodging, lodger) via Old English loge (motare) 'move, set in motion, remove, 'arbor, covered walk; hut, cabin', (German disturb', from Arabic as in move. Laube 'bower, arbour; shelter of foliage'), Mount (mountain, surmount) via Old French from Arabic walaj (v) 'to enter home' and and English munt 'mountain', from Latin its derivatives wilaj 'door, vague land', mons (genitive montis) 'mountain', direct walja(t) 'a passerby's shelter from rain or from Arabic amt 'height' or matn, mutoon cave', wulj 'area, narrow or sandy roads', (pl.) 'mount' via reordering or maTiat(un) and dawlaj 'a small house inside a larger 'a mounting animal', imtaTa (v) 'ride' via one; inner room' via reordering. reordering and passing /T/ into /t/ Mansion (manse) via Old French, from Latin (Jassem 2013f, 2013n). mansio(nem) 'a staying; night quarters; Move (movement, motion, motor) via Old station', manere (v) 'to stay', Greek menein French, from Latin movere (motare) 'move, 'to remain', direct from Arabic manzil set in motion, remove, disturb', from 'mansion, house', turning /z & l/ into /s Arabic maDa 'go, move' where /D/ & n/. became /v (t)/; maada 'move', turning /d/ Mason (masonry) via Old French masson, into /v (t)/; maa2a, mai2 (n) 'of camels, probably from Old High German walk, move', turning /2/ into /v (t)/; or steinmezzo (Modern Steinmetz) 'stone math3 'a woman's walk', merging /th & 3/ mason' or Latin machio, matio, machina into /v/ (cf. remove from Arabic ma2a 'machine; device', straight from Arabic 'erase' where /2/ became /v/). muSawin 'mason; builder', Sawan/Saan Mundane (monde, le monde) via Old French (v), turning /S/ into /s/. mondain 'earthly, worldly; elegant, clean', Metropolis (mother, maternal; police, politics, from Latin mundanus 'of this world', from political, politicking, polity, polis, metropolis, mundus 'world; lit., elegant, clear', from metropolitan, cosmopolitan, Tripoli) via Latin Arabic madina(t), mudun (pl.) 'city', madani metropolis, from Greek metropolis 'mother (adj) 'urban; civilized' via reordering and ZAIDAN ALI JASSEM The Arabic Origins of English and Indo-European "Urban Terms": A Radical Linguistic Theory Approach

lexical shift. See modern. baa2a(t) 'a space' via lexical shift and Office (office, official, officiate) via Old French turning /2/ into /v/; baatha 'to dig, mix ofice, from Latin officium 'service, kindness, with dust', batha' (n) 'soft, easy earth', favour; official duty, business', direct from passing /th/ into /v/. Arabic fisfis 'a decorated house' and Pavilion (pappilon) via Old French paveillon related fasfaas 'stupid, foolish, weak' via 'large tent; butterfly', from Latin syllable reduction and lexical shift (see papilio(nem) 'butterfly, moth; tent', from Jassem 2015e-g). Arabic bahw(un), albahw 'house (front or Palace (palate) via Old French palais, from back); any houselike structure; pelvis' via Latin palacium 'a palace', from palatium 'the reordering, lexical shift, and turning /h/ Palatin hill; a palace', from Arabic balaaT into /v/. 'rock, marble; palace'; /T/ became /s/. Peasant (peasantry, pagan) via Old French Park (Parkville, Hyde Park) via Old French paisent (Modern paysan) 'local inhabitant', parc 'enclosed wood or heath land used as from pais 'country, region', from Latin a game preserve', probably from pagensis inhabitant of district', from pagus Germanic *parruck 'enclosed tract of land', 'country, rural district', from Arabic baaj Old English pearruc, German Pferch 'fold 'vast sand area; road' via lexical shift and for sheep', from Arabic barak 'sit down; passing /j/ into /g/, jubb 'a well, good rest', barka(t) 'pool, lake; low flat land' via grass land' and related juboob 'earth, land' lexical shift; bar2a(t) 'open space, area' or reversal and lexical shift, jabbaana(t) boor(at) 'uncultivated, grassy land' where 'desert, flat upland, graveyard' via /2 (t)/ changed into /k/; bars 'a group reordering and replacing /j/ by /g/; of trees; village', turning /s/ into /k/; or alternatively and more logically, straight buSr, buSra, baSr 'good red earth; good from Arabic bustani 'a gardener' via stony mud; white limestone; side' via reordering or baseeT(un) 'simple (person)' reordering and passing /S/ into /k/. See via reordering and passing /T/ into /t/. village & villa. Pen (combine, compound, bone, banana) via Old Pass (passage, impasse, pace) via Old French English penn, penne 'enclosure, pen, fold', passer, from Latin passare 'to step, walk, perhaps related to Old English pinn 'peg, pass', from passus 'step, pace', from Arabic pin', straight from Arabic bina', bana (v) bawS 'pass, advance', turning /S/ into 'building; hut' or banan 'finger' via lexical /s/; saab 'to go, to pass' and related sabsab shift. 