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,(8oyoe er4lre Jo ecr] JeJd eq] pue 'sct1t1od 'tustleuolleN 6rl Se]tlJlljd 18q1 uueul lOu soop sltll'slstSo[ocPqJJu ul?lsl?JneJ leool '{uetuJO ezrsuqdtue ol qsl'\\ c'tl'laslno aql 1V cqtJo lr?JttrrJ Suteq e:u e,\\ 3llLl,\\'ieqt 'teqlout? ,{g eldoed .uorsso.rciclns euoJo .:etqSnr:1s louJr crleuols,{s eql ul llnseJ {eru leql tsr:d snolJes uoJl uPlseJnPJ lerll JO suoluolstp :o ..sSutpucJsltu,' "(rolsrqerd '..r8u,pn"r.. roJ EtlotlJr qsllqulso ol ]duralltl 3o elqetclecctl Surqsrn8urlstp o.1". 'speecorcl ll sV 'JB ,(rnluec qlxls-pltu eql ut SutuutSeq'et3:oe9 11^ly 'porred uralse,t\ ut uotJl?ztuolol {eer{) o1 saleleJ I se '{1:clncrlled lBJlsselc uP qil'\\ Alluclrol eq] roJ eJueptlc 1r:crSoloaeqcJe uuts11311l?J Jo uollRnlele -ouoJt-loueqlpue-snseon€JuJequoueqlpuE'l?luoulJv'er8rocg'uelteq -JaZVulpJosejotrolsrqerdsqtJoSuouE}erdlelutSutreptsuoc.,{11euor8ar lsrgSurpeeco:cl'lceistqlsulleJlsnlpselduexalere^esButlele;"{qsnsecne3 reded stql cql ur .{SoloeeqJlu Jo olnlpu lecrllod eql elBltsuotuop [lt,\\ .paluroclduslp lou st euo 'scrlr1od ,(:erodueluoJ o1 polelsJUtr '1tns:nd JturcpeJe olpl ue aq or ,{Soloeuqole 3o ecrlcu'rd eq} lcedxa lou plno'{\ 'SIJIUUOC aAISOldxe ouo 3Jor{,t\ PoJe uP sl 1t 'suolllpuoJ aseql IIe UsAtD sluqle pur: ,{poolq ,{11euor1dacxo lulo^es pue salndstp lelrollrrel snor0tunu qlr,n elalder uot,3e; elllBlo^ ,(re,r. e st 1l 'uolun lel^os JeuIJoJ aql io esdelloc eqt ue,tr.3 'snsBsnBJ aql jo seldoed peu'{u oql lle ro3 ln3Sutueau 'l?Iuusllllu 'suorsnllt qJno]-J0-111o'snolt pue e^rll? "{epo1,{11euorldecxe e-ru ,{rolsrq Juolcue pue '{SoloaeqcJv ur / JoJ uortl?lueunJop uot{l pue ll?Jlrolslq qcp qll'^A IJEq ^olqsrl v A lecrSoloauqcJe .{1luaccr,\\ou Jql"rorsol^l lolJar rq 3uo1 e fq peztrelcu:uqc Jo Surpuelxe 'sseusnolJsuoc leJlJo]slq pIAIA pue '{'re't 'Jrnll ,,{lrsre^rp pue 'cr1srn8ut1 'uelrElJas ol uoluppe ul st snsuJnr?J or{1 clurllo ot pJlo^ep ,{1a.rr1ue sr qJrq,tr 'e.rerulq8tu s.JeqdeJiiouqlo Jo uleoJp -loaDq)ty tloltnly )t/J :,\.nr-il s.ouo uodn Surpuedep lr Surleru pun .t'Solotlo.t1tu7 t)t,tlc uE l3qlr3 lueueredual "{lts.to,ttp Jo pe1e11u:edun tsotule 'leuorldacxe peztrelcereqr aql Jo slo.lPrlJ 3r{1 uo,. sP ql crlsrnSutl pue ctuqlo '{q 'lqo) osle st tl 'epllloJ ',{epol ,(1a1er-rdordde eloul 'Jo loeul suolltperi (JlLuelsJ .{q ualtu,^{ , e sl sl roJ lr1o) ,{q uodn prlr?roquli ereq) leiuer.ro pue (uer1suq3) ueadorng e:eq'tr uot8er ll lcql ''I tltog 'lqo) d {q III pur? zerseonl.?JSul?JIpUPeISeOnecslJqloqRISEJneJJosuolll?ulssP',Jeq]-IoOuo X11er1rur sp,r upd .t661 l(Z eql ro (lsuA reeN luolcue pu€) l Ipd\ Ool^t) edo.rng 1o ,{repunoq ulelseeqlnos .ro; ,{larcog oqt lp alrnCJI^ se lsqlle pe'\{ol^ 0q lseE elpprl ule polu otll Jo JeIluo{ uroqlrou aql.;o tred e se ,(3o1oceqllv.. eql loJ stql I .{1lsnf uec }pql uore ue ur ,{Soloeeqrre Jo scrllod oql seululuxs raldeqc Ir?rrrolslH lslxlPIAi lcr^os I eql jo serSoloJt?rlJrV ]srur^nr n lucsc:de: III pue II sued ur 'sseld ,{1rs.rc,rru1 oipr.rc '7 satt azpDltlrytasJ 'y nLPog puD ltlox dllllld 1,tads't,t4 1nl t;t.tttsq1 ;,iEt pcll?lsuell .Jo Jr.ulllo^ 1? Jll?p(

rsns€cn€J eq] ul ,{8o1oeeqc;e (sctlllod 'plepuels Jo ecllcerd 3ql pue 'Iuslleuol]€N OI 1sr,rr1e1et,{. lou pue ele ,{eql lPq^\ loJ I e1t1 dn Surlnords Jo olgpr r50 Philip L. Kohl and Gocha R. T,setskhlatlze Nationalism and ar

like minerals that have cryr shape that characterizes th essenlialist (or primordialr gians, Ossetians. Abkhazir manner that blurs necessa race. This conception of cr most Caucasian archaeolr constantly "in the making,' are continuously translorn bors, and being inextricabl, than thcmselves lWoll l9g Although one cannot lry rmportant phenomenon of causative factor in cultural rn attemptlng to identify s culture remains. Sometrme tentatively can be made, t problems one is solving thr trap of conceptualizing cul tions as crystallized platon; guishing features in remore Wolf (1982) and R. Fox Thompson ( 1966) anCaucasus: political and administralive boundarics in 199 I in almost unreco no culture that has existed .. aboriginal in terms of their we are not appreciative of their many subslantive achievements in rcal estate; ethnogenesis is a reconstructing their incredibly rich remote past; while we generalize forever the characteristics p critically about the behaviors of entire peoples (and as generalizations, there are. of course, numerous exceptions), this does not mean that we are at all dcmeaning holding or suspect the proud and distinctive cultural I Contradictorv ,,read traditions that make the area so fascinating and intellectually stimulating. If we spend more time illustrating the questionable practices of archaeol- A A:erbaijan ogists of one culture and fail to mention those of another, it is not a political Most accounts written in the statement of support for the latter on our part. Sadly, no group is above and early history of Azcrbaij criticism. current ethnic conflicts, based on territorial political disputes in ary perspectrve, stressing I the Caucasus and all too often justified by archaeological "readings" of an Palaeolithic times onwards ( alwarys deficient, never satisfactory record, are extremely complex and. dova 1979). Although they r unfortunately. lack simple solution. inherently suspect in such acc We argue against an "essentialist" conception of culture, particularly as may be omitted or implied. a applied to the archaeological record. This view maintains that cultures are and more popular accounts. ,{pclnort:ed 'orleuclqord srouI elP rol}El eqJ 'slunocce .relndod srolu puP cre seJnllno leq] sun?lureu eq slrode: ,(peloqcs qloq uI srnJro leql ecrlce.rd e 'perldr,ur lo pslllr'uo ,{eu se ,{1:elncrlled 'e:ntlncJo r lEq,\\ ol pcunlle ,{11ucrtr1od st ouo [t]un slunoJJl? qJns ul 1r:dsns ,{liuerequt '(6161 Surqlou sr ereql 'secuenUur leurelxe ozrlulurru ,{aqt q8noqtly e,top 'pue xelduoc ,{1eue.rtxe I sple,r,ruo sorulJ clqllloaeled -Rrnl{ :g861 :9861 a,eqsn,{eg ''3'e) ue 3c'r ..s8urpea.r.. 1eor3o1oe ^oulesnC 'e.ttlcedsred ,{re Je,\\o'I ruo.r3 lueudole^ep snoue8tput 1uco1 Sutsserls ur salndsrp 1ecr1r1od 1euolr -uorlnlo^e pru,tt.ro.ylq3reJls rotlleJ e ldope uefreqrezy 3o ,{.tolstq ,{1;ee pue e^oge sr dno.r8 ou ',{1pe5 ,{rolsrqe.rd eql ezlreruurns leql por:ed 131^oS eql uI uelllr,{\ slunoJJe lsol4l 1ecrlr1od p lou sr lr'loqloup -loeeqolE unltnqt,t: 3o secrlceld elqr Y V '3ur1e1nurr1s,{11en1ce11a1ur

1 ,{rolslqard uulsurnuJ 1o o.s8urpeer,, ,{ro1clpurluo3 I lernllnJ e^rlJurlstp pue p eJe 3,r\ leql ueolu lou soop 'suorlr?zrll?Jouei se pue) s; 'qulq lloql ]u luesa.rd sJtlslrelJl?lPqJ eql le^eroJ azrlereueB o,r oltq,'$ :lsuc llqlqxe sornllno leqt ,{ydur lou soop tl lnq '1o€J e st stsaueSouqle :eletso lBoJ ur slu0ru3^otqJe SArluelsl 3o ecsrd crlrceds E tlllA aJnllnJ,{re.rodueluoc JlJqt Jo slulel ur leur8uoqe sr leql eldoed ou pue ..lellotualuult etull oJuIS,. polslxe seq ]Bql eJnllno ou t 661 ul sJuPpunoq J^r'tl sr ereql 's,,{e,tt tueregtp ,{1en11e1ryenb 'elqezruSoJeJun lsorule uI seullJeulos 'se^lesuorl] Sutlnltlsuocor pue Sur8ueqc .;o ssecord oql ul s,{u,tt1e ore 'D'd sorntlnJ :sn pepuruer e,teq '(ug661 '9361 ) f ung pue (SS0 t ) uosduoql 'd'E alll 'sueuoisrq elqrsuos pue'(S861) xol 'd puI? (2861) Jlo,45 'E eIIl 'slsrSolocio.rqlue elqrsuos sy ',{ilnb11ue sloluor ul sarnleeJ SurqsrnS -utlsrp luerlnJ lsql lll? Surlrqrqxe 'soruesss Jluoleld pezr11e1s,{:r se suoll -lperl JrJolsrqe.rd pue otrolslq 3uo1 qlr.t, soJnllnf, Surzrlenldecuoc Jo de:1 eql otul Il€J lou pue suotlecglluepl qJns q8norqt 8ur,l1os sr euo suelqo.rd 1eq,r ,{1yecr1uo eultuexa lsntu cuo uoql uo^o lnq 'Jpl?tu oq uPr ,{la,ltleluel JCAa,^AOq SUOIlUCUtlUepl qsns 'esJnos Jo 'sal.ulloluos 'suletual Olnllns lerreleru rreql uo ,{1e1os sdnot8 cruqle cgrceds ,{.;lruepr ol Surlduelle ut lcadsunc-rrc ,{1euer1xa eq lsntu euo '(uot1n1o^e lelnllno ul lolJeJ oAIlesnEJ pezrlenldaouorropun ,{1sso.r3 e .;1es1r) ,{1rcruqle Jo uouaruoueqd luul.rodut puc [1?cr eqt Sur.rou8r fq tsed eq] lcnrlsuoJer o] frl louul?c euo q8noqlly 'ft ttt:2661 pto) :t861 Jto,,16) so^lestuoql ueq] :e8re1 qcnru sasseco.td leotlolstLl ur dn 1q3nec ,{lqecrrlxeur Suteq pue 'sroq -q8rau lleql tuorj Sut,nouoq 'se^lesueql SuturoSsue;1 ,{lsnonutluoc e;e qcrq,n sruels,{s pepue-uado 'potooJ ,(llecrrolsrq ..'3ut1eru cql uI., flluelsuoc se soJnllnJ Jo ,4 etl otll ol pesoddo sr 'slsrSoloeeqcJe ulltsecneJ lsotu ,{g lou ro ,{lsnorcsuoc peldope sl qrlq,^ 'eJn}lnJ jo uotldaruor stqJ 'oJer pue 'a8en8uel 'ornilnc uae,t\leq suotlcullslp ,{lessacau sJnlq leq} leuueu 'c13 'suetlessg 'sueti e ur pelsrxo .,s,{e,,1t1e., e^eq 'suoqcoqJ 'suelzeqlqv -JoeD 'sueluerulv 'sIJOZV leql sploq ,trer,t (lsrlerproutrd .ro) lstletluasse uy 'lusse.rd eql ol .,lElJoLUeuIrul etutl Lllo{,, tuoql sezlrelcereqc leql edeqs a^rlrurlsrp R eunsse ,{eqt 'peuro; eJuo :pezlllels,{:c e,teq }eql sleJeultu 0IIl

I9t snsEJnEJ eql ut A;oloJeqJJ€ pue tuslleuollPN 152 Philip 1.. Kohl unl Gocha R. T.tt,t.skltlud:L' Nationalism and archa

in so far as they reach a broader, less discriminating audience. Thus, for testify to their millennia-old example, a widely disseminated tourist guide to Baku (Agaev 1987:13) over, the region (for documt begins with the lollowing assertion: Nakhichevan. see Ayvazian

The nominally Marxist r The tribes who inhabitcd this land in antiquity. the fore-runncrs ol- the Azerbaijani devclopments and minimizc people, occupied a vast tcrritory which included both Northern (now Soviet) and ethnic groups are, of course, Southcrn (Iranian) Azerbaijan. Various parts of it becamc known after as thc tribes record frequently is ambiguc Caspian. Mannai. Mcdia. and Caucasian Albania. Sorne of the states which cance to be accorded internal emerged in the area from the third millennium BC were powerful and relatively advanced, particularly Mannai and Media, the lattcr subjugating Assyria and reasonable "reading" ofthat : Urartu among others. ogist is better able to evaluate of the possible political impli Seemingly straightforward, this passage deserves critical scrutiny, particu- In a given context, emph larly the phrase "fbre-runners of the Azerbaijani people" and the implied accords well with what we ha cultural uniformity from Bronze Age times onwards of the entire area Some Azeri archaeologists, occupied today by Azeri peoples. The early historical cultures that are excessively patriotic or chaur, mentioned were certainly not directly related to the Turkic-speaking are confronted with the unco Azeris, and, while material cultural connections dating back at least to the peoples. who became today's third millennium BC (a much earlier time than the known period of the area during hisroric time: existence for any of the specified cultures) link the area encompassing the Turkish peoples from central Republic of Azerbaijan with that of northwestern Iran (what is called Europe. Other cultures, such Iranian or southern Azerbaijan), it is debatable that such north,south medieval period, are known connections were stronger or formed a greater unity than those, say, arrival of the Turkic-speakir stretching east west across Transcaucasia. In other words, the implication movement which had profor of this passage is that the area dominantly inhabited by Azeris, which today course. well documentcd histr is politically divided into northern and southern parts, was originally (e.g., by the fields of pre-lslan united, that it naturally forms a coherent cultural whole. The political morphic stalues over graves \.\ implications of the passage become clear when one considers recent Turkic-speaking peoples east l history: one of the first confrontations of the Cold War, the slow sloping horizon liom southcrr withdrawal of Red Army troops liom northwestern Iran in the wake of the E,urasian steppes all the way Second World War; the demographic dominance of southern Azerbaijan; 1979: Stronach l98l)).0 Ner and, even morc, certain inflammatory statements of the former President of extreme vcrsion of the essentir Azerbaijan, A. Elchibey,' regarding Azerbaijan's right to control areas the presence of non-Turkic cu popr-rlated dominantly by Azeris (i.e., northwestern Iran). others morc plausibly regard More precisely. what is a relatively innocuous statement in one political with both "Albanian" and Tu context may become charged with politicarl signilicance in a diflcrent slanted lor nationalist purpos context or as that context changes. A fbreign archaeologist traversing this Why deny a history of phys minefield of subtlc political nuances must also be aware of what may be centuries. if not rnillcnnia. old ontiltetl from reviews of the prehistoric and historic record. Thus, Ibr excused as perhaps excesslve example, a popular overview to the dcvelopment of the Autonomous eastern Transcaucasia. Assclt Reptrblic ol'Nakhichevan (Gulicv ct al. lL)84) reviews the history of this indeed ol'iill Turkic peoplcs.' region liom prehistoric times to the prescnt w,ithout once mentioning thc the Caspian Sea can be jusr

