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The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto

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The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World This page intentionally left blank The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World J. P. Mallory and D. Q. Adams 1 1 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox26dp Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With oYces in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York ß J. P. Mallory and D. Q. Adams 2006 The moral rights of the authors have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 2006 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Typeset by SPI Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by Biddles Ltd., www.biddles.co.uk ISBN 0-19-928791-0 978-0-19-928791-8 (HB) 0-19-929668-5 978-0-19-929668-2 13579108642 Contents List of Maps xii Lits of Figures xiii List of Tables xiv List of Abbreviations and Acronyms xix Introduction xxii 1 Discovery 1 1.1 Language relations 1 1.2 Indo-European 6 2 The Elements 12 2.1 The Indo-European languages 12 2.2 Celtic 15 2.3 Italic 18 2.4 Germanic 19 2.5 Baltic 23 2.6 Slavic 25 2.7 Albanian 26 2.8 Greek 27 2.9 Anatolian 28 2.10 Armenian 31 2.11 Indo-Aryan 32 2.12 Iranian 33 2.13 Tocharian 35 2.14 Minor languages 36 3 Reconstructing Proto-Indo-European 39 3.1 The Comparative Method 39 3.2 Schleicher’s Tale 45 3.3 Laryngeal Theory 48 3.4 Reconstruction and Reality 50 vi contents 4 The System 54 4.0 The System 54 4.1 Phonology 54 4.2 The Noun 56 4.3 Adjectives 59 4.4 Pronouns 59 4.5 Numerals 61 4.6 Particles and Conjunctions 62 4.7 Prepositions 62 4.8 Verbs 62 4.9 Derivation 65 5 Relationships 71 5.0 Linguistic Relationship 71 5.1 Internal Relationships 71 5.2 External Relations 81 5.3 Genetic Models 83 6 A Place in Time 86 6.0 The Fourth Dimension 86 6.1 Time Depth 86 6.2 Relative Chronologies 88 6.3 Absolute Chronologies 92 6.4 The Dark Ages? 103 7 Reconstructing the Proto-Indo-Europeans 106 7.1 Approaches to the Past 106 7.2 How Many Cognates? 107 7.3 Reconstructed Meaning 110 7.4 Semantic Fields 112 7.5 Folk Taxonomies 113 7.6 Level of Reconstruction 115 7.7 Root Homonyms 115 7.8 How Long a Text? 116 7.9 Vocabulary—What’s Missing? 117 8 The Physical World 120 8.1 Earth 120 8.2 Fire 122 8.3 Water 125 CONTENTS vii 8.4 Air 128 8.5 The Physical Landscape of the Proto-Indo-Europeans 130 9 Indo-European Fauna 132 9.1 Reconstructing Environments 132 9.2 Mammals 134 9.3 Birds 143 9.4 Fish, Reptiles, Amphibians 146 9.5 Insects, Shellfish, etc. 148 9.6 Indo-European Animals 151 10 Indo-European Flora 156 10.1 Trees 156 10.2 Wild Plants 161 10.3 Domesticated Plants 163 10.4 Agricultural Terms 167 10.5 Proto-Indo-European Flora 169 11 Anatomy 173 11.0 The Body 173 11.1 The Head 173 11.2 Hair 176 11.3 The Upper Body and Arms 178 11.4 The Lower Body and Legs 182 11.5 Internal Organs 185 11.6 Vital Functions 188 11.7 Health and Disease 192 11.8 The Lexicon of the Body 199 12 Family and Kinship 203 12.1 Family and Household 203 12.2 Marriage 206 12.3 Kinship 209 13 Hearth and Home 219 13.1 Dwelling 219 13.2 Construction 223 13.3 Proto-Indo-European Settlement 227 viii contents 14 Clothing and Textiles 230 14.1 Textiles 230 14.2 Proto-Indo-European Textile Production 236 15 Material Culture 239 15.1 Containers 239 15.2 Metals 241 15.3 Tools 242 15.4 Weapons 244 15.5 Ornament 246 15.6 Transport 247 15.7 Roads 250 15.8 Proto-Indo-European Material Culture 251 16 Food and Drink 254 16.1 Eat and Drink 254 16.2 Preparation 258 16.3 Foods and Meals 260 16.4 Proto-Indo-European Diet 264 17 Proto-Indo-European Society 266 17.1 Social Organization 266 17.2 Give and Take 270 17.3 Exchange and Property 272 17.4 Law and Order 276 17.5 Strife and Warfare 277 17.6 Occupations 283 17.7 Proto-Indo-European Society 284 18 Space and Time 287 18.1 Space 287 18.2 Position 288 18.3 Direction 293 18.4 Placement (Verbs) 295 18.5 Shape 297 18.6 Time 300 18.7 Proto-Indo-European Space and Time 303 19 Number and Quantity 307 19.0 Numerical Systems 307 CONTENTS ix 19.1 Basic Numerals 308 19.2 Measure and Quantity 317 20 Mind, Emotions and Sense Perception 321 20.1 Knowledge and Thought 321 20.2 Sight 325 20.3 Bright and Dark 328 20.4 Colours 331 20.5 Hearing, Smell, Touch and Taste 334 20.6 The Good, Bad and the Ugly 336 20.7 Desire 340 20.8 Love and Hate 342 20.9 Hot, Cold and other Qualities 344 20.10 Proto-Indo-European Perception 348 21 Speech and Sound 352 21.0 Speech and Sounds 352 21.1 Speech 352 21.2 Elevated Speech 355 21.3 Interjections and Human Sounds 359 21.4 Animal Sounds 363 21.5 Proto-Indo-European Speech 365 22 Activities 368 22.1 Existence, Ability and Attempt 368 22.2 Reductive Activities 371 22.3 Rotary and Lateral Activities 377 22.4 Bind, Stick and Smear 380 22.5 Bend and Press 382 22.6 Inflation 385 22.7 Extend 387 22.8 Throw 388 22.9 Clean 389 22.10 Movement 390 22.11 Pour and Flow 393 22.12 Come and Go 394 22.13 Run and Jump 397 22.14 Crawl, Slide and Fall 400 22.15 Travel 401 x contents 22.16 Swim 403 22.17 Convey 404 23 Religion 408 23.1 Deities 408 23.2 The Sacred 411 24 Grammatical Elements 415 24.0 Pronouns 415 24.1 Personal and Reflexive Pronouns 415 24.2 Demonstrative Pronouns 417 24.3 Interrogative Pronouns 419 24.4 Relative Pronouns 421 24.5 Conjunctions 421 25 Comparative Mythology 423 25.0 Reconstructing Mythologies 423 25.1 Approaches to Mythology 427 25.2 Deities 431 25.3 Creation 435 25.4 War of the Foundation 436 25.5 Hero and Serpent 436 25.6 Horse Sacrifice 437 25.7 King and Virgin 437 25.8 Fire in Water 438 25.9 Functional Patterns 438 25.10 Death and the Otherworld 439 25.11 Final Battle 439 25.12 Current Trends 440 26 Origins—The Never-Ending Story 442 26.1 The Homeland Problem 442 26.2 Homeland Approaches 444 26.3 What Does the Homeland Look Like? 453 26.4 Evaluating Homeland Theories 454 26.5 Processes of Expansion 458 26.6 Where Do They Put It Now? 460 CONTENTS xi Appendices Appendix 1 Basic Sound Correspondences between PIE and the Major IE Groups 464 Appendix 2 A Proto-Indo-European–English Word-list 466 Appendix 3 An English–Proto-Indo-European Word-list 523 References 565 Index of Languages 591 Index of Subjects and Places 619 List of Maps 1.1. Map of the Indo-European world 8 1.2. Surviving Indo-European groups 9 1.3. Major known non-Indo-European groups in Europe and western Asia 10 2.1. Distribution of the Celtic languages 17 2.2. Distribution of the Italic languages 20 2.3. Distribution of the Germanic languages 21 2.4. Distribution of the Baltic and Slavic languages 24 2.5. Distribution of the Anatolian and Phrygian languages 29 2.6. Distribution of the Indo-Aryan and Iranian languages 32 26.1. The Indo-European homeland problem 461 List of Figures 5.1. Schleicher’s family tree of the Indo-European languages 72 5.2. A ‘wave model’ of some of the interrelationships of the Indo-European languages 73 5.3. A modern tree diagram of the Indo-European languages suggested by Eric Hamp (1990) 74 5.4. A recent family tree of the Indo-European languages prepared by D. Ringe, T.
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  • Linguistic History and Language Diversity in India: Views and Counterviews