'walk quickly; flow' via reversal (cf. Polis (police, politics, political, politicking, polity, piss from Arabic sab(sab) 'go, pass, flow', polis, metropolis, metropolitan, cosmopolitan, Sabb 'pour' via reversal or bazz 'of liquids, Tripoli) via Old French policie, from Latin to come out' (Jassem 2013d & h)). politia, from Greek politeia 'the state, civil Pastoral (pasture, pastor) via Latin pastor administration', from polites 'city, citizen', 'shepherd', pastus, pascere (v) 'to lead to from polis 'city; the state, citizens', from pasture, cause to eat', from Arabic baSSa(t) Arabic balad, balda(t) 'village, city, town'; 'pasture, growth', turning /S/ into /s/; /d (& t)/ turned or merged into /s/ bassa(t) 'eat'; or baseeTa(t), basaT (v) 'flat (Jassem 2015e-f). See metro. land; eating', passing /T/ into /t/. Port (deport, porter, report; purport) via Middle Path (pad) via Old English path 'path, track', French, from Latin portus 'port, harbour; German Pfad 'path', from Arabic batha' lit., entrance, passage', porta 'gate, door', 'soft, easy earth', baatha (v) 'to mix with Greek poros 'passage, journey, way', from dust; dig, dissipate, search' via lexical shift; Arabic bu'ra(t) 'opening', boor(at) or waTi'a 'to tread', mawTi' (n) 'foothold' 'uncultivated land', or barr(at) 'outside; the where /w & T/ passed into /p & th/. wild' via lexical shift; bawaba(t), from baab Pavement (pave) via Old French paver, 'gate, door' via /r/-insertion; rabwat/rabiat pavement 'pave', from Latin pavare/pavire 'water-surrounded, raised ground' via 'to beat, ram, tread down', from Arabic reordering; or rabD 'to stay, park, ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education ISSN 2301-7554 Vol. 3, Issue 2, June 2015 http://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE

station' via lexical shift, reordering, and Room (rural, rustic) via Old English and passing /T/ into /t/. High German rum 'space (extent, time); Quarter (quart, quartet, quadrant, quadri-, scope, opportunity; roomy, wide, long, quarantine, square, carat, headquarters) via spacious', German Raum 'space', Latin rus French quatre, Latin quattuor, and Greek 'open land, country', from Arabic tessares or tettares 'originally, fourth of maraa2 'a space for resting or going to' or something or something cut', from Arabic mar3a 'grazing place, moorland' via qeeraT, qarareeT (pl.) 'a quarter, a reversal and /2 (3)/-loss. See rural. measurement unit', qaraT (v) 'cut', qarTat Round (roundabout, around) via Old French (n) 'a cutting' via reordering (and turning roond, German runde, from Latin rotundus /q/ into /t/ in Greek) (see Jassem 2012a, 'round, circular', related to rota 'wheel', 2014g). See head & square. straight from Arabic raddat(un), dawrat(un), Railway (railroad, regulation) via Old French dawaran 'turning' via reordering. reille 'bolt, bar', from Latin regal/regula Rural (rustic) via Old French rural, from 'straight stick', regere (v) 'straighten, guide', Latin ruralis 'of the countryside', from rus straight from Arabic rijl 'foot, leg' via (genitive ruris) 'open land, country', from lexical shift and /l & j/-merger (see Arabic rass 'a well' via lexical shift; rawD Jassem 2015e-g). See way & road. 