Armenians despite the numerous cultural monuments that still silcntly cor.rsiderable pride in and r ',{dnoco ,,nou ,{eql puul eql ol uollo^ap prtl? ul apr'rd elqn::ptsuoJ ,{ltucps lrts tuqt stuorun eql Surtccga.r qllp,J .]o luotuelels ssolttlrutl u ]sn[ eq uPc uc5 uerdsu3 aqt 3utuotlucru cJuo lnol paePut srrll {.rolsrq oql saor^i .lo qlnos pue tsPe ,{lclerpcurur eolE otl1 stl,u .'seldoad ctynl llB Jo Jo .UoIlRUI.tcZVOqlJopuEleujoqeql}eqluoIlJeSsV.t-}lse]nPJSuullulslsee snououolnv Oql Jo IUO eAISSOoxe sduq:ed su posnJxa JoJ 'snqJ 'procer Jrjolst .1o uor8e.r qcr.r ,(11u.rntuu eql ot lrretuqcBllu 'sclJnluec eq ,{er"u IELI,\\ clume e( 3q plnoJ ll?lucp qsns'scrutl cgrced olou ul iplo'uluuelltru louJ! Jo srqi 3urslc,re.rl ]secl tu sr tugl uotlelltulsse leJnllno pue 1uors,{qd3o '{rolsrq e '{uep '{q16 lsrSoloeeq 'sesod.rnd ]stleuollEu rol peluPls lusreJJrp u ur e:ruurqruS eq uEJ 'rc^e,\\otl roqlIE 'slolseJuE cIIrnI puB ..uPlueqlv.. qloq qlt'{\ 1ucr1r1od cuo ut luoutcll?ls '(ue:1 uorlelndocl pelcltrutssB"^AOl^ uu se strezv s.,{upo1 preSe: ,{1qrsne1d oroul sroqlo urel seeJe :3ur1eeds-crllnl se lte tuoql Surees lo sornlln3 JIITnI-uouJo couesc.rd eql loJJuoJ ol lq8u s.r 3ur,{uep rcqtre ,{q srnllnc trozv Jo ,{\et^ lsrll?rluessc 3ql Jo uotsjo^ 3ulerlxo -lo tueprserd l0r.uro.l oql.Jo ue sleloqcs TJOZV eutos 'ssoleque^oN t qJEuoltS :6/6[ iuefreq.rezy uJaqlnos lo o 1Scythians were would have listened t Turkic-speaking ancl that the script of the early first millennium AD innocently as a legitim Albanian state under whose sway real history first dawns in eastern material culture. Ever Transcaucasia was written in Turkish' pretend that wherever A more critical evaluation of this misplaced pride in cultural origins. Armenians, a claim however. is warranted, as subsequent developments leading up to the historic Armenia with oulbreak ol hostilities illustrate. Thus. for example, at an all-Soviet lJnion be possible to examin archaeological congress which was held in Baku, Azerbaijan in 1985. a define regional varia young Azeri archaeologist (Akhundov 19851'7 8) read a paper that (especially inscriptior ott"*pt"O to show that the carved stone crosses found in Azerbaijan were Armenian khach'k'ar Albanian; that is, the products of the pre-lslamic Christian state of eastern archaeological/art his Transcaucasia. He purported to distinguish these stone crosses from the ronment far less impa Armenian khach'k'ar,the latter being one of the most potent symbols of the One should not disr Armenian people with literally thousands of uniquely carved examples ing the deplorable pra found throughout to<1ay's Republic of Armenia. Since the Republic of (not to imply, of cour Armenia only occupies a fraction' of historic Armenia, it is reasonable to in relation to this partt assume that such Armenian khach'k'ar exist or once existed throughout Bosnia represents an, areas where Armenians once constituted a major, if not the dominant, practice (see Kaiser. t population. The young Azeri's seemingly innocuous, abstract archaeologi- publication of the Aca lui pup.r was a deliberate political provocation: all the crosses on today's dozens of ancient I territory of Azerbaijan, including significantly Nagorno-Karabagh and inscriptions have beet Nakhichevan, were defined as Albanian, a people who in turn were seen as Karabagh and that a the direct ancestors of today's Azeris. have been destroyed i The rest, as they say, is history. The Armenian archaeologists were upset physiographically for and threatened to walk out en b/oc. Protests were filed, and even Russian half of today's popul scholars from Leningrad objected to this blatantly political appropriation, Before one gets to predicted posing as scholarship. No participant in this debate would have paucity of surviving ) ihat within two years the contest over ancestral claims to Nagorno- Yerevan.'To put this Karabagh would flare up into one of the bloodiest and most significant the Treaty of Turkmr ethnic ctnflicts raging within the former Soviet Union. Yet it cannot be wake, roughly 90.00t forgotten that agitation over the status of Nagorno-Karabagh in Armenta Yerevan were Muslin wal initiated by intellectuals, including archaeologists, familiar with and last being the peopl, incensed by this specific insult to their cultural heritage' noutian 1983:78; an< Thus, minimally, two points must be made. Patently false cultural origin matter what demogri myths are not always harmless. The political context within which such able that considerabL given mytt1s are articulatecl is critical, and this context continually changes: this area. Their near the events of the last nine years, assertion that today's Azerbaijan was the homeland of Turkic-speaking peoples is charged with political original B Arnreniu sigiificance. Secondly, it is incumbent upon the external observer or, in this cJse, foreign archaeologist, to understand this constantly unfolding The nationalist tenr political .ont.^t. For one unaware of the conflicting land claims and of the associated with the rt ssol Jreql ,{1:elncrl.rud 'sur?ruorlrV eqt3o ,{:olstq luaoet 3q1 qlt.\\ peletJosse erJl Jo pue srurElJ pur ,{1e1r;ur1ur sr ,{SoloeeqJJu uElueurlV qcntu Jo louel lstlEuotlRu eqf 3urp1o3un ,{1tue1suo srql ur 'Jo Dluaurv B JSAJOSqO le 1ecrlr1od qtr,tr pe8;er eql se,r ueheqrezy 'snolrnuoJ 'eare s oq iouul?J ,{epo1 a:ruesge letol ruau rtaql stql uenrB :se8ueqc,{11enu ur pslsrxe e^ell eJuo lsnl'u tu€lsl lo surBurel 0[qEJeplsuoc ]Ptll OlqB IellslEIU qcns qJrq,,\\ urqlr,r 1} -uorlsenbun ,{1dr,urs sr }I 'sllnsuoc auo scllstlels crqdelSoutep leq,l.r rellelu ur8uo 1ern11nc eslq ,{ oN '(g L9:2661 ,^Aor^el lecrlrrc slq 're^e,^doq 'oslB pue :8L:t861 uBllnou 'a3el -rnog) (suezy snorJsuoJ-Jles eueJoq rol€l oq,tr saldoed eql Suteq lse1 pue q1r,.!\ rerlr('UP,J .slt eql) speuou ..releJ-oIJnJ,, pul?'sprn) 'suelsrod stullsnl4l ero,t\ ue^oro1 eruelurV ur q8eqe.re; eqt ur uortelndod EJo .uot Jo eluupq) 000'0113o 1u1o1 000'06,{lq8nol'e>1e,'n eq louuec 1r 10A po,4AolloJ Jtuqta oql puE IeqJuetullnJlo ,(teer1 aqt s]l ur leql sJuetue^otu luecgru8rs lsou pue eql oroJaq '9281 ul 'a,trtcedsred ur srqt oI 3o SuruSrs lucrrolstq lnd 6'ue^eJe A -ouro8e51 ol srurBIJ jo 1eildec eql Surpnlcul 'l?IuaIUJV ur suleruar crtuulsl 3ut.tt,r..rns go ,{lrcned pelcrpe.rd e^eq plno,r oql elou lsnur auo 'lonemoLl 'sIJezV eql le JlPlt ool slo8 euo JloJOg 'uorlerrdo.rdde 'pelerluecuoc lecr1rlr sr eruarurV .;o crlgndaa eqt Jo uotlElndod s.,(epol Jo Jleq uelssn5 ueno pue lpo ueq] eJotu ereq,tr ,{e11e,r tererV alluoJ eqt go lred suro3 ,{11ecrqder3ots,{qd lesdn are,tr slsrBolooer ]eq1 uefreq;ezvJo perp peqJetop eqt 'ue^eqJlqIeN ul pe,{orlsep uooq a^eq 'seqJJnqo Surpnlcur 'sluetunuoul qcns ,{1.rrq1 pue qieqerc;1 tseel lu leqt sR UOOS OJe.r uJnl ur ol -ouro8e51 ur sopucep ,t,reJ lsel eql Surrnp pa,{orlsep ueeq e^€q suotldt:csut pue q8eqere;4-ouro8 'serrelel'uec 'sJu3luollles suszop pup. ,q)rryJ uEluel'uJv luelcue Jo s.,{epo1 uo sossorc oql "tD)l etuaturVJo seruotcsJo,{uepecy aqlSo uorlecrlgnd tpqt srurelc (Z tZ:ggOt) -rSoJoeeqcre lcerlsqp, uV '((t66 I rellals,toN pue etunlo^ stt{1 'rasle) ees) ecrlre.rd 'lueuruop IErcUo VSAn oql lou Jt srql eldruuxc ,{llelncrged req}oue stuese;de; Blusog .]o luerlnc InJpeorp lnoq8norql polsrxo aJ relnctlled slql ol uotleloJ uI 3o ,{ce8e1 Jrruelsl eqlJo uottJnrlsop oqt:tctguoJ 01 elqeuoseol sr jr ,Bru ul sJnJco,{1uo actlcerd slql ot lo elsBcnRJSuerI leLl}'esJnoJJo tou) 3o crlgndaX oql oturs "{1dtut 3ur sluarunuour IernllncJo uollcnrlsap lenlc€ eqlJo actlcetd elqeroldep eql seldruexe pa,t.rec,{1en -uorlueur enssr q8eqere;;-ouro8e51 3t{l ssnJSIp lou plnoqs euo lnoqlr,r eqlJo sloqu,{s lualod l ',{epol potsrxe ul?ql peuotssedtut ssel reJ ssel qcnu'9861 ul lpq,tr Juoluuor eLIl ruo{ sessoJc ouoll -llue e serrnber ,{11eururu srs,{1aue lre/lectSoloeeqcru lecrllod lpclrolslq UJO]SEE JO O]PIS UEIlSIJI 'a1eur13e1 'le^e,t\ot{ ',{]t1eet 'rD,1 uEluoIUrV ,{1:eloqcs e qcns ul ,q)Dtll are,,vr uulreqrozv ul put uerueqlv uer8roeg qstnSurlsrp ol '(suottducsur ,{lletcedso) ruo{ tuo{ leql ;eded e pee.r (p eouepr^e e,r.rlroddns ureuac tllt,\\ 'uelo pue sluetl€l. leuorBar eugap e 'gg6 I ur uelreq:azy ol sossolc eseql selnqullp ogrrads eql f 11ecr1uc eultuexe o1 elqrssod eq Jo uorufl ler^os-lle ue 1e plnoqs y'3ur>1uads,{1e,r.trcefq6'rlopue}strqJJo qlld etuelurV Jlloislq ttP eqt ot dn Surpeey s1u releer8 8ur,{grluapt ot eq plno,u luqt rulels e 'sueluolulv lunotueluel 'sur8rro letnllnr ul opl ,(q pe,trec era,r,r.,{p:esseceu ,{eql 'reedde sessoJJ ouols JOAeJeq,tt leql pualerd 'ornllnc lou plnoJ lsrlBuorll?u ueruotulv lsotu eql uO^E lslrOlEIU leclleuBJ uJelsee ur Su,rr\ep ISJU ueruou.rJV ruou uerueqly qsrnSurlstp o1 lduelle eleurlrSel e se,{lluacouut cv Iunluuslllru lslu , sesso:c euols eq] uo uorlelueserd g961 eql ol pouolsll a^BLI plnor\l elnb e;e,tr suerql.{cs eql lpql euo 'slrezv pue suptuatuJV uoe,ttleq 'ustuo8elue ue,te 'uotsue] Is3lJolslq sqt.{ru elqrpercur ro/pu

