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Moroccan Diaspora Politics Since the 1960S

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Moroccan Diaspora Politics Since the 1960S Moroccan Diaspora politics since the 1960s LITERATURE REVIEW By Lalla Amina Drhimeur PRIME Youth Researcher PhD candidate in political science Hassan II School of Law, Mohammedia Casablanca, Morocco October 12, 2020 DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.4080855 ERC AdG PRIME Youth ISLAM-OPHOB-ISM 785934 1 Preface This literature review was prepared in the scope of the ongoing EU-funded research for the “PRIME Youth” project conducted under the supervision of the Principle Investigator, Prof. Dr. Ayhan Kaya, and funded by the European Research Council with the Agreement Number 785934. AYHAN KAYA Jean Monnet Chair of European Politics of Interculturalism Director, European Institute İstanbul Bilgi University 2 Moroccan Diaspora politics since the 1960s Lalla Amina Drhimeur, ERC AdG PRIME Youth Researcher, European Institute, İstanbul Bilgi University, and PhD candidate in Political Science, Hassan II School of Law, Mohammedia, Casablanca, Morocco Introduction Because of its proximity to Europe, Morocco has always been an important immigration hub either as a country of emigrants or a country of transit. The first institutional involvement in emigration happened during the protectorate when France needed soldiers and workers. Later other European countries signed agreements with Morocco for the recruitment of a cheap workforce. It was only in the 1970s and, most notably in the 1980s, when Moroccan laborers and students became politically active in France that the state wanted to establish institutions and initiate policies to regulate more than just the economic aspects of migration (Brand, 2006). Thus, emigration was first considered economic and temporary. It concerned mainly the movement of workers to Europe. Discourses and policies started to be formed with the intensification and diversification of Moroccan emigration and the increasing awareness of the importance of remittances for the local economy in the late 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s. The development of a strategic vision in the 2000s, which was more elaborate and exhaustive, with legal and financial means, came to strengthen diaspora economic, religious, and cultural links with their home country. Both the discourses and policies on emigration shifted to reflect a more positive attitude towards emigrants, their integration in the receiving country, and their participation in their home country’s modernization process. Three trends usually describe this shift in the attitude towards emigration. The first trend happened soon after the independence of Morocco and lasted until 1989. During this trend, emigrants were referred to as Moroccan Workers Abroad (Travailleurs Marocains à l’Étranger, TME). They were discouraged from integrating into their guest countries, as it would endanger the flow of remittances. They were also perceived as a political threat to national stability, which explains the repressive diaspora policies. During the second trend, between 1990 and 2000, emigrants were referred to as Moroccans Residents Abroad (Marocains Résidant à l’Étranger, MRE). It was a phase during which the state started ‘courting’ the diaspora being aware that their integration would favor remittances and investments. Since 2000, diaspora policies have emphasized the importance of strengthening diaspora links with their home country and the importance of granting emigrants and their descendants civil and political rights. The nature of the relationship between the Moroccan state and Moroccan emigrants has evolved mainly following the intensification of migration flow from Morocco to Europe and following the 3 increasing focus of academic and policy research into migration flows, their nature, and movements and impacts. This intensification has also influenced the way the Moroccan state thinks of migration and elaborates its migration policies. Thus, this relationship has changed from ‘controlling’ to ‘courting’ (de Haas, 2005) or as other researchers note the state’s perception of emigrants changed “from being expendable, minimally endowed subjects, to a valuable resource that generates additional scarce resources” (Brand, 2006, p. 69). The diversity with which the state approaches and elaborates migration policies is a part of the Moroccan strategy to ensure excellent relations with its European neighbors, which translates into cooperation to regulate and control migration flows (Sadiqi, 2004). This paper would like to examine how Moroccan state politics towards its diaspora formed, initiated, and evolved as well as how the discourse shifted from considering emigrants as a source of remittances to full citizens. Thus, the analysis of diaspora politics will tackle state diaspora