'garden' by turning /D/ into /s (r)/; reef Realty (estate realty, reality, realtor, real esate) 'countryside; rural', passing /f/ into /s via Old French, from Latin realitatem, (r)/; or ra3i 'grazing, shepherding' via realitas, from realis 'real, actual', from res lexical shift and /3/-loss or mutation into 'matter, thing', from Arabic 'arD 'earth, /s (r)/. land' via lexical shift and replacing /D/ Saloon (salon) via French salon 'reception by /s (l)/; or ra'i, al-ra'i, al-ru'ia(t) 'seeing' room', from Italian salone, sala 'large hall, via lexical shift and reordering. See hall', from Old High German sal (German estate. Saal) 'hall, house', Russian selo 'village', Remain (remnant; mansion) via Old French, direct from Arabic qal3a(tun) 'castle' via from Latin remanere 'remain, stay behind; lexical shift and turning /q & 3/ into /s & abide, last', from (i) re- 'back', from Arabic Ø/; 2illa(tun) 'house, stay' via lexical shift rai3 'back' via /3/-loss (Jassem 2013a, and turning /2/ into /s/; or Saala(t), 2014f) and (ii) manere 'stay, remain', Saalon 'dry earth; hall' where /S/ became straight from Arabic naam 'sleep' via /s/. lexical shift and reversal. See mansion. Sedentary (sit, session) via Middle French, Reside (residence, resident) via Old French, from Latin sedentarius 'sitting, remaining from Latin residere 'reside, dwell', straight in one place', from sedentem/sedens, sedere from Arabic raqad 'stay, reside' or raSad 'to (v) 'to sit, remain; be fixed', Greek ezesthai sit-observe'; /q (S)/ became /s/. 'to sit', Sanskrit a-sadat 'sat down', sidati Riverside (residence, resident) via Old French 'sits', Old English sittan 'sit', from Arabic (i) riviere 'river, river bank', from Latin qa3ad 'sit', turning /q & 3/ into /s & Ø/; riparia 'river, riverbank, seashore', straight sada2 'sit, set' via /2/-loss; or jatha 'sit', from Arabic nahar 'river' where /n & h/ turning /j & th/ into /s & d/. evolved into /r & v/ and (ii) side below. Shelf via Middle Low German schelf 'shelf' Road (ride, raid) via Old English rad 'riding or Old English scylfe 'shelf, floor' and scylf expedition, journey, hostile incursion', 'peak, pinnacle', straight from Arabic direct from Arabic rawd 'road'. raSeef 'a pavement, layer' via lexical shift, Roof via Old English hrof 'roof, ceiling, top; reordering, and changing /S & r/ into /sh heaven, sky', Middle Dutch roof/rouf 'cover, & l/; or Saff, al-Saff 'row, line' via roof', and Middle High German rof reordering or /l/-insertion and turning 'penthouse', straight from Arabic raff, /S/ into /sh/. rufoof (pl.) 'shelf, roof' or rafee3 'high' via Shire (Cambridgeshire, Oxfordshire) via Old /3/-loss and lexical shift. English scir 'administrative office, ZAIDAN ALI JASSEM The Arabic Origins of English and Indo-European "Urban Terms": A Radical Linguistic Theory Approach

jurisdiction, authority, country, province', turning /h/ into /j/. However, as a from Arabic soor 'wall; walled-in area' via whole, it seems that (i) so- derives from lexical shift and turning /s/ into /sh/; Arabic saa3a(t) 'hour' via /3/-loss and (ii) jeera(t)/deera(t) 'neighbourhood, area' journ, jour from nahaar 'day, daylight' where /j (d)/ became /sh/; or sharee3a(t) above: i/e., 'lit., a day's hour'. 'a water-bound area; a jurisdiction' via Stair (stairs, staircase, upstairs, downstairs) via /3/-loss. Old English stæger 'stair, staircase, flight of Sidewalk via Old English side 'flanks of a steps', Dutch steiger 'a stair, step', German person, the long part or aspect of Steig 'path', straight from Arabic daraj anything', sid (adj.) 'long, broad, spacious', 'steps, stairs; walk' via reordering and German Seite, direct from Arabic sadd 'side, changing /d & j/ into /s & t/; or jidar blockage', judd (jadd, jidd) 'side, road, 'wall' via lexical shift and passing /j & D/ shore', jida' 'side' where /j/ became /s/, into /s & t/. or Sadaf 'side', mutating /S/ into /s/ and As to down and up in downstairs/upstairs, merging /d & f/. See countryside, the former comes from Arabic doon riverside & walk. 'below' while the latter from Arabic Square, Trafalgar (quarter, quartet, quadrant, 3abab 'up' via /3/-loss (Jassem 2014c). quadri-, quarantine, square, carat, Story (storey) via Old French estorie, estoire headquarters) via Old French esquire from 'story, chronicle, history', from Latin storia, Latin exquadrare of (i) ex- 'out', from Arabic shortened from historia 'history, account, aqSa 'far' where /q & S/ became /k & s/ tale; story, floor of a building; picture', (Jassem 2012f, 2014c) and (ii) quadrare 'to from Arabic 'usToora(t) 'tale, story', Soora(t) make square', quadrus 'a square', from 'picture', or Soor/soora(t) 'fence, walled-in Arabic qeeraaT 'quarter', qaraT (v) 'cut' via enclosure', turning /', S, & T/ into /h, s, & /T/-loss and /s/-split from /q/ (see t/. Thus, the different meanings derive Jassem 2012a, 2014g). See head, quarter, & from formally similar and semantically Trafalgar. different Arabic words, merging into one Stay via Old French estai/estare, from Latin in English. stare 'to stand (still); be upright; stand firm; Structure (structural, construction) via Latin remain, tarry', (Italian and Spanish structura 'a fitting together; a building; fig., stare/estar 'to stand, to be', from Arabic order', from struere (v.) 