9Sr snspJneJ aql ur ,{SoloceqJru pue tustl€uotleN Nationalism and ar 156 Phitin L. Kohl and Gotha R' Tsetskhladzc World War I' events In reality, each exam[ of significant ancestral territories and massacre during and the creation generalization. Moreover, inexiricably tied to the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire might even argue chronological PrioritY; dut of the moiern nation-state of Turkey (see note 4); one by Armenian national- ologists, ParticularlY Prel that the more exaggerated claims of past grandeur ethnic links to attempt to enter such dit themselves a reaction to unsupportable age-old ists are evidence theY control. AnatolianprehistorybyTurkishnationalists(forthelatter'seeMcConnell It is not surPrising that 1989:109 l0). the state- and history abound. A Pa However unjustifiable' Turkey's refusal to acknowledge fueled by Armenia's Sardarian's PervobYtnoe r sponsored massacre of Armenians is undoubtedly collectively numerous mistakes and P irreAnatolia' to the State Museum tn that originated on the ,r referred to as western "historic Armenia." visitors in Sadarabat are greeted metallurgY to the Arme Yerevan or the Armenian Ethnographic Museum themaximal Kura-Araxes culture emel with large physical maps of the Armenian Highland depictin-g II (the Great) prior to standard of scholarshiP is extent of the Armenran kingdom under King Tigran in these and other to raise the question as defeat by the Roman*s in 69 BC' Series of maps their devastating critique bY l muscumsorforsaleinlocalbookstoresdepicttheinexorable'millennia. poignantly more ludicrous PoPular old retraction of Armenian-controlled territory over time' culture' That events in publication (MESHAG t illustrating the traglc history of this proud ancient cultural geography of the evolution of the Art this century have significantiy altered the traditional if Palaeolithic PetroglYPhs doubu what is relevant here' however' is to determine' this area is beyond Meshrob Mashtots of tl proper and improper roles for archaeology in the documenta- possible, the Fanciful internal evolutit of thai hiitory. What is the appropriate relationship tion and evaluatron at demonstration of cultural origins and/or No less Problemattc between an archaeological the first histor prionty In un u"u and territorial aspirations' including kingdom, chronological seventh centuries BC), At consequent state Policies? historically justified worthy adversarY of the There rs no easy answer' particularly since exclusive' are nearly always and one that exPanded claims to any territory, when examined critically' become Istanbul'l royal cuneiform inscriP questionable' When. for example' does Constantinople (i'e'' 1953 AD); after 1000 non-Armenian) languag' Never; as soon as it ts conquered; after 500 years present cultural occupation eastern Caucasian famill years; etc.? In other wo,ds, at what point does world is Daghestan, Chechenia' a area override historical claims to it? The contemporary of an able historical hYPothest rcpletewithsuch"*u*pl",(e'g..biblicaljustificationsfortheexistenceo| nent to this kingdom' an thestateoflsrael;historicalclaimsforaMuslim..Bosnian''presenceinthe of the foreign the cultural heirs of Ura heart of the Balkans: or even the unquestioned acceptance of its indigenous which equates it Precisel occupation of the western hemisphere at the expense which One must distinguisl Should the maximal exient of the Armenian kingdom' p""pi"rf interpretations of Urar existedforlessthanfiftyyearsduringthefirsthalfofthefirstcenturyBC. Thus, yardstick for what properly constitutes "histortc evaluate. PoPular be used as the relevani the fact that B.B. Pio Unfbrtunatiy, Armenian oft-expressed dreams of a Ret'on- Armenia"? Leningrad (now St. Pe qtti'sttt,basedupon,on",.ti',-,.'selective..readings'.oItheprehistoricand tiiendly Karmir Blur (the anctt adversely affect relations with even potentially historic record, within the citY of Yer< neighbors. such as lhc Georgians' eqt leql pouleluluul{lqeuoseer alnb peq '(ue^ore1 3o '{ttc ot{] ult{ll't\ polecol ,\\ou oul€qaqste1 Jo lelrdec uettJern Juolcue eqt) rnlg Jlurle) ,{1puer:g,{11er1ue1od uo,te '1S per3utuel pue olrotsrqe.rd eqt jo lB suotle^PJxo 3ql Jo peoq reruroJ pue (3lnqsreled 'trou) .,sB 'B'g -uo:)aa ur eselrureH oqt Jo JolJerlCI elel oql 'rt1s'torlot6 leql lcP'.J eq] e Jo s(Uestp pcss€ ecuoJoJar 'snqI 'e]€nlelo clrolsrq.. selnllsuot,{ped uo peseq sr ..ure1qo.rd llls^orlold,. aql ol 'rulndod re11e1 eql suorlele:dlelut '39 ,{rnluec tsru oqt ol UnJUrp cJotu pue roliqns Sureq 'nlreril 3o Jo Jle qsrn8utlstp 3uO qcrq,r'urop8ur>1 uerueu.r' upruelutv leuotssa3ord pue relndod uee'^Aloq lsntu qctq'r'r snoua8rpur stl osuodxo 'peurelsns oq louuE:l LuopSurl usluern oq] qll A '{lesrcerd lr selenba Jo sjleq cql u8raro3 eql acuelderce eJnllnJ usrueulJv io ,^AoIA lstlelluosse ue lnq r r'nueJn lo leJnllnJ 3o 'r'uopSutl sltll ol eql ur eouosord oJp suprueurlv eq] qclq,tr ul esues leoJ e sl oJeql pue lueu ..uerusog,, -odruoc ueluoulrV-olord e loJ poouu^pu eq u€c saseqtod'(q leolJolslq elqe Jo eJuclsrxs 0rll JoJ suorle: '( ees) urlaqsnSul pue 'etuoqcoqJ 'uelseq8eq SI PIJoA\ ,(:elodueluor ot -uospog I €Z: 166 I PIS,^AoIuBI uetsPcneJ urolse0 uorledncco ur saldoeci luoJeJlp ,{q ,{epo1 uelods se3en8uel3o '{11ue4 IBJnllnc ]uosoJi 'r) (uetueury-uou rerJe:(qy "e I -quoN eql ol IerlsoJue puP uPlrJnH ol pelelsl 'a3en3ue1 000t 9961 "i'r) ueedo:ng-opul uou 1? 'uet1;ern ut suotlducsul tuJoJleunr 1u'{or 4lnquEtsl aruoJaq eldourlu papuedxo euo pue s,{e,r1e ,(peeu ere ',{11ecr s1r pesocltuof, .,'EtuetuJv clrolslq,, Jo qJnlu re'no letll pe grlsnf ,{ rq'e,r rsnl ertuetodoseyluJequouloe-rrcluEuetr'(ssy-oeueql1o'{resra'tpe'{quom 1 lecrrols '(JB solJnluao qluo^os e 'olsls srqt ,(q,tt ureldxe Jsnul slslulln€qc u€lueturV eql 'ruop8utl Surpnlcur'suorle;rdse ol qluru) RISeJnPssuerJ ul elels p3lsolle '{l1ecuo1srq lsrg 1ur: clletuolqo.td ssel o51 ;o/pue sur8uo u€ruer(l eql Jo suollela:drelur poluels f1r'teaq eJe lelnllnc J lnJlJuec drqsuor 1e1e.r aler.rdo.rdde a or'auroJlxo ue 01 uo{el sI eleq luarudole,tep '(reuotlnlo'te leuJalul ,cV pesn ,{lluarrnc eLIl stolqs€N qoJqsahtr -elueurnJop aql ur .{3o1oae 'uoiru""utgOl ur lclucs uerqolsal4l Jo x! pertdsut ,{1eur,trp eql q8norql sqdflSorled srtluloeel€d Jr'ourr.uJelap ol sr 'JOAe,roq uollnlo^3 eql jo ,{qder3oe3 ruo:3 luaruclole^3p slt Sutce:l 'leqeqd1e ueluoturv eI{] Jo 1e.rn11nc luuo 'OJnUnC uo erodserp uecrJeulv-uelueurrV oql ulo{ ('p'u CVffSg6l) uorlecrlqnd ur sJuo^s lRqI 1u0 ,{llueu8rod polnqrJtsrp ,{1epr,t e ,{q pepr,tord sr elduexe relndod snoJJlpni erou 'awrl ra,to ,(.r< -etuusll[u'elqBroxeut ue^e uV 'QgZ:gget pue ul?lsorll're61 '{q enbtltrc Sutlelse'tep eq] ^oeqcunl eql Osler ol Jaqlo pue asoql ut sdeu aqt ecs) peqsrlqnd ue^e se,^A looq eql '^Aoq ol se uollsonb 3r prllpuels o1 .ror.rd (teerg eqt) uerS se snorluepual os uorlRluarunflre 3ql pue,,rlrol os sr dtqsreloqcsJo 11 sexPJV-ern) eqt Surtcrdep puel eql'etuourrV.1o ,{e11e,r, leJerv eql ur f1lellrur pe8reua oJnllnJ IBr.urxetu pe1ee.r3 peo.rdsepr,u oql luql selerJsuoluop pu€ :suelueturv oql ol '{8-rn11eleu ere leqerppBS ur ru uorlue^ul eql selnql:11e ineeleld uclualuJv eql uo peleur8uo leql ur unesnl l alEls eql ol sro .lo snoretunu ,,{1a,rr1ce11oc'prloteuV eJeJ uelueut.ry eleredes e selulnlsod 'surstrerSeld pue solelsltu uro '(tge) iluaLurv ottsaq)qsqo aouli(qod'tad s.u€IrEprES s.eruorurv ,{q pa1en3 ,{1pat str seprsoq 'qclq.la, ^ snouleJur 'punoqe '{rolstq pue -alels eql e8pel,,rtoulce c v S ;l r1d-n*t ..,(1le1oqcs,, '{pelncrlred V Sutstrdrns st 1l elnllnc uEtuourrv 1o suorlelerdrs]ut lstlelluosse lEql lou 'lorluoJ,{aql ecuePtne llauuoJcl ees 't011e[ 0q1 r( qcns rolue o1 tdLuellu ot slurl cruqte p1o-e3e e1c eql Jo suollellurll eql .(11cr1dxe Surlels 'selndsrp 'sulllrolslqerd 's1sr3o1o -leuorleu uuruerury,{q .rne x"qi :f lnJerec ,{laruerlxe oq lsnw '{pelncrlred en8re e -"oqriy:.ro,ledncco luaserd _ro ilorluocSo uorlptnp 1,,(lrror:d lecrSolouo:qc uo,re iq8rru euo i(7 'uollezlleraue3 uorleeJJ eql pue :elei.rdorddu aJou, sl uolJOllJJ qJIq'^ JBOlcun st 1t're'toetol^l arrduE ue ol se pul? enbtun os sr elduexe qoea u1 slue^s'l re./y\ plro,{A Surrnp apniceld lcullslp "{]t1eer ur fSoloeeqJJe pue Elslll?uoI1€N L9l snsecneJ cqt 158 Philip L. Kohl and Gothu R. Tset.skhlud:e Nationalism and archac mighty Urartian Iron Age kingdom did not constitute the first Armenian their material remains and selr state for the reasons stated above, the "problem" only existed for those problematic physical anthrr who wanted Armenians always to have lived in and controlled "historic Dzhaparidze's recent, signifi ct Armenia" until the later ravages wrought by Romans, Persians, Arabs, and Ketvkaza (At the Dtrv'n ttf'the E Turks. More discriminating professional archaeologists, who may accept rcprescnts not so mttch an im1 the reasonable theory that thc ethnogenesis or formation of Armenian identify the ethnicitY and culture occurred during post-Urartian Achaemenid times, extol the might documented cultures extendin of the Urartians and see them exercising political control over most of T. Gamkrelidze's substantial li eastern Anatolia, western lran, and Transcaucasia; in this respect they tvelian (i.e.. Georgian) sPeake remain the direct precursors of the Armenian kingdom under Tigran II.', and even earlier Prehistoric Pe Certain words and theories are laden with political significance. Thus, Not surprisingly, more nat thecontroversral linguistic theory of T. Gamkrelidze and V. Ivanov (1984), ogists provide essentialist ac which sees the original Proto-Indo-E,uropean developing in direct associ- duplicate the samc constellatio ation with the Proto-Kartvelian (West Caucasian) and ancient Semitic Armenian colleagues and culn families of languages in an eastern Anatolian homeland, receives an arc identificd as haring been cxtremely warm reception not on its linguistic merits, but on its locating One significant examPle of tl Proto-lndo-European speakers in the historic Armenian heartland. Proto- of the archaeological documt Indo-European thus bccomes a buzzword for Proto-Armenian. This Caucasian metallurgy during questionable identification is transparent in tendentious interpretations of impressive record of metallur Bronze Age and later prehisloric materials from Transcaucasia, as tion of the scholarly world in exemplified by V.E. Oganesian's (1992)" implausible ethnic interpretation made in the small village of I of the lantastically suggestive iconography on a silver goblet recently range in today's North Ossetia excavated in the Karashamb cemetery north of Yerevan; or by G.E. Russia (Virchow 1883: Uvaro' Areshian's (1992:27) detailed and ingenious, albeit strained, attempt to most lully published contem weave together historical, mythological, and archaeological materials to "Koban culture-like" materl "Armeno-Aryans" demonstrate that constituted "the population living in significantly south of the Grei the basins of the Araxes and Kura from the end of the third millennium archaeologist, B.V. Tekhov. "continuously BC" and carried out rituals connected with Indo-European Ossetian rights and autonomY cosmogonic mythology." up-to-date synthcsis of Geor Ironically, chauvinistic Azeri and Armenian archaeologists alike share a (Lordkipanidze 1989: 194, l9( need to see their people as always present in the greater eastern Georgien; von der Alt.stein:eit Anatolian/northwest I ranianiTranscaucasian region. correspondi ng notes ). rejects as a kind of archaeological m C Georgia in northern Ossetia and dismir on bronzc a\es as a minor vitr During the late Soviet period, Georgia was blessed (or aliicted) with more culture." The marvellous ml practicing profcssional archaeologists than almost any comparably sized mentioned in this sYnthesis. area in the world (see Lordkipanidze 1982). The produced works by these That such rejection has Pol hundreds of Georgian archaeologists varied tremendously in quality with that the book's basic maP of t the bcst being exceptionally good by any standard. Even some of the most p.6: l99l: fig. l, P. 3) subsun senior and responsible Georgian archaeologists were not irnmune to the or Inner Kartli (central Georg ubiquitous tcmptation to identify prehistoric ethnic groups on the basis of meaning with the abolishmen Jql qll,^\ nutuBOtu urlesso qlnoslo uolSed snoIUouolnV oqlJo lueluqslloqB lo srseq eqt uo sdno:: ,,\\ell uo ue '(elSrooD IluR) lsuul lo )oo1 lPq] ]qSlsrc^o leuotluolul Ierlusc) eLIl o1 euntuutr lou o ureqlnos seunsqns (E 'd ' '3g : :9 'd Eprqs ulqlr,\\ ,{1c1e1cltuoc t?ucsso t 1661 lsoru oqlJO sruos uo^ eqt jo deu rlsPq s,Iooq rql '1 1 slql ul peuolluotu pezrs,{1qe.ruduoc,{ur ,{1ec.recs are ,{releueo tll eql ulor.; slellsletu snollo^retu aql ..'ornllnc eror.u qtlM (polcrue ..c.r) r( (uu13:oag 1se,tr uecprrlJloJ,, eql Jo luerJeA JOUITU e SP soxp 3zuoJq uo s8ur,tc;8ue Jllstua e^tl.)utlslp puE qclJ sll sasslulslp puE ellesso uJequou ul ,{renoostp,{pee lulueproce slt ol onp letuousllu [PJISolorEqJrPJo put{ e s€ '(se1ou Sutpuodse;roc . einllnr ueqo),, tur3l eql uo^e sloulooJ e ut slcafer Lunz rap uo^ 'ualnro)D pue Z0l 96'dd eas'(t66 l) "r,st1n1a1tt1,y llazutatstlY uralspa releel3 eql ut at*o1tnqt.1h' sP ue('UreD olul pelPlsuer] :96l'v6l:6861 szpluedtlplol) P oreqs a>lrle stsr8oloe tt:ntg lalr^().tQ ,)tp)lt'Dl,[ uurSroe{) 3o srsaqlufs elep-oi-dn "{3o1oceqc.re elcldruoc aqJ 'etlesso uleqlnos ulqll A ,{ruouolne pue slq8u uellssso lsotu !^oqIJI ueado.rng-opul qlr,r I :o1 ,{11rucr]r1ocl e,ttlce ,{:e,l se,u osll? oq,^ n'g 'lsrSolooeqJlu urnluuollru plrql eql . ,{q epr:Lu pull sllsllJnHJ JqlJo qlnos,{llunogruits ur)llesso qlnos rql tt?ilD ur Sur,rrJ uortelndod er pelecol ',{;alerucc oql tuo{ suroJ slelle}etu ueqo).. lll ..c)tl-ernllnc ol slr.rrrolEul lecr8oloo ueqo),, setro^orsrp ,{rerodualuos peqsllqnd f11ni tsotu ,pourells ro ..crntlnc lo ol lduege I '(996 ,'vroqr:t11) BlssnU pue potueulncop-]seq cql ,{1qeqo:4 1 u,tore^n :1881 'a'C ,iq ro :uplaro,1 oleledes u,{upot'ellJsso s.'{epgl ut ciue: urqy,{\ eeJu oAlleJtstulr.upll {i.ro51 ,{ltuece-r 1e1go8 .re,nps aq] Lluou peleJol ueqo) ain11r,t eqi ul epuu snseonuJ leerD Jo 1o lluuls uorleleldlalur Jruqlo o JqlJo uotl serra,\oosrp tuorl ,{lnluac qluoeleutu etel oql ut pllo,t,{1:eloqcs sE 'l?lseJneJSUell ul proJel e,ttsso.tdutt -uc]]B eqt peiJErllu lsrq sluoue^arqce lucrS.rnllPtoru Jo Jo suorleleldJelul snor srql'seiy uorl ,{1.ree puP ezuolg JlP[ eql iurrnp,{8rn11eicru uels€cneJ srql 'uEtusrujV_oloJc oql Jo aJuoJsalog snopueucrl eql JoJ uotll?luaulnJop luorSoloeeqrlc Jo -olold'puelur?eq uelui eug ,{rolsrq eql suroJuoc,{cuapuel alqellalfe: srqtSo aldruexa luecgruBrs 3urleco1 slr uo lnq ,slr. 'll]rJouiculut surll eJuts uer8:oog uecq Sut,teq se poguuepl oJP ue ssArOJeJ .pueleuot pue sen3ee11o3 ueluetuJV leql sotJolrJJel oi srutelJ ut'3sJnoJJO'Oleutullnc rrlrues luercue pue (r erues oql elelldnp pue rrezv pe:rdsur-eqr1 rteql Jo sornlee-J Jo uollellelsuoJ -rJossp 1ce:rp ur Burdol pue ,{.ro1srq Jleql slunoJJe lsrlerluesse epl^old s}stbo .A ]eq] ernllnc Jo '(l3e t) pue o -loaeqcrll uer8roeg pesodsrp,{11ecrlsr1euor}Ru eroul',{lSursudlns 1o1r1 'snql'oJuecqru8rs^oue^l lucr 'acuecqtuSts spor.red cuolsrqald JallJEa ue^e puB 1ecr1r1od lnoqll,\\ Jou eJE .,'11 ue:3r1 Jopun uop eiy ezuorg eql 3ur:np BlseJnersuurl ur s.ralecds (uer8:oeg ''e't) uetle'nl .{eql 'J lcedse; srqt ut :er -ru;1 snoue8lpulJo suollcnrlsuocel ctlstnButl lelluelsqns s.azpllorIIleC lsoru le^o Jo lor]uoc I ',(pelrurg 'seruIl ctqltloeeled eiul ol Sutpuelxe sernllnJ poluaunoop lceq tqSru eqt lolxo.sor.url p ,{11ucr8o1oaeqc.re solltuU}l? crlsrnSurl pue ,{lroruqla eql '{3lluapt Jo ur?ruotujv JO uotteulo slulsa:de-t ol tdtucllu e[qtsulPueJSPun uP sB'elqrsneldr"ur uP qJntu os lou ldeoce ,{eru oq,.r ,slsr8o (6961 '.snsr.xo.1 ,t4t./it.t.tttt,r'tH lD.tntln)ouLltZ dql./ou,toQ aql lV)nzDl^nx puB'sqerv,suErsrsd .su p3[]Iluo .{lluecgru3ts 'lueJor s.ezpuedeqzq tt.tols't tounlt Jnry)urd arz: D^! crrotstq,, pOiloJluoc pur 'ocuepl^a crleuelqord 'O 'eldruexe loC lectSolodorqlue 1ecrs,{qd osoql roJ potsrxa ,{luo puP sutBlueJ llotll . pul? cllstnSurl aleldruocul ozrltln o1 ,{1e,rrlce1as lelJeletu uRruotulv lsrg oql olnlr