discourses, policies, practices, and the establishment of liaison institutions. In their broader perspectives, these policies refer to economic, social, cultural, legal, and political systems as well as practices that the home state deliberates towards its community abroad (Brand, 2002). To do so, this paper will be divided into three parts: the first part will deal with the first phase of emigration from the 1960s to the 1990s while the second part will tackle the second phase between the 1990s and the 2000s, and finally the last part will focus on the third phase of emigration since the 2000s. The objective is to examine how the Moroccan state tries to engage emigrants in national life. Thus, this paper would like to examine the evolution of the state’s discourse towards emigration and how this shift in the official discourse has influenced diaspora policies since the 1960s. It also would like to explore how the state had tried to engage these emigrants in national life. 1. The first phase: Moroccan state as a mere sender and ‘controller’ of temporary labor emigrants Following the high demand for labor force to work in factories and mines, Morocco ratified bilateral agreements, specifically with France in 1963, Germany in 1963, Belgium in 1964, and the Netherlands in 1969 (Drhimeur, 2020). As a result, qualified and semi-qualified Moroccan workers moved to Europe via formal and informal networks. Most of these workers came from the Berber regions of Morocco, known for being rebellious. The Moroccan state’s perception and promotion of emigration obeyed an economic logic as it meant reducing local unemployment and attracting remittances. They also obeyed a security logic allowing to ‘eliminate’ any element that would present a threat to the regime’s stability (Drhimeur, 2020). This emigration was thought to be temporary, and Moroccan Workers Abroad were expected to return home. This explains why the state has sought to establish ‘surveillance apparatuses’ in the receiving countries to monitor them being afraid that these workers, and later on students and political refugees, would bring any ideologies or forms of mobilization not tolerated at home. 4 State discourse represents emigration as economic and temporary In the 1965-1967 Three-Year Plan1, emigration was first seen as an important tool to calm down rebellious tendencies, participate in the economic development through remittances but also participate in the general development and modernization of the country since these emigrants, who acquire knowledge and experience abroad, were expected to return home and share their expertise (de Haas, 2005). However, this ‘optimism’ soon faded away, and the educational argument was eliminated in the governmental perception of migration in the 1968–1972 Plan (de Haas, 2007)2. In this new governmental economic plan, the emphasis was made on the economic dimension (Collyer, 2013). References described it as a temporary phenomenon to send a greater number of labor emigrants to Europe and reduce unemployment (Brand, 2002). More emphasis was placed on the economic dimension of emigration following an increase in unemployment and a deficit in the balance of payment (de Haas, 2007). Remittances were not only considered as an economic safety valve that would reduce unemployment and poverty, they were also considered as “a political safety valve” that would reduce political and social discontent (de Haas, 2014). Economic crises, regional discriminations, and political discontents resulted in the rise of insurrections in different regions of Morocco, mainly among the Berber speaking population in the Rif region (de Haas, 2007). Promoting emigration from this region was perceived by the central state to get rid of political tensions (Ibid). The state was mainly a sender of contractual workers expected to return home once their contract expired. In the 1960s, they were sent to work in factories and mines and were referred to as ‘Moroccan Workers Abroad’ (Travailleurs Marocains à l’Etranger, TME) (Collyer, 2013a). Starting in the 1970s, Moroccan emigrants were labeled ‘Moroccan Workers and Business Travellers’ (Travailleurs et Commerçants Marocains (TCM)) (Ibid). Thus the objective was mainly focused on ‘economic gains’, on the possibility of reducing unemployment in the sending country, which Benkirane called “a mercantile and rentier vision of an emigration” (Benkirane, 2010, p. 4), where “the worker at home was a potential commodity and the expatriate a source of income” (Brand, 2002, p. 7). Even if the 1973-77 Plan3 proposed measures to develop emigration-related services in Morocco, establish a network of social attachés abroad, create an Emigration Fund to help emigrants with settling abroad, and reinforcing social actions through the organization of social and cultural activities for these emigrants. However, there
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