'to pile, place jatha 'sit', turning /j & th/ into /s & t/; or together, build, assemble, arrange', from istanna, ta'anna 'wait' via lexical shift and Arabic Sar2 'a high building' and related mutating /n/ into /r (Ø)/. Sar2at ' a land' via reordering and turning Street via Old English stret 'street, high road', /2/ into /k/; saTar, saTra(t) (n) 'to pile, German Straβe, Latin strata 'paved road', arrange in lines', turning /T/ into /t/; or sternere (v) 'lay down, spread out, pave', soor(at), sawwar (v) 'wall; a building' via from Arabic siraaT 'road, way' or shareeT /t/-split from /s/. 'a narrow road', splitting /sh/ into /st/ Subway via Latin sub (ub) 'under, at the foot and turning /T/ into /t/; or Tareeq(at) of; close, up to, toward, within, during' 'road' via reversal, /q/-split into /st/, and and Greek hypo 'under', from Arabic Sawb turning /T/ into /t/. 'falling; towards' via lexical shift and Sojourn via Old French sojorner 'stay for a turning /S/ into /s/; ka3b 'lit', ankle; time', from Latin subdiurnare 'to spend the bottom, below' via /k & 3/-merger into day', from (i) sub- 'under, until', from /s/; 3ubb 'breast, within, inside, under', Arabic Sawb 'under, toward' and (ii) turning /3/ into /s (h)/; or shi3b 'branch, diurnare 'to last long', from diurnun 'day', gap, sub' via lexical shift and /sh & from Arabic dahr(un) 'time, day' or 3/-merger into /s/ (Jassem 2014c). See Dhuhr(un) 'noon' via lexical shift, /h/-loss, way. and turning /d (Dh)/ into /j/; or nahar Tent via Old French tente 'tent, hanging, 'day' via reordering, merging /n & r/, and tapestry', from Latin tenta 'a tent; lit., ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education ISSN 2301-7554 Vol. 3, Issue 2, June 2015 http://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE

something stretched', tendere (v.) 'stretch', (S)/ into /t/; or bawaba(t) 'gate, doorway' direct from Arabic tamdeed, from madda(t) via reordering and lexical shift. 'stretching, mattress', turning /m & d/ Underground Railroad (grind) via (i) Old into /n & t/; thania(t) 'a fold, something English under 'under, among', Latin infra, bent', thana (v.) 'bend, fold' via lexical shift and Sanskrit adnah 'under', from Arabic and passing /th/ into /t/; or Tawia(tun) 'a 'adna 'lower', comparative of doon 'below, fold', Tawa (v) via lexical shift, down' via reordering and /r/-insertion; reordering, and turning /T/ into /t/. or 'in2idar 'going down' via /2/-loss (see Toilet (toiletry) via Middle French toilette 'a infrastructure) and (ii) grund 'bottom, cloth, bag for clothes', diminutive of toile foundation, surface of the earth; abyss, 'cloth, net', from Arabic taali, tuwali (pl.) hell; sea bottom', German Grund 'ground, 'of clothes, tails or rags'; Tuwala(t) soil, bottom', from Arabic jurd(un) 'lengthening (of a dress)', Tawila(t) 'table', 'unplanted land' via reordering and or dhail 'tail (of dress)' via lexical shift and passing /j/ into /g/. changing /T (dh)/ into /t/ (cf. toil from Urban (urbanity, urbanize, urbane, conurbation) Old French toellier 'pull at, drag about; via Latin urbanus 'lit., of a city; refined, later struggle, hard work', from Arabic courteous', from urbs 'city, walled town', talla 'pull'). from Arabic bina', bunian 'building; built Tower (turret) via Old English torr 'tower, areas' via reordering and passing /n/ into watchtower', from Old French tor /r/; rab3 'a home and its occupants; (Modern tur), Spanish and Italian torre, residential area; a group of people', from Latin turris 'a tower, citadel, high turning /3/ into /s (Ø)/; 3arab 'Arabs; structure', direct from Arabic daar, door city dwellers; villagers' and related (pl.) 