69t snspcneJ aql ur .{SoloeeqJle puP ruslleuotll?N Nationalism 160 Philip L. Koh! and Got'ha R. Tsetskhlutl:e Archaeologically. tl by the democratically elected nationalist rcgime of Z. Gamsakhurdia in construction ol-nin( December 1990. As a reaction to this Georgian "reading" of the archae- the much earlicr me ological recorcl, Ossetian scholars today are at pains to point out similari- back to medicval ti ties betwcen Koban materials and those lrom Hallstadt in central Europe. who ask. as soon thus demonstrating that the Aryans (i.e.. Indo-Europeans now a Georgian). who w buzzwclrcl for Ossetians)) werc always present in the central Caucasus practice of archaeo (Shnirelman, personal communication). An outsider cannot even begin to tense political cont understand Caucasian prehistory and appreciate the richness of its late One must also dt Bronzc,'Iron A_qe metallurgical llorescence without being hyper-attuned to ofa peoplc from cut the political realities ol'even naming archaeological cultures, much less in thc distant past I defining the area they encompassed.t4 in tryin The conflict over southern Ossetia still simmers with archaeologists to consider based cthnic dispr occasionally having functioned as "expert witnesses" on the behalf of the southern Georgia t nationalists' debatable claim (Gamsakhurdia 199 1) that the Ossetians 3re this territory can I not aboriginal inhabitants of the Caucasus" since they were only first peoplc who domi pushe<1 into northcrn Caucasia in the wake of the Mongol and Timurid classical times (inr invasions ol the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and then migrated Tigran the Great) ir south across the Caucasus fange into historic Georgia first during the discovery sontedal seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Phrased politely. this revisionist then spoke an In historical account is open to serious criticism (see. lor example. the much language would nc more balanced archaeological reconstruction of the ethnogenesis of the conclusion follow: ossetiar.rs by E.l. Krupnov ( 1960:390 3)). Even if true and this is perhetps developing naturc rrn even more important point this revisionist dismissal of the Johnny- integral componcn corne-lately Ossetians begs the question of how many centuries. how many one simply cannc human gcnerations. are necessary to have a legitimate ancestral claim to a churches with thei picce of property. The point is not to belittlc a complex issue, but to Adn-ritting this. illustrate that archaeology can be knowingly manipulated to provide a Georgian stute pol politically cofrect "reading" of the past that then serves as a pretext to ir.rg cornmunicatic uproot and kill people living in an area minimally for several centurics. popr-rlations and t The Djavakheti (or Diavakheti/Meskheti) region of southern Georgir atiot.ts of Armeniat (see Map 2) prcividcs an almost textbook illustration of thc complexities of after ltt28. and thi historicaliarchaeological claims to a specific territory. The regign is filled and the rights thal with beautiful Georgian medieval monuments, such as the Watrdzhia cave may be invoked to monastery complex, most ol'which date to the tenth to twelfth centuries bttt a clairn does not pr some of which go back even carlier to the fifth and sixth centuries. Today's Palestinian orchar population is dominantly Armenian, probably exceeding 80 per cenl of the issues must bc ke total in castern Djavakheti which borders northwestern Armenia. The capable of disting rccent history of thc area is reasonably well known: Turks rLrled southern Gcorgia from 1578 to 1828 and the Georgians who had been living therc cither lelt of were Turkicized.'u With the signing olthe same trcaties that D Nortlttrn affectcd the ethnic composition of today's Re public of Armenia. Arme n- Thc bewilclerin-tI a ians liorn castern Anatolia moved into this underpopulatecl area. prei-er- relativel-v-' short hir ring to live unc'lcr the Christian tsar than ttndcr the Ottoman sultan. 'u1?lllls oloLrr cluo sr JJoq,{-to1srr1c.td llllll sullctll ploar.rJ lt:rl.lolsll'l lJ()Lls i[-1,\llPlal ullLuollo crJl .l rrcLll Lllt,\\ pcldnor utseJnn ) uJeqlJou ur seldocdlo,{u-t-tt't 3ut-teplt,ltoq aq1 -le.;a:d'r.ro.tu pcl elncJocl -usruJV 'l?ruoluJV Jr s'tls't).)tlD,) Lt.t,)tll.t()N .lo 0 lnql sJrntJJ .]ru|ls t irql J, eleqt 3ur,tr1 ueeq peq o 'utaql ucc,\\teq SutqslnSutlslp Jo alqudtlc uroqlnos pelnr slfill :I 'etuourjv eq plnoqs lsrSoloauqo.rt? ]seuoll ,{ue put.l 'ale:udes tdel cq lsnu scnssl eql Ulclse,\\ cserll 'soruoq rreql iurqsrlor-uep ;o sa,to.t3 olllo pue spllltlJlo uelullscp?d eqt JO tuot :ed gg Burpa: s.,{epo1 .scunluco Surloo.idn 1o.t','ttlotl ,tlrt7.r'oqtcods l? l(U uotlE3qrlsnf cpr,ro:d lou soop tultllJ B qlxrs s0rrnluoJ rlJl-ls lnq'Iu1?g lse16 oql ot rutclc lt?Jlrolslq ue ezturitiel ol pclo^ul eq,{cur lnq rlulo,rt ol r oAllo ,{;-olocr:qcre lEollqlq uo^.e lo ctqlg srlJ 8r'e^.l3sJp,{rqi lnql stqit: rql put: r?rrlzprulA eLJl st? rli pallU .,{.ro tueuluclt lsnf .rreql ot tue^cl.lr,{lsnot,tqo sl ouole }JP,J sltll pue'8281 iel-Ie sl uor8e.r cq1 serlrxelduol )t's'Dut u) 3ur,tt.t:t.l cculs llos slql uo pctp pull pc^ll e^uq suEtuetuJv Jo suol]t.l .,;o cqlJo uc er8.roe9 -louo3,tur:u,{1elrg'qlnos oqt ol s3^l}Blel Jtuq}e llcql puu suotlelndod uleqlnos Jo uo 'setJnJucJ upruauiV IuJol cql uee,t\log uot]ul.todsuuJi pue suolleJlullulruoc 3ut 1e:c,tes .ro3 .,{1 -rcpurq puu eelp eql Surdolcnoprepun ,{1ele:eqrlepio 'i,tt1ttd a/trl"t uet8roar) ot txele;d e sp solJes ui r-l epr,to:d lLraJJnJ eql JoJ osnJxe utt apt,tord lou soop 'lane'\\oq 'srqt Surllrrupy ot pelelndruE .anssr 'suorldt.tcsut uetS:oeg lreql qlt,lt saqcJnqJ ol lnq xelduoc t t? ol pue scxalduoc ,{ralseuotu In.Jt]nueq csoql e.rouSl louuec '{ldtuts auo urelJ lltJlsoJue oletl ,{ueur,roq,seunluec,{ur; :serJnlueJ roJ selnllnc uBtuettlJV pue uer3.roe{) qloqJo ]uouodtuoc 1e.rie1ut -,'{uuqo1 uu uceq seq ,{ltuetlstrt{J t{?ql }oP,J oql pue sornllnJ Jo crnleu Surdole,lep eqt Jo lessrusrp -rc^o oq] lnoqp lctlree epeLu lurod eql uror.; ,{1loe:tp s,\\olloJ uolst-llruoc sdeq.red sr stql pue onrl srql 'eelu cql ol IUIEIo ucr3.roe9 cql oslllo lou plno,t\ a8eniucl aq] Jo srsaue8ouqla eql. lllJlrolstq ,c1dluexc.ro.; polr?lor-ueruourlV Jo'ul?tualulV-o1o.r6'uucdolna-opul ue elods ueql qonu eql ,e .,{1e1r1od earu eql ur seldoecl tsotu lEqt 3ur,to.rd suotldt:csut .;o ,{eperuos ,{le,tocstp lsruorsrAor srql eqt Sur.rnp (alquqordur pue) lecrteqtod,{q eqi uo^c puu 'u,\\ou{un sr (tea-r9 aql uer^3t1 ts.rg er8roe3 pelet8rru .;o uSra; Jluqtc-ulnru ,{lpelqnopun oql ropull 3urpnlcut) setull IeJtssI?lJ uoql pup sarrn puu aiy uor; Surrrrp ,{:oltuel srql perdnc:lo ,{ltueuruop oq.^\ aldoed prllutrJ pue 1o8uo61 eq: 'suer8:ocD 1s.rq ,{1uit eql Jo ,{lrcruqle eq1 eql ,{q peurelureu eq ueJ ,{:o1t;le1 stql ele,,rr ,{eql arur Jrll sul?tIJSSO ol rrturell ll?clJolstq alururlr8al u teql ,{pee1c slueulnJop etiroeg uJeqlnos eql lnql ( l6 eql eqt -;o ,{SoyoauqJle Ipclrolstq cq} Jo uolleleplsuo3 setrtdstp rluLlle peseq Jo JII?qeq uo .,soss ,{11er:o1rue1 tll-lru;rp 'a^loscr ssel qJnuI 'pul?lsraPun ol 3ur,{-t1 ul riPISUoc ol slsrSoloeuqcru qlr,r srour rolrl'.1 'luuuodrur tsotu eqt ,{1yecrd,{1 :ou ',{1uo eql lou st lstud luelslp cLll ut ssol ,sclnl1nc pauedcluq teq16 'aldoed teqt Surlcegu sat'trlotl a1n1s'luoJlnJ ruorl eldocd e jo qcnu lecrir ol paunpe-rod,{q uour?Jllluepr ll?Jrrolstq ro lucrSoloeuqJle ue qsrnSurlstp oslE lsntu cuo Buraq rnr slBl 'lxeluoJ lnrrtrlod asuel slr Jo ssauqJtr eq] otr srqt tuo{ pecro^rp eq louut?r et3.roeg urcq}nos ur ,{Soloeeqore 3o ecrlce:d ot ur8eq uale Jouul?J jeprs snseJnEJ eq1 'suerSroel) eLIl lo suelusturv eql 'lsJII elcq] sP,^ oq,tt '(uur3roeg [PJluaJ oq] ur l lo ur?ruerulv) seie11t,t rleql .]o euo sJolue euo sll uoos sl? 'ISP oqm t? ,\\ou suuedo.rnE_opu 'cdorng 'sluellqequr tI?Jol 3q1 roJ luOlculnsul sl 'Je^O,^Aot{ 'sel.uu le^elpslu o} IJeq Ier]ueo ur lpptsllej -rJl?llutrs soqJlerls ,{1uo ruqr ,{rolsrq V 'saqrrnqJ uetS:oa11 le^elpeu lellreo qcnu oql 1no lurod ol surec -oPr{Jre eql ol lxou ro3o dol uo soqJJnqJ uEruetu;V,{lnluec-qlueeleuluJo uotlJnJlsuoc 3o ,.Burpee.r,. r. ur Plplnqlnsur?D .z eql ,{q f1.re1ncrl:ecl 'palueulncop Ile,\\ oq uer slus^J esoql ',{llnrrSoloeeqJrV Jo Jr.

snseJneJ aql ur ,{SoloeeqJlP pull ulstlPuoll€N 162 Philip L. Kohl tnul Gocha R. Tsetskhludze Nationalisrn and implicated in questions of ethnogenesis and claims to specific territories influences on the loc; (fbr a recent historical introduction to this poorly known area, see Broxup Georgia (ancient Colch 1992). The region today is characterized by ethnic tensions. occasionally Georgians and Greeks i breaking out into open hostilities (e.g., the conflict between the norlhern ancestral claims. This cr Ossetians and the neighboring Ingush, who, in turn, find themselves invidious example of divorced from the Chechen to their east). and it is unclear at this writing archaeology of the C whether further Balkanization of the rcgion will continue or whether an pervasivc extent of nati( effective fcderation of north Caucasian peoples will emerge (Ormrod 1993). structions, extolling the As to be expected, essentialist cultural interpretations abound which influencc of external ( often arc coupled with selective presentations of dubious linguistic objective "readings" of evidence to "prove" diametrically opposed "readings" of the prehistoric sources. record. Thus, we learn that the creators of the Maikop culture wrote in a In the West the term' prcviously unrecognized Abkhazian script (Turchaninov 197 l) or that this antiquities; in the lorn same archaeologically documented culture bears material witness to used for this period. r supposcd linguistic convergences and hence genetic relationships between unproblernatic, it recer