    Linguistic History and Language Diversity in India: Views and Counterviews

    J Biosci (2019) 44:62 Indian Academy of Sciences DOI: 10.1007/s12038-019-9879-1 (0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789().,-volV) Linguistic history and language diversity in India: Views and counterviews SONAL KULKARNI-JOSHI Deccan College, Pune, India (Email, [email protected]) This paper addresses the theme of the seminar from the perspective of historical linguistics. It introduces the construct of ‘language family’ and then proceeds to a discussion of contact and the dynamics of linguistic exchange among the main language families of India over several millennia. Some prevalent hypotheses to explain the creation of India as a linguistic area are presented. The ‘substratum view’ is critically assessed. Evidence from historical linguistics in support of two dominant hypotheses –‘the Aryan migration view’ and ‘the out-of-India hypothesis’–is presented and briefly assessed. In conclusion, it is observed that the current understanding in historical linguistics favours the Aryan migration view though the ‘substratum view’ is questionable. Keywords. Aryan migration; historical linguistics; language family; Out-of-India hypothesis; substratum 1. Introduction the basis of social, political and cultural criteria more than linguistic criteria. The aim of this paper is to lend a linguistic perspective on This vast number of languages is classified into four (or the issue of human diversity and ancestry in India to the non- six) language families or genealogical types: Austro-Asiatic linguists at this seminar. The paper is an overview of the (Munda), Dravidian, Indo-Aryan (IA) and Tibeto-Burman; major views and evidences gleaned from the available more recently, two other language families have been literature.