'house; world; abode' via lexical shift 3arab(at) 'village; a current', 3areeb 'soft and passing /d/ into /t/; or Toor land; a person' via /3/-loss and passing 'mountain' via lexical shift and turning /t/ into /s/; bars, barnusa' 'people; a /T/ into /t/. group of trees; village' via reordering; ribs Town (townsman, town centre) via Old 'brave, courageous; beating with hands; English tun 'enclosure, garden, field, yard; go; fill up with water' via lexical shift and farm, manor; homestead, mansion; group related ribsa(t) 'ugly, dirty; mixture', of houses', Old High German zun rabeez/rabees 'nice, good, polite; big; full' (Modern Zaun) 'fence, hedge', from Arabic via lexical shift, reordering, and passing Teen, 'aTyan 'village; farming area; mud; /z (s)/ into /n/; buSr, buSra, baSr 'good mud houses', passing /T/ into /t/; or red earth; good stony mud; white Siwan 'a walled-in enclosure' via lexical limestone; side' via reordering and shift and turning /S/ into /t (z)/. passing /S/ into /s (n)/. Track (trek) via Old French trac 'trac of U-turn (tour, detour) via Old English turnian horses, trace', possibly form Middle Low 'rotate', from Old French, from Latin German treck 'drawing, pulling', direct tornare 'to round off, turn on a lathe; from Arabic Tareeq 'road'; /T & q/ polish', tornus (n) 'lathe', from Greek tornos turned into /t & k/. 'lathe, a tool for drawing circles', from Trafalgar Square commemorates a British Arabic dawaraan 'turning round'; /d/ 1805 naval victory over the French, from became /t/. Arabic Taraf al aghar 'lit., side/end (of) the Vault (evolve, revolve, Volvo) via Old French spotted (white, glorious)', or Taraf al voute 'arch, vaulting', from Latin volta, agharb 'side/end (of) the west (in contraction of volvita, from volotus, from Gibraltar)', turning /gh & b/ into /g & volvere (v) 'to turn, roll', direct from Arabic Ø/ (Harper 2015). See square. laffa, laflaf (repetitive), laffa(t) (n) 'to turn' Tube (tubular) via Middle French, Latin tubus or lawa, lawia(t) (n) 'to turn' via reordering 'tube, pipe', direct from Arabic qaDeeb and passing /w/ into /v/; or 2awTa, 2a'iT, 'stick', or qaSab 'reed', merging /q & D al-2a'iT 'wall, the-wall', turning /2 & T/ ZAIDAN ALI JASSEM The Arabic Origins of English and Indo-European "Urban Terms": A Radical Linguistic Theory Approach

into /v & t/. measure of length', from Arabic qarTa(t) Villa (villain, villain, village) via Italian, from 'rod; a cut', turning /q & T/ into /g & d/. Latin villa 'country house, farm', related to Zigzag via French, perhaps from German vicus 'village, group of houses, direct from Zickzack 'tooth, prong; military siege', Arabic fila2a(t) 'farming', fala2 (v) 'to farm' direct from Arabic 3awaj, i3wijaj 'bent, via /2/-loss and lexical shift. bending' or siaj 'siege, fence'; /3 (s) & j/ Village (villa, village, Ville) via Old French passed into /z & g/. vilage 'houses in a group', from Latin Zoological Gardens (zoology, zoo) via Greek villaticum 'farmstead', from villa above, zoion 'animal', direct from Arabic 2aiwan where /2/ became /ge/. 'animal', passing /2/ into /z/ and Villain (villainy, village, villa) via Old French deleting /n/. See garden. vilain 'farmer, commoner', from Latin villa In short, the total number of urban 'country house, farm', direct from Arabic terms in this study amounted to 130, all falla2(in) 'farmer', fala2 (v) 'to farm' via of which have true Arabic cognates: i.e., /2/-loss and lexical shift. See villa. 100%. Walk via Old English wealcan 'to toss, roll, The results show clearly that urban move round', from Arabic walaq 'walk'; terms in Arabic, English, German, French, /q/ became /k/. See side. Way (away; always, anyway; deviate, deviation, Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, and all deviance) via Old English 'road; room, Indo-European languages are true space; freedom of movement', Old High cognates for sharing identical or similar German weg (Weg) 'way', from Latin via forms and meanings, with their 'way, road, channel, course', from Arabic differences, however, being all due to wajh, wijha(t) 'face, way, direction', natural and plausible causes and merging /j & h/ into /y/. See highway, different routes of