Sumerian and Karachai-Balkar, that is, early Turkic (Miziev 1986: for k he o I ogil' o is inappropr devastating critiques of these unbelievable "readings" see particularly the replaced by the term " reviews by Chechenov and Markovin in Balzer 1992). Periodically, sub-periods liom the se "archaeologists" or "philologists" ofLezghin ethnic background or ofone According to the autho ol' the linguistically related smaller peoples of southcrn Daghestan and un t i t' hn av u ur k h e o I o g i.t' L northern Azerbaijan (e.g.. Udi) report the discovery of new or hitherto thc territory ol ancient irnreadablc inscriptions which purportedly demonstrate that their ethnic are to be found therr group is the direct descendant of the Albanians and/or Urartians. peoples population (G. Gamli who once controlled extensive lands to the south; such claims are either responses or commentz fabricatcd wl.rolesale or rcmain essentially unsubstantiated, despite the fact their lack ol- response that most objective linguists would concede the historical likclihood that author. Questions as tc thcre were such genetic links to one or more of these peoples. The Greek colonization of t arcl.raeological record is further complicated and politicized by document- indigenous inhabitants able rclations with steppe cultures to the north. including those clusive archaeologists, and the Proto-lndo-European speakers (lor new evidence possibly documcnting what should bc non-pr such connections, see Rezepkin 1992). In short. archaeology in the Similarly, nationalis northern Caucasus occasionally exhibits on a smaller scale the same historians. In July l99l distortions and politically rnotivated features that characterize its practice town of Kobulcti abo f irrther south in Azerbaiian, Armenia. and Georsia and should be criticized (Kontselidze l99l ). or along the same lines. wcstcrn Georgia. In th settlcrr-rcnt existed ther rrrilitary settlement; ar II Nationalism in the classical archaeology of the Caucasus: Greeks Bvzantines fbrtified the and "Georgianso' in ancient Colchis Kontselidze believes th Thc interpretation of the later archaeological record in the Caucasus is also Petra is Greek and it ha suffused with nationalist sentiments. The sccond part ol'this paper presents for themselves. Hc is a detailcd example of this practice: the denial of significant Greek l-ristorians are unablc 1 'sseluo-l srql surr?u ul?tiJoJD aql puq ol eJqpun 3tE suerJolsrq .Jo )aorC luprgru8rs pulr slsrSolocpqr-l1l tEqt lqSnerlsrp sr 3H 'se^lastueql roJ 3o lEr.rolsse.lold slueserd:cded srqt3o srurlur?z^B eqi l lnq suur8loeD,(q tou llrnq rrcoq ppq il pue sl Eltcd oslt? leerD sr sllsPJnEJ Oql ur eruuu eql crrils'pcLulruel^q cq plnoqs ssarlloJ srrll luql sc^erloq ezprlcsluo) 'lliled tr pcuteu puE lueucllles Surlsrxe ,{1snor,rc:d eql peuuroJ seurlur_,z,tg s{oerc crll CV .,{lnluao qlxrs orll Jo alpprru oql ur pur? :}ueuelllas ,{.l:1rpr,u :snsBJnEJ aql, Lreurod r? sr?,\\ 3,reql CV serinluca lsjU eql ur:eJeql pelstxe luoruel]]es )cor!ir"rlrrriJloJ u JB scllnlueJ puoJas ot qlxrs eql u1 .ur3.ro3c urslsa,r ur sclrs luEJrltu8ls tsour Jq] ouo '(166 ezprlesluo;1) leorSoloceqcil-. .to 1 pszrJrluJ oq pJnoqs ulled lueulelllas peull,roJ eql errEu eqi pur Jo Jo lnoqp rlelnqo) Jo u^\o] corloe:d slr ozrJejJpJuq. eqt ut:aciuds,teu tJtrlsrp e ur pereedde elJrge ue ,{1np u1 .sullrrolsrq 166 I ctues oql eJeJS lollPru sBuryl,tr eql ur eleuluopeJd suolloLue .,t1.relrturg leool .lo lsrll?uorleu e q1 ul .{Foloaeqcre ,1 'epud leuoUeu st Jrlr?turlqo-rd-uou rq plnoqs leq,r durlueLUnJop,{lqrssocl .rc,to ,{slc,to.t}uoJ JoJ uc.rrluueldxe Surcur,,ruoc ,{1uo cqt pue ,slsr8oloaBqJJe ; e^rsnle esoqt Furpnlour ruurS.roc3 Suorue pelpgap ,{1eo.req Jrp srqJloJ sluelrqequr snoue8rpur Jo -tueunrop,{g pezrcrlrlo, cL[] uo e.rn][nJ cJrrenUur eql put? .uor3et stqlJo uolluzruoloJ .seldoed lcer5-;Jo {oeJD eq1 osaqt eql 'srrloloJ .roqlnp -jo tuarJue ul sleelD ,ryi Jo aJuose.rd eql o] se suorlsenf pooqrle)rl leqt ll?JrrolsI eql qlr,\\ eerir, 1or"r prp ,{eqt ueaur soop esuoclser teql lou Jo lclll rreql tJp.J crlt .lirdsep ,peterlul? qinoql 'plorl cql ur slsrlerceds uerS;oeg uroJ-] setJeJueulruoc lo sesuodser roqlla '(9 .g) elp sujrBlJ qons ir trrrle tou prp ellUe slql tal:Si]61 ozprlerlLuuD uorlelndod scldoed ,s^uurlJl?Jfl Joi pL ulluo1-oJepJD lueueuJad e ueeq Sur,req Jelau cJoql punoJ cq ol eJB Jruqle rrcql leql oleltsu( s')tLtolo) Surpe.ri ueurod pue ,{1uo er8.roeg luoroup lo ,{.ro}r.r.rel aql ImlD otJeqllq ro ,rau ,{re,r, ur clrq,\\ 'salrs r"rEluod-oJeplD ol uollploJ ur pesn srn,t'tBoloaq:1,n ntlDutl)tluo 3o puu uetseq8Ec uloqtnol r.ur3l .roqlnp eql ll?Lll sE,{\ uor}nlllsqns srql loI uoseeJ oql eqt ol SurproJrv e:ro 'qy,(rniuoc Jo .ro punol8lcucl cru qtino.] cql q8norqt 39 ,{:n1uec q}ue^es eql tuo{ spor:ed-qns '^lltsrrpopod .ft661 nz1 eorqt ur pepuelxe qorLl,\\ ..polred uerqrlo3-uprJeql,. rurcl eqt ,{q paoelde: oql .{[relnJrgecj ses ..sfiur cq o1 lq8no pue ur8.roa9 go ,{Soloaeqcle oql ro-J eler.rdo.rddeu l il nArBoloaql l(u :9g6 I l .rrIrn-l -.tD D,l'Dlttl)ttuD trrtal oq] pe1se33ns ,{1luece.r .crleurelqo;dun ^Jtlll4 leql se,tr 1r uoo.,\\log sdrqsuorlelo.r pue .porred crl: reolc sr ,{11ecrd,{1 tuJat srqt .Jo esn q8noqtly srql roJ pesn ol ssJultA\ sr n,{nuqttluD plo,\\ uErssnd oql .uoruil lt?llalnu sJt?i lerAoS Jor.uloJ eq1 ur iscrlrnbrlue srql tellt ro (IL6I ur?ruod pue IearC ot sroJel ..,{Soloeeqcre ruret oql lselA arll ul 1? ^ouruBrl IeJrsst?1c.. ur eloJ.r eJnllnJ dolre;zt 'soclnos cr:olsrqerd eqt 3o ..sBurpe uatjrr,r\ pue lerrSoloeellorl? 3o ,{poq qJtr etues eqt jo ..s8urpeer.. e,trlcefqo crlsrn8url snorqnp su pue Jeqos elou 'lulur,.d ssal clnururop .slJeluoc ecucnuur Jo leulelxa .lo r{Jrq,r punoqe suorlelerd, eql Sur8eledsrp alrq,r snoue8rpur s8urqt eqt Burllotxa.suortJnlls '(t66 11u3o,(.ro1B l porrur6) e8.rerue -uoJer elqrsnuldr-ur :ecrpnferd e,trse,lrad 11r,,r lucrSoloeeqc:1l lsrleuorlEuJo lue1xo ue Joqloq,{\ lo onurluoJ eqt aterlsn[1r ,{1ecru 'snseoneJ l[r 're^o,ttoq 'seop tI eq1 Jo ,{Boloeeqcru Surlr:,n srql lp JEoJcun sr lr lRorrolslt-l r0lul aql ur ,{SoloeuqJlu lsrlpuor}eu cldtuRxa snorpr^ur so^lesueql ,urnl 3o puu ur lsout oqt :ou ',{yuo or{l leqlleu stueserdel ,(pnls esec .srurEIJ stql ler]seoue uJJr.{llou 3ql ueJMlJq Surlcrguoc lJtur relo reqlo qcee 3ur11r1 ,{1lue.r-rnc lou ere sIeaJD pue suer8roeg Afl nuorsnJJo,suotsuel .(srqc1o3 Jrut{ 'suortelcr perclreqc ,{11ecuo1srq laql eydscq luercue) er8roag onxoJB .eoJe oes u.troul ,{1.r uratse,r Jo sernllnJ pelsalle ,{11eor3o1oeeqcre eql uo socusnuul serJolrJJel lpJol cgrceds ol suirel: t9l srlsPJnEJ eql ur AboloJ€qoJp pu€ usrleuotleN Pltilip 164 L. Kohl anl Gocha R. Tse tskhlad:e Nationalism and r

The vast majority of Georgiar.r (and sorne Abkhazian) archaeorogists do strong state. More reveal not want to acccpt the Greek colonization of colchis or the influence of the Saspiri as "East Geor Greek culture on colchis. Some scholars evcn place the term colonization 20). In reality, Herodotr rn quotes (e.g., KaLrkhchishvili 1979:274). According to rhem, the Greeks their geographical locat did not found independent Greek colonies (poicis), but fat'toriu for trade population. nor ttr thcir which did not have a t'hora (or agricultural hinterland). These f actoriu were are not cited for docum under the control of the local colchian rulers and either were small informed that the descer settlements or constituted districts of locarl towns. In order to substantiate latcr rulcrs inheritcd hi: these conclusions. it is argued that there existed a strong local state with a here devolves into mythr king in colchis and that this state stood in the way of the emergence of Greek and Roman aut independent Greek cities. Greek influence on the material and non- all as the Land ol- the Go material culturc of Colchis is also denied (ar least in the sixth to lburth reason, kept rctelling par centuries BC) by reference to the fact that colchian culture was highly very little reliable and co: devcloped and did not need to accept anything from Hellenic culture which Greek literary tradition. was alien to it (Lordkipanidze t989:256 72).'" we shall not examine in "erstwhile mighty Colcl detail the question of the Greek colonization of Colchis but attempt to A ret )n(tu I i (Lt of Apolloni palnt a general picture of the eastern part of the Black Sea region in the evaluate as critically an sixth to fourth centuries BC (for more information, see Tsetskhladze 1994). record and the more reli A rchacologicul ltlirleri social differentiation and A Tlrc problents o/ the Cok'hian :;tqte untl rot'ul power in Colchis sixth and early Iifth cent Most Georgian scholars consider that a strong local state had emerged in ruled by a king. existed Colchis at least by thc end of the sixth century BC. Herodotus' account centralized and powerfu seemingly supports this opinion: indicate that Colchis wa tion on Colchis is alu'ays The Pcrsians live right up as lar as the Southern Sca. known as the Red Sea [i.c. the divided up into skeptoLrcl Persian Gullj, bcyond them to the North livc the Medes. bcyond them the Saspiri. This passage testifies t beyond the Saspiri arc the colchians. whosc land rcaches as lar as the Norlhern Sea administrative icrritoria [Black Sea]. into which flows the River phasis. These arc the four pcoples whose based on the ancient G lands slrclch from one sca to the othcr. (1V.37) representatives ol' the loc From this passage, the following conclusion is drawn: an ethnic but a political tribes and not a unified. within this cxtcnsivc territory the "father of History" [Hcrodotus] placcs only lour pcoples: thc Persians; thc Medcs; the Saspiri; and thc colchians. It is well xnown that thc statcs c.ll-thc Mcdes and thc Pcrsians at that timc wcre powerful. and thc lact B I'he question o/ that thc colchians :rrc mentioncd in the samc brcath can probably be scen as an According to the classica indirect indication of thc fact that therc also thcn existed a state of Colchis thar was a largc political entit1,. (Lordkipanidze 1989:220 l) in the region known as C ly. the archaeological ev Such wishful thinking, howcver, is not rcally plausible. Mention of the part of Dioscuria lies unr colchians alongside the Persians and the Medes need not indicate that the now war-ravaged city of Colchians had a strong state-structured polity. If the same logic were to be investigated. Neverthele followed further, one would be lorced to assume that the Saspiri also had a and substantial historica pue uorlscnb ,{lsnotrcs louueJ euo leql sleo^ar pJooal IeJIlo]slq [PIlue]sqns e ppq osle urdse5 aqt t 'peleEllse^ul snonSrqureun ,{1e,rrle1er oq} jo uorleroplsuoc 'sssleque^c\l e9 ol ele,r cr8o1 aues e ,{11ccr]cue1s,{s ueoq lou seq soue,'{9 pue :lLunq{n5 3o '{tro peSe'tu:-re'tt 'ttou eqt leqi elesrput lou p. .uJOpOuIOq]]spunsI}seJoqlpueges{catBeqiJOpUnSsIlt-}Ill13sot(fJolJud oql Jo uoltucl^l .elqrsn :puno-l uosq lou seq srseqd :cricualqo.rd st ccuopl^3 luorSoloaeqcre cqi',{1 -pcllltupv 'ulrnrsoIC puu 'soue,{1; 'slseqd :sltlJloJ sl? u^\ou1 uolSel eql ut su,r leLJl srqJloJJo rluts r ,(q popunoJ ore,\\ solllc eorql 'sJoLllne leJlssl?[J eql o] BulproJcv slasrc eql uE sl.l ucrs aq ,{1quqo"rd u .1ng:a,nrrod LtottD:luolo) t1,t:t.to ftt uttttstnh at11 S IJP:J Jtll pue tlcr u.roul ilc,r sr tl .sul?ilJJlc :ntr3 ,{1uo sc:re1d [sn1opo.r: 'ruop8urq prztlerluec 'peqlun R lou pue seqlrl uerqJloJ snoJelunu Jo oJuellle uP s€,\\ ll :tul3l lnJlrlod P lnq Jtuqle uP :uMe tou s1?,\\Jlesu ..sIqJloJ., ',{ce;oo1sr:e peseq-ue[] l€col ot{lJo sa'r'lle1uese:de: pJo,\\ oql uo peseq erc,'lr oq,{\ '(...rap1oq,retdeos,, Sutuecu IeeJC luelcue :tsoq,,n saldoed lno.l Jrll Jl otlrl E) torltnoltlal:',{q pepcaq (s'rl.trttttt[als) s]lun lelJollrJe]/0^l1l?Jlslulurpe Pas ulequoN crll sl? lP,l sP c.rlur dn pep!^lp sP,{\ slqJloJ leql }oP{ oql o} seuliso} eSessed stql 'r:rdsu5 Jr{l Lueql puo,{eq . 'r'q)tlo]d)ls' olur dn pep!^lp cqt 'c'r] urs ped rqt sp '(g t'Z'tX) ..ra,nod.;o eo.r8ep eleropou e pe,{olua u,r( .s8ur1 uotJ puRl e Je^o 3ur1nr eq].. leql aloJ.^A 'elqetler s,te,tlltz sI slLlcloJ uo -l?urro.]ul esoq,^,\ 'oqerls 'eluls pezllerlueJ e ]ou s1?'{\ slqcloJ leq} olBJlpul lulloJse .Jl pur.l crI? seornos uelllJA[ i,ele]s slql sl?M lnJre'^^otl put: paztlu:1uar .snlopoloH 1n3d1cq ur peSterue peq ,\\oq :seuoJeq ueql uollsenb oql 'elull leql lP palslxe '3ur1 e '{q peln: etpls lp. {1:ea pue tllxls 'alels uerqJloJ e elquqo.rd sl ll pue '3g '{'rrrluo'r tltjg .\'t tl.)l()) ut .t,).ntt11 leql 11t.i11 oluloqluteltleuBlqcloJleJoll?JocoueSleueoqlpul?tlollellueroJlplelJos pO)JetUlPe^Ol.aJuopt,na,{rgnlrou.{lrrtlrurrd.Sll?IJoltltulectSoloeuqcry '{.t661 'soJJnos lu3tjo]Slq clqellel eJoul eql puB pJoJOJ e.zpel+lstosf cos . se puc sP alenlu^e aqt ur uorSer lecrSoloeeqore oql elqtssod su ,{1a,tr1oeiqo '{llectltrc eos lJelg n)ttttDuodrV ,{1uo 1nq '(OZZ:OtlOt ezpruedr>1pro1) snrpoqa snruollody Jo ol ldtuolle tnq srqrloJ. ;a1cl-uexe oltq'{\lslo" ur eulruexe eql uo loJ 'peseq se ..'tuop8ur) uulqJloJ '(1qitu lou lleqs o1Y JUO 'uolllpt?'rt qclq,\\ ernllnJ oql Jo 3Jnl3nlls lelJos ctll lonJlsuoco-l JouuI?J '{ln:clt1 1eer9 JruslloH ru eqtursrqrloJtnoqPuolleulloJulleclrolslqelcrruoJpue3lqellolcillrl'{:o'r' ftqSlq sE.{\ arntlnJ uprqi 'uoseer sr ,{ldurts ereqJ 'sltleuo8ry aql 3o qt,{tu cqt 3o s]'rud 8ur11eler ]da1 qunoJ oj qlxrs eqt ur lst eql pue-l eq] se -uou srqt roJ 'put? 'EepolN Jo sr"uoLl eql pue ecoelc ueploD Jo llP puP IPtJelPtU oql puB e^oqp 'srrlsloJ ul lseralul uc pa,^Aoqs s,{e,lt1u sJoqlne ueluotl I00lC go ecueSleue eql 3o ,{e,n ,ffio1oqt.{ut s3^lo^cP oroq e olut qlr,r olels [pJo[ Buolls r pcltr'1qul sJelnJ raltl elulluElsqns .1 clrqs:eloqog 'ft tZZ:Oget ezpruudrlplo-1) ouortlt slq ol repJo ul aql peuloJul leLlt pur? srqclo) ul polnr soloev 3ur;1 3o sluepueJsap leql Ilellls ele^\ roqlra pue s oJl? .(puel ere e,^^ 'peelsul :slqoloJ ut ;e,tlod 1e,(o-r SutluetunJop loJ pellc lou atan or.ut1,to.f eseql rou 'uorlelndod epErl ,$.t sroqlnP luelcuv 'selels e3-re1 Jo loJluoJ rleql ol roJ nt.ro1:tof 1n<1 lllrllllod .ueqt Ieql luelxo eql 01 Sutprcloce lou puB uollesol lecrqderSoeS rteql slaerC oqt oi Burp. Jo '(02 Suiprottn seldoad sseql Sulisll ,{1durs se'{\ snlopolell ul uotleztuoloc LUJaI eql aJP ,rt "'{1t1ea: clou'lZZ:6861 czpruedrlp.rol)..seqrrl ['rls] uet8roeC ]seg'. st.r r'rrdse5 eql Jo cJuonuur oql ro slqJlo: 'eluls 3uorls op ol sJaJO.t qorq,\\ Jl?[otl3s slul?s eq] ,{q elou eql sr 3ur1ee'neJ sJol4l slslS0loeeqc.re (uerzeq (ilo1o:t:q.1ln puP ulsllnuolll?N s9t snsnJnnJ rql ut f 66 Philip L. Kohl and Got'ha R. T.set.ykhlud:e Nationalism ar the existence of these poleis in colchis, nor pretend that the Greeks onlv made it possible to picl traded thcre. between Colchian and we know that Phasis was founded by Milesians (Heraclides ponricus. The next "elite" brar XVIII; Pomponius Mela, I.108; Anon. ppE, 44; Stephen of Byzantium rulers was goldsmithir s.v. Ethnika). written sources provide the founder's phemis- name confirm that this type c tagoras of Miletus (Pomponius Mela, I.108). the leader of the colonists. say who was engaged Pseudo-scylax refers to it as an Hellenic city (gl). A fragrnent ol'an articles (c.g., earrings, "Aristotelian Consriturion of the phasians" (FGr Hist. ll, p. 2lg) is a dominant role, but ( particularly important Greek source. Although the interpretation of this widespread both in the text and the translation of certain words are controversial. one fact is reveals Oriental influr incontrovertible: the city of Phasis was a Milesian colony that had lts own diadems). The prcdile< constitution, which attracted the attention of Aristotle, whose writings was the same every\ include descriptions of the constitutions ol'such poleis as Athens. Sparta, Achaemenid kings. an< and Miletus. In Phasis the colonists were responsible for introducing the rulers as gifts from Gre cult of Apollo, and a temple dedicated to that Greek go<1 existed in the metal reliefs. Furthern city. The city also minted its own silver coins the so-called Kolkhiclki language; study ol tl (Dundua 1987:9 33). (Tsetskhladze I 994; for Gyenos was also an Hellenic polrs (pseudo-Scylax. g | ). The archaeologi- Achaemenid materials cal materials reveal that it too was tbunded by the Milesians. That same Greek city also founded Dioscuria. whose chora also has becn documented. Appian (l0l), charax ol-Pergamum (Frg. 36, 37 v), pliny (Natural History, C 7-he inftut,nte vl.6l), Pomponius Mela (I, IU) and A'mianus Marcellinus (xxrI.g.24) Sor.ne Georgian autho: link the name of the city "Dioscuria" with the name of the Dioscurr Greek influcnce on tht castor and Pollux - and are of the opinion that it had been foundccl in their centuries BC, such as honor. All the above-mentioned Greek cities were established in the midtlle rites. domestic life, an ofthe sixth century BC, and they functioned as trading centers for the local considering all these r tribes. Apart from these cities, there were also Hcllenic scttlemenrs ar attention to just one I Tsikhisdziri and Pichvnari (Tsetskhladze 1994). population. This pher It is di{iicult to understand why the local royal power in Colchis would rcligion are always c have impeded the emergcnce of invani. a ciry-sire Colchian cemetery dati inhabitcd by many nobles. It was precise ly in centers such as these that craft itt K obuleti-Pichvnari. production was concentratcd, particularly in those spheres of productron has been cstablished. that provided lor the needs of the ruling elite of colchian society. such as. towards the east as w abovc nll, the production ol seal-rings as clistinctive emblems ol the ehtc. "Clhilron's obol" ritual Greeks were working in the workshops a fact universally accepted, evcn burials, onc of them by nationalist-mindecl Georgian archaeologists. Although at presenr it is Colchian. Hellenic in impossible to trace precisely and consistently the development of Georgian ampholae in six burialr glyptics or to speak of'a delinite "colchian" "Graeco-Colchian" or stylc in liom one which is pro glyptics. syster.natic study of certain characteristic groups of intaglios has materials from Tsikhisr aql sr rrr?u^qild lou JO cql tuqr ,{\oqs urzpstqlrsJ r.uo{ slerr.lllrtu seq ^releureJ sorl8elur sclno.ri JPIllurs ]Pill czrsnqdLr"ts lsnru osle cuo'uelseqd-olojd sr r{Jrq,r 3uo LuoJ-} 3o ur eJ,{ls ulj}rLJJloJ_oJce uedu 'soseqd pull sotrlJ u.lorJ arr? enroqdup aqJ 'sleunq xrs ur cllloqdrue .. ucr8.roel;.;o I ueudolr^ go eouose:d aql ureydxe ol setlis oslr? rJuonUur cruo[[oH'uerqJloJ ,sr tr lueserd oJea r.!pun?tuel eql elrq,tt edours uro{ Suraq ueqt ouo .slilrJnq 1e q8noqtl Jo - ue.te .peldeccu,{11us;e,tr 09 I eqlJo ueolouru r"n punoJ ere,r\ sutoo euru-,{t,roJ :lpn}u s,uol?qJ., ..loqo 'illlr irll sr.uJlqui eql relunocue oslu el[ 's{eelD oq} loJ sB,{\ se splc,tro] Jo o\ 1ecrd,{] lsee cql 'sp qJns ..{lercos uorletuerro ue esrql o,m1-,{l.roJ 'peqsrlqelse uurrJOIC trqlqxJ .Jo puB ueeq suq uctrlcnpo.rd 3o sa;e qcls a slprrnq peqsrlqnd 09 I eql Jo t0l Jo uorll?tuotro eqJ 'lJpu^r{rrd-rlolllqo) tE ul?rc lPq] esoql se qJns s, pero^orsrp se^\ qcrq,4 3g ,{.tn1ueo ql.JU eqi ruo.r; 3urlep ,{;e}eueo uelqJloJ ,tueA olls-,{trc P ur r? suorle^ecxe ,(q punc Jo lqirl o1 lq8norq uceq e^eq slellolpru Surtserclul ut 'luuorlnr8rs pelJauel ,{1;ea1c sseco se,\\ srqcloJ ur acueseld )itcrD oq] luql stse88ns ,{1Buo.r1s eqJ .sloc.rc 'Oraq eqt qrr,\\ sl srql ueqt ]leJ Jlestr eputu ernllnr laoJD Jo ecuonuur oql Jr :elnllnJ eqt pun Furl rql ,:t,i1,,,1 lurJaleru-uou pue lErJalutu Jo sulloJ oAtleAJOSuoc s,(e,tr1e c;e uorirlc.r s p[no,.\\ srqJloJ ur .ro,rod pue ,(Soyoepr lpr{l ut Surlea,tar Jsoru sr uouoruoueqd srql .uorlulnc1od leool orlt ,{q pecrlcerd sl€ntu ,{relcun3 eql :}codse auo lsnf ol uorluollu 'olnllnJ tP slueuoJllss rruolleH rllo uJnJ sn lal leueleru .lo suorlr?tsoJluutu osoql 11e Bur.reprsuoc lt?col aqt :oJ slelucc Burpr uuql rcqte6'(l9a:696 1 azpruedrlprol) elrl oql pue'oJrl crtscLuop'srtu .JB elppltrl eqt ur peqsrlqEtse; ,{.re.reunj 'senbruqoel Surppnq 'uorlcnpord Uero ur se qons solrnluoJ rreq] ur pepunoJ useq qunoJ o1 r.llxrs eql ut srrlrloJ erntlnJ eql uo OJuanlJul pPrl Jo l€lretelu IOclc lJnJSorc crll tuntliu8ts ou se,{\ eroql leqt peurcluteur oleq sotyroqlnu uer3:oeg cuog JO eueu (le snurllcrru4l S ltXX) I '^rotsrH ).tntln) untll)loJ u0 ).tntln) ,\a)r!)./() ,))u)ttl/in )tlJ J 1urn1e,y),{ur14 .1r 'palu0uncop ueoq sPq osll orues lEql .suelsclrhl '(766 azpclqISlosJ ees 'slerroteur oqt 1 pruorueeqcv -tdoloceqrrp .( .xelr aq1 1g -1o uorleler1 roJ elcllsu( IErol ueeq peq sror1to leql lRelJ sr }r puu pruerueeqcy 'euEdS 'sueqtV eql sl3rB cre,Lr 'creq,tr,{ranc se s.t,t1otl q ruo{l selctgr? ploi euog otul?s oql sp,r siturltJ^\ ,ollolsuv .(sr"ueperp esoq,r ,{r1e,ttal plo8 o1 preScr qtr,^A , elllo Suryn; cql Jo uorloolrpord cq1 u,{\o slr peq leqt ,{uo1oc ue uo sleurue Surlq8q go suorlcrdep eql ''3'e) seruenllur slEOAar ll?tuerro sr lJp.J auo .1ersle,ro.r1uoc srs,{1eue rrlslue pue 'lsea roqup,J pue plro,r\ eql ur qloq pee:dsapr,t leJrssplJ slql uortete_rd.ratur sr?,\\ uorlelnueJD 'luapr^e J.o eql q osle st Osuenuur IesJD ]nq 'e[oJ lul]uruiop e sl (gIa'd'il.tsrH eqt po,{uld ueusuelc 's8uuree ..3.c) rOc) lecol leq] s,troqs (suaperp selcri.re ue .(13) 'sdoqs1ro,.n .Io tucur8e.r3 y ,{; pyoi eqt 1o ,{3o1od,{1 aq1 plo8 esoql ut pe8e8ue se,tr oq,tr ,{es 'slsruoloJ 'pe1:odrur eql Jo repeol or{l ol tlncUJrp sr 11 lou se,^ uorlcnpord UprcJo ad,{1 srqt teqt rulUuoc -srueqd stueu s.rspunoJ req1e3o1 secrnos leorSoloeeqcre pue uollrr,r\ eq1 'surqtrursplo8 se,tr sreln: _ unrluez,{g 3o ueqdetg :yy tEJol oql ol porelco leql drqsueusUplr JltsrueJo r.{ouerq .,ollto,, lxeu eqJ 'sncttuod sepr1ce.re11) suers: 'slPos uEtqcloJ-oJoerc pue uptq3loJ uee,r\loq ,{lr.reurrurlerd qsrn8urlsrp ol pue sernleeJ uregec lno lcrd o1 eyqrssod lr opr?u ,{1uo s>1ee.rg eqt }urlt puelol L9l snssJnrJ eql ur XSoloaeqrle pue usrleuol.lllN ar 168 Phitip L. Kohl and Gocha R' Tsat'skhlud:e Nationalism materi only place Eshera and Vani (Tsetskhladze 1994)' must the area In short, what lbr all orhcr pcople and statcs is seen as a source of pride heritage of historY I namely, direct contact between their culture and Graeco-Roman civiliza- evolutionary The "story" that ne tion is unacceptable for certain Georgian archaeologists. Facts' however, Clio emphasizes the e should prevail over nationalist emotions. Scholars, who should serve that that throughout the r and not contemporary politics, must free themselves from prejudices traits that a sharing reveals reflect nationalist feelings and current events. Today no-one doubts Such the culture are highly developed civilization existed in the first millennium BC within Caucasian ttme it might help brin territtry of what is now western Georgia, a culture which at the same like .njoyed close political, economic, and cultural links with both the that they can face togt together the Mliite.ranean anarticle is an exP III Conclusion: the preferred "reading" Practice of Archaeo Amcrican AnthroPr historic archaeological record of the caucasus ts The prehistoric and early vember l99l irnd Pt evidence consistently distorted for nationalist reasons. Thus, the earliest 179 86. Sevcral ind for domestication, for full-scale metallurgy, for monumental architecture, useful commcnts ar etc. all fincl their origins in that remarkably creative cradle nestled along particularly wish to of the and M.l. Martinczl the western shore of the caspian (f or an Azcri), in the lush foothills of this paper (part I Caucasus and along the Black Sea coast (for a Georgian)' or in the Great archacology in Gc southern Transcaucasia (lor an Armenian)' fertile Ararat valley of skhladze. is a not unknown to archaeologists and does not Hyperbole. of course, trait 2 Since one of thc Pr But it happens so always illustrate the politicization of the discipline. aware of thc Politic consistently throughout the Caucasus that one is tempted to despair of ever even the tcrms thel "objectively" sifting through these claims and counterclaims to determine Ciscaucasia and Tr from the known record the earliest or most complex manifestation of which is located. t thc problcmatic. thesc specific urchacological culr ures. Nationalist-inspired intcrpretations ol- becausc theY arc st record greatly complicate any attempt to understand or aichaeological 3 At thc timc of the I the Caucasus' synthesize the prehistory and early history of not being articulatt consideration of the extremely politicized nature of caucasian archaeol- its conflict with tt ogy, however. reveals far more serious problems than simply trying to rcnunciation of "n deiermine more objectively prehistoric and early historic developments Azcrbaijan." Likc throushout the area. The iecurrent, blatantly political interpretations of post-Sovict Period. -rJLuloJ f,ql'rlue1ulvJo urtrso.llJd-lJl'-1 tuJplserd ?urpnlrur'pourtl 1ot,ro5-1sod Jo suorlutcrdrclul lnJllrlo( Jq] uiposlJLtlr 3^lltl lcqt slspncl lstleuoll€u 3ql Jo fu?tu cll-L.'u?fteqlazv slueudole,rep cr:o1srq,{1.r uolletJunual uleqlnos.. ur suollultdsu llllloll.tlJl ,,s.uEfteqlJZV ujoquou,' .'o o1 3ur,{.r1 ,{1durs ueq} sll su e ,(1drur lou sJop 'osll1oJ Jo 'iJuolts qJnS sunluaulv cql qlt'^ lJlguoc -[oeeqJle uersesnPJ Jo eJr ut aJuElsrssP u€lullll s)Jes u€lleqJJZV lcql uosl?cl eql loJ polPlnJIllP iutcq lou 'snseJneJ eq srur,?rr qcns'(9661,Fu1.rd;iili'il:rld:J",i:'J,.,1ll,i:J:]i"^:fi'l.T*X t 'e,r ro pulllsropun ol ldr-uellr pue cJuerue^uoo ro.] 3l3q pesn e:e flleuorselJo suJel escqi 'crleur:rlqold eql Jo suorlelcrdlelur pa.rr< q8noqllv 'aiuer snsr:cne') llrerD aql .lo quou 'eslnor Jo 'peleJol sl qolq'^ Jo uorlelsoJrueu xelduo: .1ou pue tls€JnecslJ (,ro3sol 3r) erssna luercJar lleql se c^?q PlseJneJsuell ..'{1e,tr1cefqo,, ouruJelop o. a,tr',{o1dtuc,{eq} sut:a1 eql uc^e suoueuFisap yeorqderfoa; cqi lpqt otou lsnu re^o .rredsep o1 pcldural rle'^ e Jo ,unt1n1,ruuoc cql Surpnloul 'Ilo,{\ lleql Jo suotlectldtut 1eor1r1od eql Jo 'eurldr .yn e:luls os suedduq 1r ing trtl- slsrSoloouqc;e leq} sr rrded srql 1o slurod ledrour'rd eql .'o ouo a "q 'czpPlq{s lou seop pue slsrSoloaeqcr '(uBruor.ulV ue to3) erse -l:sl 'U C ,{q uo1lu,tr se,tr (11 1:ed) ,{Soloaeqcrt uerS:oeg ur '(Soloauqcrt 'I ualI:'tr se't (1 tred) rodtd stql jo eqt ur ro '(uer8toeg u .ro3) Ir?Jrssr?[J.Jo ]ueru.tllrlt rq] rllq,^ 'lr{o) d '(q ' '3lell€AeN z:ulul? put? uorJJes ctrolstqud cq1 1 dc y,1 ,lnJrp uull ealpuV I J'l^ eql Jo sllrqtooJ qsnl 0q1 ur aq1 aipel'trou1J€ ol i{slA ulltula;IuqS ,1 1o suortseSSns lnSrq8noql '{pelnorl:ed 3uo1e pellseu olperJ a^rlEo 'srJueJtJoJ p:pr'to:d pu€ slucturuoo lnJasn 'eJnlcolrqJJE puu llc uirqt {ueq} cl leuolllppl? IelUetunuou pue:odrld slql-}o suolslol ratllua p€el sl€npl^lpur [l?ro^es'98 6ll {ucu epuru oJuopr^e lsorlJEs Olll .snqJ '(t66 unatlo.tng./it eql ur peqstlqnd pun l66l rrquls^ l) 7.riio1tt;tnq,tty loutnoT sr snsr?JneJ eql prorcr -ott ut stoutlll 'o8ucrq3 ut s8utlacru uollelJossv lecrSolodo:qluv ueJllatuv .lo ll rqr'lo 1qo; -1 dlurld ,(q pelulserd .,etseJnersuull ur ,{SoloaeqJrv Jo ecllcErd eql puu 'srt1[od 'tuslllluol]eN,, reded eqt 1o uotslel pe puudxa ue sI rlctull slql I S-JJ.ON .at ls 'suoIlEZrltArJ pruatuoPqsv .elr ',{rnlueo lxou eql olul ll3,\\ JuouruoJllue lnJllneeq pue peqlosqE srqcloJ loqle8ol Jroql l3soq ol cnulluos lll^\ leql suelqord lecrSoloce eql luo{uoc (e:rdruE pruotuaeqJv eql e aJP'J uec leql pun .rnlnj lecr'1od Sutltcxe lnq uleuocun '{re'n reqleSot '{eql aql qloq q]r.\\ s)url lern os snsecneJ eqt;o seldoed snoreunu eqt JeqleSol 3ur'rq dlaq ]q8ru lt e1t1 eurrl etues 3ql ]e qJtq,r eln: '€oJE ornllnc uslseoneJ sreqlo pue ..,{rols.. e qcns ',{1qr1dac:edrul re^o't\oH eql urqil,{\ Jg r.unruusllltu qcnS qcu e souuep 1eq1 ,{ce3o1 lecuolsrq uotutuoJ I? slPe^Jl Sutleqs e teql stqnop euo-ou ,{epo, ."ay ^r3^,r.ro.rg eqlJo sSutuurSaq eqt scurs lsROl 1e uotSer eql lnoqSnorql sll€Jl leql sacrpnferd uorg sa,tles 3ql sozISBqdl'ue leql .slel 1u,r-1o* Jo Suu't{s elqeluaurnJop '{1lueurue orlJ 3^ras plnoqs oq,r "rnr1,-r, 're^e,r\oq's1ceg's1sr3o1oeer euo sr ,{SoloeeqJle uelseJnPJ inoqe uclllr,^A 3q ol speou leql ..AJols" eql 'leraueS ul pullueulnq ;o,{ro1srq,{reuotlnlo're -ezllr^rc ullluod-oJaelc pu esle eql oSeltroq IernllnJ uoululoc eql lou .Jl 'Iro,t\ ,{eql qcrq'r'r ul Jo epud3o ecJnos E sE uoes sl 3Jol.u ldope lsnu '(t66 IeJnllnc uoururos eqt azrseqclue r.{Jrq,^A elJO}lJJ ll?sJe^lun t ezpPlr slsrsoloeeqcrV 'se lJnlueJ JoJ sl?ore cgtceds ur 3ur'tt1 uoeq a^eq oq'tr seldoed IaorC elqercedur ur uellul ol pasn ueoq pue loordn ol ro sleqloJo ,(ce8e1 I€rnllnJ oql aql ,{q potultsuotuep uoeq r IeJol llrl 's.laqlouB^orlsop o^eq eJuepr^e uEISeoneJ eql Jo ..s3uIpBOl,, qons se elqegrlsni elels pue saruoruoJoJ snorBrl euo ro s.auo 1€t{1 'slsrio ,{pee.r1e pue pll€^ st.l st ..]secl eql Jo Surpeer', s.eldoed seq tr 'e8un8uel [eJ( 'uolllsod e'ueu -lornqtro lensseco:d-1sod etuos ,{q peleco'rpE '{lsnore8uep eql uopueqe plnoqs euo ,{q,tr ,{1-rua1c slurlsnlll sletlslBtu lecrSoloeeqcre ur s)earc oqt Jo ecuose:d aqt ur ,{ffolocnqJll? pul? I'usllPuollt?N 691 snsnJnpJ 170 Philip L. Kohl and Gocha R. Tsetskhludze Nationalisrr a