phonetic, motorway, alleyway. morphological, grammatical, and Wild (wilderness) via Old English wilde 'in the semantic change. Since the percentage of natural state, uncultivated, uncontrolled, undomesticated', German wild', direct from shared urban words between Arabic, Arabic falaat 'the wild; grazing land; being English, Latin or Greek, for example, out of control'; /f & t/ became /w & d/. amounted to 100%, this indicates their Window (wind, eye) via Old Norse vindaya membership to the same language- i.e., 'lit., wind eye', from vindr 'wind', from dialects, for which a much lower 60-80% Arabic nada, nadwa 'wetness, dew' via ratio is usually set according to Cowley's reordering and/or changing /a/ to /w/ (1997: 172-173) 100-word list-based and (ii) auge 'eye', from Arabic 2ijaj 'eye classification. bone' via lexical shift and /j/-mutation Therefore, the results are in full into /y/; alternatively, from Arabic 3ain agreement with the findings of previous Daw' 'lit., eye (for) light', turning /3 & D/ into /w & d/. studies (Jassem 2012a-f, 2013a-q, 2014a-k, Yard (garden) via Old English geard 'fenced 2015a-g) in which English, German, enclosure, garden, court; residence, house', French, Latin, Greek, Sanskrit and Old High German garto (German Garten) Arabic were all found to be not only 'garden', Gothic gards 'enclosure; house', members of the same family but also direct from Arabic jidar, judran (pl.) 'wall; rather dialects of the same language. garden' via reordering and passing /j/ More precisely, they lend further into /g/; or 2ujrat 'room, (stone) house', support to the radical linguistic (or merging /2 & j/ into /y (g)/ and passing lexical root) theory on all levels of /t/ into /d/. See garden. analysis. Theoretically, the main As 'a measurement unit', it comes from Old English gerd/gierd 'rod, staff, stick, principle which states that Arabic, ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education ISSN 2301-7554 Vol. 3, Issue 2, June 2015 http://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE

English, German, French, and the those languages to it instead of so-called Indo-European languages are reconstructing hypothetical, fictitious not only genetically related but also are languages. dialects of the same language is, As to the analytical plane, the therefore, verifiably sound and procedures of the theory all operated empirically true. Thus they make up a neatly and smoothly on all levels. larger language family, which has been Phonetically, the whole changes were termed Eurabian or Urban as a blend of natural and plausible, cyclic and European and Arabian languages multi-directional, including processes (Jassem 2015c: 41, 2015d). like substitution, deletion, reversal, Furthermore, this implies by merger, split, reordering, reduction, and necessity that all the above languages so on. Morphologically, the affixes, descended from an earlier, perfect, whether inflectional or derivational, had suddenly-emerged language, called true Arabic cognates as well. For radical (world) language from which all example, the commonest affixes –n (-an, human languages initially came and -en, -ene, in-, -ine, -ing, -ness, -ar), -t (-ate, which has incessantly and variably -ette, -ite, -ity; ad-, de-, -ed; -s, -ess, -ous), survived into today's languages, though -tion, and –al (-eal, -ile, -elle) are true, getting simpler and simpler over time. In identical cognates in Arabic and English other words, the radical language could as well as all Indo-European languages never have died out beyond recognition. as shown above (for detail, see Jassem With proper methodology, it can be 2012f, 2013a-b, 2013l, 2015d). easily recovered as shown in this work. Semantically, lexical stability was As this work demostrated, it seems that the common pattern where most urban its closest or most conservative and terms preserved their basic meanings productive descendant is Arabic for across the languages, e.g., abide, live, having preserved almost all its features reside, home, house, mansion, court, palace. (Jassem 2014h-k, 2015a-d). In fact, all The recurrence of lexical convergence in Indo-European languages descended the data was due to formal and semantic directly from Arabic for reasons