Azerbaijani lcader maintains a kcen intcrest in his "reading" of history (and Upon qucrying the prehistory). Transcaucasia. one, Many ve ry scholarly works on Azerbaijan (e.g., Altstadt 1992) are misleading archacologists from in thcir almost exclusivc focus on "northern Azerbaijan." Reading them. one in Azcrbaijan thoug would never appreciate that Azeris living in Iran arc far more numerous than that, in short. the Ur, their northcrn relations (upwards of I 0,000.000 pcople). lorm the second largest a bclicf that contrac cthnic group afier thc Persians in the country. and have cluring many periods. Sorle Armcnian rrre such as undcr thc Qajar dynasty. dominatcd thc internal affairs of Iran. "historic Armenia," 4 Thc denial of Armenian history is not an cxclusively Azeri practicc. Armcnian below). cultural remains in neighboring eastern Turkey are frequently dismissed or One surviving mosr rcfcrred to as "ottoman pcriod" monuments. The continued denial of thc Ycrevan. Plans were wholcsale state-sponsorcd massacre of at the leiist seve ral hundreds of a culturalicconomic thousands of Armcnians carlier this ccntury (the Arme nian gcnocidc ol l9l5) Arme nians were supl and their lorced cxpulsion from anccstral homcs in castern Anatolia is. of whcthcr this agrccr course. rclated to thcse practices. It is doubtful that the practice ofarchaeology dcterioration o1- rclat in Azcrbaijan, Armcnia. or Turkey will ever be de-poriticizcd without some in Nagorno-Karaba olllcial acknowlcdgemcnr of this horrible historical tragedy inflicted on the l0 Onc of the authors Armenians by the thcn Turkish government. whilc one should not justify this displayed Ethnograp relusal to acknowledgc a terrible past, adrnission of thesc events in Turkey edgc of tlie I'ertilc A apparcntly is complicated by thc f act thal many historical frgurcs slill important Turkish army in 19 in the construction of rurkish national idcntity arc implicatcd in the l9l5 Armenian diaspora) slau-uhter of the Armenrans. and matcrials on disl 5 Thc datc for thc cmergcnce of the Azeris as a distinct, conscious ethnic group rs throughout the Ottor variously sct. by cliffe rent authors. somc of whose political agendas arc manifest interplctation of Arr (c.g.. cornparc the contrasting vicws of Alekperov and Alijarov in Balzer ancl Armenian "racc." Paksoy 1990). westcrn scholars. such as T. Swictochowski (19g3) and A. significant cultural ar Altstadt (1992). associatc this dcvelopment with Azeri intellectuals'aspirations to the lcss civilizcd lbr r.nodern nationhood. placing it cither at thc cnd of the nrnctccnih or the neighbols rcsent su bcginning of the twcntieth century (i.c., quitc late), the latter specialist evcn historically vcrificd. prefcrring the tcrrn Azerbaijani Turk to Azcri or Azcrbaijani (p. xix). Dcbatcs betwecn Swictochowski ( 1983:23 l) writes: rcsponsible for innr absolutcly puerile tc In 1905 Azcrbaijan was still rnercly a geographical namc fbr a stretch of lancl inhabited bv consequcnccs. (See ) a pcople whose group idcntity consisted of bcing Muslims. The pcriod bctween this datc and the fall of the independent Rcpub[c in 1920 witncssed thc rise of. for the Muslr6s. a inistic study by G.N. nolel typc ofconlmunity. thc nation . . . Against this backdrop [thc cataclysmic cvents of Wc tliank Dr'. S. ; the early twcntieth century], the universalislic unmtu consciousness was giving wav at least previously mentionc atnong the intelligentsia to Turkism. and thc next stage in the evoluti6ir was.-Azcrbaijani whethcr thc carly r.rationalisnt. Ch cthnicity as thcir trve To utilize thc Soviet anthropological parlance, the etl.rnogencsis of the Azcri contemporary Ailrc people effcctivcly has only occurrcd during thc last 100 ycars. ture rccalls thc con 6 of coursc, not all anthropomorphic stoncs set over graves represcnt rcmalns northwestern Europr rccording the rnovemcnt of rurkish peoples. As with most material markers. the this volumc). archaeological record is more conplicatcd. Stylized human-shapcd gravestoncs One rnust avoid arc lbund cven in carly Bronzc Agc contexts in thc caucasus. ancl. in the absencc patently false clarnts ol- supporting materials. qucslions naturally arise as to thc date of spccific Armcnian culturc. A monumcnts. This problem. which is similar to that ol interprcting carvcd An esscntialist r ieu' of I cross-shaped stoncs (sec below), can be reasonably solvcd through traditional political ideolo,ul: the c ar1 historical and archaeoloeical analvsis. 'tJql'Jlcloocl JUorsrq r? sr srr.'.rJ.rJV Jrl]Jo JJUOlsrxs snonurlrroJ.rq1 :,i3.,loJpr ll?Jrlrloo Jl.,qr 'lor \^rsrq Jql srsrruuorrru I'Jrlrrod.ro.J uJJq spq sullrrrJulJVJ., mer^ 1r,1r,,ju"sr" uy lP.uortrpert qino.rqt pc,t1 :sJ^-lJ5^clo,{1o,tr1rsu:s .{).6 p;r,r:ec Burlo.rdJJlur (s r:et66l ),(un5 sv .Jln}lnJ uerueLurv .]o l uorsr^'lsrlprtuJsso cqrords olup .to Jrll qtl,r petcrJosslt,(1rnbr1ue teeli ol s.utelJ JSIp.J.,(lluotud Jo Jql ol s sJrurlJu-ros 'pe1ele33nxc 'eu1; JJUCSqe cgl ur ,puu .snsPJ oql clnJrpt-l o1 uorlnlduel ,(uu pro,re lsnlu .(ctunlo^ sauolse,ru:f peduqs_uuurr srqt oql .SJOIrPru 'lloz pu' sclc16 ,{q Lurrll srrsrJrl,J alqrsuos pue) Il?rje]Ptu tsor Jo rqt edolng utetse^\qlrorr sureuJJ ur ul? lplnsrrl .lo:^r'3'o eql .roJ srulltlJ Jrurlls Surltduoc r11,r.rr.rn1 luasclde: sc,tu.ri u€rlsr.rrlJ "i1l .s:eo,{ _JJllqcru ur scrlro'd :e,t. suerB:oaD pur? su'ruo.u.ry ,{:eiodrueluoc 691 ;-uour, eleqep llczv eql srseuciouqlc .,,{1.rr-'1orlJs.. eql :sluupuecsrp ,t:nluer_qlcrtuJ,{\.I lroqt su ,{lrJtuqlo Jo LIlr,r\ prssJsqo sp Jlc,\\ snspJ.l?J JLII ur sctlrun.uruoJ uurlsrJqJ,{llpe Jql lJqlrq,\\ s.rJpuoM ruo (.^JrqJunl pue uptsorrgel4l ,(q ,rar,l:r: peuortucul ,{lsnor,terd lf.lle,lr3rV _te^ uorrn lo\r art lsr,;;r1 lc,{e,n cqt Jo ]Erll prn? JrucloJcl srqt furpr,ro:d :o1 ueruelsv .S Eur,tli su,n ssaus-n, r(I )ul?rll rl Jr | \ | tri \J .)t '[y91611 ru\ ilJn t lrJ Jq ,un1t,t1tq).ty uDtu)-tu.rp, tof s.st1ln,t5 ,1,nq.ruu,qnqJ .N.D I I duJ fq ,{pn1s^ crlsrur )rtr .rr5 jo.rr11 -,tnrqo uerS.rooD erll ,trrl^cl Jlqtsuos .srJuanbasuoo :,:::lil:'n 3q1 JO [g96 I] s.uos^qo)ip1 acs) u.rJm rJq por.rrcl .rql :'3u:1 t,teq scurtculos .,{1e1run1:o1un .1nq :l],1-:i,J I -,.pir1no ur: o1 c1r:and ,{1a1n1osqu pallqPqut puPIJo q.rlerls utecs ^q P I clnlcJllr.lJ-rE uprls^uqJ IslJrpeut ,{1-ruc ur suor.lt? ouut :oj elqrsuodsc: sum .clduexr .sueri:ocD orl^\ :e,lo :o1 pull suuruorulv uJJ^\lJq srjrrqeq '1xrx .d) rue[retl.rczy .ro u,e,rc rq ur:r ,{oq} rou ro rrq}cq.n. .s.ur'Ir lsrlurcods :c11e1 eqt ,( .1o ssclp.re'a.r ,r"itj'i::jr^ilH.,r?:j:l Jo rrcql ',{es ol ssclpecN .urcq1 '1r{l qlurJtJuru Jqt.l() iurpunollns^ sueuBqrpq pozrlr^rJ ssol Jql o.l suollu.rrdsr.l lr uo pcssr,:d ucqt frqt i.tolsrq .sl nn l.1.1JJJlut IJJ lnoqFno-rql qJrq,^^ slucruc^e lqJu Iplnllnc luecgruFrs ([g6 lsout ul ,(1r.ror.rd _V PUP l) rIs$()q)olr luliolouorq:r ruoql sluu.rF oslp lnq ,..eJel.. ul?rueu-uV prrp lczll?g JLJI ur ,lo.refrly pur .roJ uorlnlo,te cletedes r slrsod ,(yuo lou JlnllnJ uprueulvJo uorlple:cl:elur cre sDpuc;r-e lsrlllrluJssc srql sul?lrrJru.ry,{q .elrdruE 1uJ1r1r pcluc,lur t:e,* uuLuono aql lnoq8n,.rqt \t]:-iJir"Y clnolS scleiu ,{q uro,'lt .feldsrpiro JrutllJ Stlor.rsgL)3 .;1 lpq ro zaJ.rrll ue^o pue slad:uc sp r.lJns i1n,r.1uo, puo sUrrc cql leql pcureldxe eprni lrlsersnqtuc .(e:odsurp IIE ,{Fa,lo eq1 ueruclxrV eqt ur rrlr.lc.ri urAJ up pue aqdo.rlselpJ :gtOt SI6l pclucrldur r:e reqljnJ Furlua,le;d ul fu.re qsrl:n1 lu nlrodrut p 11rls s:ln;r-q e..ruo; pJluJ-]rp sueruolurV 1 orll rrcq,r r:re1d cqt 1e ,(c11e,r le.reJV elrue-J eqt a8p- .;o u! slu:r r:r rs.rq) u.reiso,r rrll uo prll?ro1 sr qcrq,lr) lEqprepps lu tunrsnnl crqde.r8ouqlg pj,{eldsrp .::]J:r Jo u :ltll \.lJlsnl )ou pln0qs )uo ,{laurospueq 'q.r eqt.Jo rnot prprn8 srq s11ur:,r (;14) ,.,oqtno. Jl .qr Jo'.ug 01 perJr$ur 'ucfreq:czy uleJSO.r olur ,{pe8e.rr elrsucgo uprueulV cql pup q3,rqorn;_nurobo51 u, Jul^os:.1] 1" lr:rr rP'{\ cql qlr,r pJr'rJossp lnoqll t1 pezrrrtr;o.j_:rp sr q3rq,r\ s3r-rlunoJ crll usa,t\leq suorlrlJr.]o uorrrrorJlap AdolOJnqJll:Jo lucr.'1J cql ue,trB f1:u1.cr1.red'pJZrlenloe Drlrr::tl eql lr eq III^\ tueruea:Au s'4l lcqloqm 'sl l?rloll?uv u,r\ou{un sr .ur?ll Jo ulJlsPa ut sa lJ ur qJlnqc uurucru,V ue o,rolsol o1 pasoddns arr^ r,rn,ua*ry (Sl6l Jo eplJouei upruaurv oqi 'urnlll uJ sa'lultoc o,\\1 orll ucc,rlJq p lueuac:Fu JtuouoJa/lelnllno Jo-- spelpunq jo 1:ed )^p e nbsoo, s*lt Jlolb^eJ ol sul?luptl cqt.ro3 pcdole,\Jp .uoir.r.1 lurs^3s lsBal : alo,\\.uo1i cqt-l-o penurluoJ [rnesnu ,{trJ aql su ,{epo1 suorlJunJ Jeluep illI Jo uplore,1 ur anbsou furni,r.rns cu1; JO psss^ruls^rp 6 ,{1}ucnbc.r1 c.re (Molcq .ccrlce.td ,r uprucutlV r;ezv L I clou ecs) ,{ur1n.ros IaorlrJO s-oAJoSJp osle qJlq,r turplJ e .ut:Jl ,{lcl .,.uluetulV Jr.lo]slq,, sltP.JP -Jo qruol euo ,{1uo sr r?ru3-ruJv s.xepol Jo lnuJJlul J 1pq1 lsrsur srsrlucpeJrr uerucru:V etuos g ,{ur:ur 'eJuepr,to duunp r^rrq pu lecrFoloeeqJJr? pue IBJrJolsrq slJlptlluoJ p ::L.il-.d - 1u lBrll .JJrleq I.s-.]drr2J puoJe\ eqt ru.roj .t:Jdort 'uu[rr:q.rezy,{;u:odrucluoc se,,n s;c>1ecds_qslllnlJo .Uoqs .ll7r{l lntut;)q.tn oql ul uPql snoJJLrjnu 'J-r.lll pr^![ s,{e,r1u JJoru r,,l ,ro u peq seldocd Eurleeds_or1:n1 lurll tq8noqt uefreg:czy ur srllloqrs ,{utlr-u 3urpn:y ,"f,"qru 1uq1 9g6 I ul n{pg ur ,(:o1sr11-;o elnlrlsul rqt ruo{ ,lr,Fu1o.oqrro nutpPJlsltuJrP{f66::1_-.q, .. o,r1 ,{g porulo-lur str,r .prsernpJsul?rJ I lplrts}lV. j ()-Id) JIJ_lUe slql Jo sloq}nu Jrl} Jo cuo ur scldocd JrllnJ ecue:urddp .qt ,o.1 3o lerltur Jlep oql Eur.{;cnb uocln I pue) ,{.ro1srq go ,.furpuc-r., srq r tLl snspJnuJ cql ur ,{Solocerlole pup usrll?uorl€N .): 172 Pltilip L. Kohl arul Gochu R. Tsetskhlatl:e Nationalism an origins in the Armcnian plateau, arms them with thc right of sell-dctermrnatron, Urartian connections nationhood. and a historically sanctilied clairn to the tcrritoriis that constitutc Arrncnia. rnaterials from lhis ct Bccause this view ol'Armenian history plays such an important role for Armenians 1as l3 Anothcr indication ol homokrgors vrews play lirr Georgians. Azcrbaijanis. Turks. and other peoples). any attcmpt to dispute it. to decomposc the collection of beliefs that makc up thii rcading. many countries throu must bc done with carc and sensitivity, with lull awareness that such an investigatron mi. rccurrent fact that arr be pcrceivctl as an attack on the vcry soul of thc natron. (e.9.. Y. Yadin in Isr This cntire critiquc of cssentialist accounts of Azcri. Armenian. Gcorgian. and sullice it to sav that ar north caucasian archacology is made with this rwrrcncss and. hopefully. with folklorists. etc. are t thc carc and scnsitivity that Suny rightly recommends. throu-uhout thc Cauc ll Andinthcsamcsensc,ofcoursc.theAzeriscanbeconsicicredthecultural heirs those associated r,vith of thc Albanians. as wcll as of thc othcr pcoplcs who oncc occupied today's That V.E. Oganesiar tcrritory of Azerbaijan. I.M. Diakonoffconcludcs his brilliant linguistic study nationalist party in A on The Prc-Hi.\torr of tlte Arnteniun people (19g4:129 30) with thc following of thc Karashamb srl obscrvation: study the archaeologi archacological rccord it is cvidcnt that the history ol'the Armonian pcople is a dircct continuati1;ln of thc hrstorv l4 Similarly. given the in not only o1'the Proto-Armenians [prior to the forn.ration of thc Armcnian ethnos pr.rpei, probably throughout Gcor-eia. in thc sixth century BC]. but also (and to no lcsser dcgree) of thc Hurrians. the Urartians' and thc Luwians. The main mass of the Armenian nation consists of their Abkhazian conflict. , dcscenclants: there was a historical moment when a person ntight speak Oltl Arrncnian. his Iudicrous cvaluations lather. grandlathe r. or -trcat-grandlather was rlorc likely to have bee n bilingual, while his scnsitively and sympi lbrcfathcr was a purc Hurrian or Urartian . . . There is no question bui thar ancient l5 Extreme Gcorgian na Arnrenian historv can correctly be understood only as the cintipuation of the mor.e the aboriginal Abkha; ancrent history t)1'the Ilurrians and the Urartians. as well as that of the Luwians. conflict with thc lattt But hc also emphasizcs (p. 128): making this conflict r the cnormous cullural irnpact the Urartian state antl culture . . . had bcyond the confincs l6 Many of thcse Mcskh, of thc Urartian linguistic territory proper. ln thrs sensc the cultural heritage of Urartu ls illustrating vividly "tf tha ptttperlt ol ull the peoples ttf Tran.;cautu.siu urttl not of the Arntenitut nutirit a1orrr,. (italics deportations. ol cours added ) incrcasing a culturc's s His study convincingly rclutes various chauvinist attempts to cquatc thc proto- of thousands of Mesk Armcnians with various mentioned pcoplcs in cuneiform and classical sources Islam and speak Turl (e.g.. Kavoukjian 1987) and postulatcs, on thc basis of linguistic atfinity anothcr serious cthnic betwcen Proto- and old Armenian a'd rhracian and phrygian. i movemcnt of r 989). Proto-Arrncnian speakcrs wcst to cast across the Anatolian plateau cluring the l7 By the samc token. of second milicnnium BC. to a core or hcartland r l2 An Arrncnian archaeologist spccializing in the late Iron Age and classical Erzerum and north periods inforrned onc of us (PLK) that thc Urartian state had cxtendcd as far difTerencc. ol coursc, north as the sourhcrn banks of thc Middle Kura rivcr (a belief not confirmed by Armenians in I 9l 5 an Urartian inscriptions or. indccd. by evcn less certain material cvidence); a sincc thc signing ol t politically attunccl if skeptical interpretation of this claim would view rt as a political conlrol and tl possible subconscious justification for Armcnian dominancc in Tillis. which and thc like that cnsue actually was thc casc fbr muclr ol the ninetcentl-r century but which was not true solution. Nevcrtheless centuries carlier. nor today whcn Tbilisi is the capital of Gcorgia. Another Iron Armenia to a corc or I Age spccialist claimcd that thc Urartian rulc had extenclcd at lcast as f'ar north as many othcrs that r thc Tli ccrretcry in southcrn ossetia (or Inner Kartli. see bclow), sincc Urartran Iong-standing cnntitv clr LJrartian-inspired rnatcrials. such as figure

. roJ supcLu potuaunJop-lsog s.,{.rolsrq.1o Juo clnlr.lsuoa 'JslnoJ 'suor1e1:odcp s)tlclt) )uo D Jo / a0! I n u u D I tt )u pcrroJ :souqla rleqlsr14i frnrodueluoc rql cql., ,{lpr^r^ 3ur1e.r1sn11r sr nUpJIl o3ulr:aq Jo ,,3ur{uru (JtllJu(,.):qt.lo 1etn11 . . 'tt6l ul nsv lr]rturr ol urlr?ts ,(q pe 1:odap era,{\ urnl ur rte q)se l\l esoql 3o ,{ueyq 9t puo,{.rq pr:q 'snon?rqun puu pclccrldr-uoc ,{11ecr1.r.roaql erotu lJrUuoJ srql Surleru 'spuno.ri rures rql uo pegrlsnf rq touuur ro]1ul Jql qlr.e\ lJrUUoJ lecrSoloepr 'sut:tsnl Jrll.i.r :r:r3.roc9 urJlscmquou s.,{upo13o sutrzuqlqv eql lFql \ lruoJurrt tuJlrlJ leur8r:oql; J.r0ru ot{l uorlPnut}uo._) qsrn3urlslp ucrS:or11 crucrlxa -lo ruor.J sur?rlosso leur8uoqn-uou cql slsrlruorleu 9l luarJrnT trql 1nq uorlsonb 'txrluor srqt jo ur ,{11ecr1cq1edu,{s pue f sr q JJI q s .1nn 1qir1 la,ttlsuas d rr rlrq rrorq .. r r srq'upruJulJV ru:ql rleroo:ddI? lsntu cuo rJqlpr :prooJl cr.rolsrqc:d aql.ro suollpnlE^e snotrtpnl l)lO lt:Jd\ lqi iror{l cq o1 .rt:cddtl 1eq,tr uoodurul ro olrlJrpu JOU ]snur cuo 'lJrUUoJ uprzpqlqv JO SlsrsrroJ uorlPu uPl JLll.'\untJJn iuerS.rocg eql tuaruotu aql lp ,{pJr;ur} tsoru Surpnlour 'er3.roc5r lnoq3no.rql H .rqt.l() (i.r.rdJf '-r.relrt:d s,rUq;r lp1l.r.rJV slJrlluoJ csucl f aq1 uentF ',{[JEIrturS Jr SurBuer JrurltoJo ]xJluoc lecrylod lqrpa"rcur il Arolstq oql.Jo uorlPnulluoJ i 'p.loJoJ FlcrnoloeeqJru aql uorlulueserd reqrsrq fpnls o1 urScq no,{ rrogcq lsrSoloceqc"re eq1 ,{pn1s Jo iurnolloy 'rurxlllu snotup.J s,rrp.) 'H'a cse:qde:ud o1 to1qo8 re^[rs qupqstln) aqt Jo iql qlr^\ {0t rrlslnturl 6 .,3urpcr.r,, uecdo.rng-opul slq ol luelelerrr lou sr urueutJv ur fl:ed lsrllruorleu ^pnls^ luPrllrrq ! unllnslluuqspq cqt Jo slcppel eql Jo euo sr ,{r:po1 uurscuuSg 'E A leql s^.APpo] perdnrco JJuo ol sJlirtl nrn '(oun1o,r srqt 'q1{ur:q3) sluJruc^oLu lsrl€uor}r?u snoupA qtl.{\ peltrJossu esoql I llnJ Jqt pJJlpt\L ,{1:a1ncr1rr.ld '(uorun lol^os rctxro.l oql peepur pue) snsecne3 aqt tnoqSno:ql )^p 'AllnJrdoq- slucrudop,tcp tuorrlJ ur clor rofeur u 8ur,(e1d errcle 'slsuollloJ rllr,r 'pul? ssru. 1urr1r1od pun'uuri.tocg .upluJuuV 's"rcqde.rr-ouqla 'slsrniurl 'suruotsrq lucrJUr? 's1sr3o1occqr:p leql ,(ps ot lr eJUJns :lunoJel tl1 snoreurnu ool Jrll uoucruoucqd srql Jo (lee:sl ur urpe1 A 'fr'e) 'sa1o.r eLunsse uai.yo slsrSoloeuqJre rrtrilpFlls.rrur scldruexg 1ucr1r1od roleu ]eqt lJp.J luorrnJaJ .{nru un q.rns iltrj rqt sr (s:r1r:15 petlun eqt ur tou qinoqt) ppo,tt eqt lnoq8no:qi scr:tunoc ,{utru slqrtln eleru leqr sj Aur?;:l]t:" '(soldoed lr1.t ur ,{Soloeeqcru ecueiroduu pue Jrnl€u pezrcrlrlod eql uorlecrpur reqlouv .,aq1o puP 1o Jo TI sP) SUPIUJUUV,oJ (,trotrq pue 'S861 '186 '0861 srqt ruor-} lu"tr, 8861 I aas),{:aleuer sleuc}llu 'nrUJil.ilv Jln "Jn,pt{i ^oqlel tr t\rr()J I \JtJ( jo a8ulquessr fprelo'qcrr aql ur c:el ,(yc,trlelJr crr? suortoeuuoo ul?tlJelll 'uorlpunrrelep_J1os 1eco1 .1o 1qii.r tLl snsPJnPJ 3r.ll ur ABoloJeqJlu put rusrluuorlPN 174 Pltilip L. Kohl untl Gocha R. Tst'tskhlutlze

a particularly insidious state policr'. l9 One should mention that somc Gcorgian archaeologists refer to a Bronzc Age Colchian.itale. making it the earlie st complcx society in Transcaucasia. Hcrc thc Part IV competition once again is with the Armenians and their claims for this distinction: i.e.. Urartu or even pre-Urartian states in thc Ararat valley (Shnirclman, pcrsonal communication). East As

Minerva Access is the Institutional Repository of The University of Melbourne

Author/s: Kohl, Philip L.; Tsetskhladze, Gocha R.

Title: Nationalism, politics, and the practice of archaeology in the Caucasus

Date: 1996

Citation: Kohl, P. L., & Tsetskhladze, G. R. (1996). Nationalism, politics, and the practice of archaeology in the Caucasus. In P. L. Kohl (Ed.), Nationalism, politics, and the practice of archaeology (pp. 149-174). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Publication Status: Published

Persistent Link: http://hdl.handle.net/11343/33015

File Description: Nationalism, politics, and the practice of archaeology in the Caucasus