outlined similarity between Arabic words, on the earlier (Jassem 2015a-b, 2015d: 131-132; one hand, and their English, German, 2014a-b, 2014e). The exact time and place French, Latin, and Greek cognates, on the of the split-up between Arabic and the other. For instance, abide, alley, so-called Indo-European languages is architecture, design, move, pen, reside, stay, immaterial (for details, see Jassem urban might each derive from several 2015e-f). Arabic words, all formally and As a consequence, reconstructing an semantically similar (see 3 above). old world language is needless; rather Although only one cognate might be the that proto-language, called radical ultimate source in the end, no need is language here, is still very much alive, presently felt to specify which one it having variably survived into today's might be; the reader may judge. Likewise, languages, with Arabic being its closest semantic multiplicity (polysemy) was descendant as the above data clearly recurrent, where some English words shows (for detail, see Jassem 2014h: had more than one meaning, which 254-256, 2014i: 116-117; 2014k, 2015a-b). might just as well have more than one Thus the quest should focus on relating likely Arabic cognate; for example, abide, ZAIDAN ALI JASSEM The Arabic Origins of English and Indo-European "Urban Terms": A Radical Linguistic Theory Approach

cultivate, dwell, live, mount, story have office, pen, road, dining room, street, track, different meanings, every one of which etc. a direct derivation from Arabic is derives from formally and semantically not only shorter but also more logical, similar Arabic words (see 3 above). As a which, at the same time, preserves both matter of fact, almost all Arabic words the form and meaning of cognate words. are polysemous in nature. Lexical shift occurred frequently as in apartment, CONCLUSION avenue, bed, booth, park, path, village, the The main findings can be last of which, e.g., moved from its recapitulated as follows: original or radical meaning 'farm' to i) The 130 urban terms in Arabic, 'village' currently. Lexical divergence is English, German, French, Latin, rare, which took place in gang and infra Greek, and Sanskrit are true from Arabic naafir 'bulging, protruding' cognates, whose differences are due (see 3. above). Lexical split affected bridge, to natural and plausible causes and burgh, borough, resulting from Arabic burj different routes of linguistic change. 'tower; a high structure'; track and trek ii) The radical linguistic (or lexical root) split from Arabic Tareeq 'road, way'; pen, theory has been adequate for banana, combine, compound, bone all split genetically relating urban terms in the from Arabic bana 'to build' and related above languages to one another, derivatives. Lexical change affected according to which they are all villain, which originally meant 'farmer'. dialects of the same language and Finally, lexical variability recurred in the which comprise one large language data, whether at the level of the different family that may be called Eurabian or forms of the same words within the same Urban, for short. Phonetically, the language such as English city or across main changes included substitution, the languages like English city, German reversal, reordering, deletion, split, Stadt, French cite/citet, Spanish ciudad, and merger; morphologically, the Latin civis (citatem/civitas), and Arabic changes centered around –t, –n, and jiddat (jaddat, juddat) 'city; river side' (see –al which behave in similar ways in 3 above). Arabic, in particular, is replete all; lexically, the recurrent patterns with linguistic variability of all types were stability, convergence, such as jiddat and haih 'far' which has multiplicity, shift, split, and over sixty variants (Ibn Manzoor 2013). variability. Finally, a word on methodology is iii) The Radical or Root Language, or in order. Although tracing the Arabic early prehistoric language, was real origins of English, German, French, and perfect, which has variably Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit words works survived into today's languages. As well by, actually cannot be carried out Arabic is phonetically, without, following the routes outlined in morphologically, and lexically the their etymologies such as Harper (2015), most complex of all, it can be safely yet there are countless instances of said that it has inherited almost all uncertain or unknown etymologies and the Radical Language features, implausible, complicated, unnecessarily thereby showing its incessant lengthy, and/or erroneous derivations. permanence as the most In many cases like abide, alley, castle, conservative of all. county, dwell, farm, head, house, mansion, iv) Finally, the current work supports ENGLISH REVIEW: Journal of English Education ISSN 2301-7554 Vol. 3, Issue 2, June 2015 http://journal.uniku.ac.id/index.php/ERJEE

earlier calls for further research into Mass.: The MIT Press. all language levels, especially lexis Celce-Murcia, M. et al. (2010). Teaching (Jassem 2012a-f, 2013a-q, 2014a-k, pronunciation: A course book and nd 2015a-h); it also calls for similar reference guide. (2 edn). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. research in other world languages or Crowley, T. (1997). An introduction to their families (Jassem 2014h-i, 2015h); historical linguistics. (3rd edn). Oxford: also the application of such findings Oxford University Press. to language teaching, lexicology and Crystal, D. (2010). The Cambridge encyclopedia lexicography, translation (Jassem of language. (3rd ed). Cambridge: 2014d, 2015a), cultural (including Cambridge University Press. anthropological, historical, social, Harper, D. (2015). Online etymology dictionary. religious) awareness, understanding, Retrieved and heritage is badly needed to http://www.etymonline.com (June 15, promote cross-cultural 2015). Ibn Manzoor, A. A. A. (2013). Lisan al3arab. understanding and cooperation in Beirut: Dar Sadir. Retrieved all aspects of human life. http://www.lisan.com (May 5, 2015). Ibn Seedah, A. bin I. (1996). AlmukhaSSaS. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Beirut: Daar I2ya Alturath Al3arabi Sincere thanks are warmly and Muassasat Altareekh al3arabi. extended to everyone who contributed Jassem, Z. A. (1987). Phonological variation and to this research in any way worldwide. change in immigrant speech: A I'd like to thank Fahrus Zaman Fadhly, sociolinguistic study of a 1967 Editor-in-Chief of ENGLISH REVIEW, Arab-Israeli war immigrant speech for the timely and kind invitation to community in Damascus, Syria. PhD Thesis, Durham University, UK. contribute to their esteemed Journal. For Retrieved my supportive and inspiring wife, http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1682/1/1682. Amanie M. Ibrahim, I remain indebted pdf (March 1, 2015). as ever. Jassem, Z. A. (1993). Dirasa fi 3ilmi allugha al-ijtima3i: Bahth lughawi Sauti ijtima3i fi REFERENCES allahajat al3arabia alshamia muqaranatan Albabidi, A. M. A. (2011). Mu3jam asma' ma3a alingleeziyya wa ghairiha. Kuala alashia' (allaTa'if fi allughat). Ed. Lumpur: Pustaka Antara. Retrieved Awad, Ahmad Abd-ul-tawab. Cairo: http://www.academia.edu (May 1, Dar AlfaDeelat. Retrieved 2015). http://www.waqfeya.com (May 1, Jassem, Z. A. (1994a). Impact of the 2015). Arab-Israeli wars on language and social Algeo, J. (2010). The origins and development of change in the Arab world: The case of the English language. (6th edn.). Syrian Arabic. Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Antara. Altha3aalibi, A. M. (2011). Fiqhu allughat wa Jassem, Z. A. (1994b). Lectures in English and asraar al3arabiyyat. Ed. by Alayoobi, Dr. Arabic sociolinguistics, 2 Vols. Kuala Yaseen. Beirut and Saida: Lumpur: Pustaka Antara. Al-Maktabat Al-3aSriyyat. Jassem, Z. A. (2012a). The Arabic origins of Bergs, A. and Brinton, L. (eds). (2012). numeral words in English and Handbook of English historical linguistics. European languages. International Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Journal of Linguistics 4 (3), 225-41. Campbell, L. (2006). Historical linguistics: An Retrieved URL: introduction. (2nd edn). Cambridge, http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/ijl.v4i3.127 ZAIDAN ALI JASSEM The Arabic Origins of English and Indo-European "Urban Terms": A Radical Linguistic Theory Approach

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