Oral Health and Sense of Coherence - a Study of Brazilian Adolescents and Their Mothers
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ORAL HEALTH AND SENSE OF COHERENCE - A STUDY OF BRAZILIAN ADOLESCENTS AND THEIR MOTHERS Maria do Carmo Matias Freire A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of London Department of Epidemiology and Public Health The Royal Free and University College Medical School University College London January 1999 To my parents, my sisters, and my husband, for their love and support always To my nephew Joao, for changing our lives O PULSO O pulso ainda pulsa O pulso ainda pulsa Peste bubonica cancer pneumonia Raiva rubeola tuberculose anemia Rancor cisticircose caxumba difteria Encefalite faringite gripe leucemia O pulso ainda pulsa O pulso ainda pulsa Hepatite escarlatina estupidez paralisia Toxoplasmose sarampo esquizofrenia Ulcera trombose coqueluche hipocondria Sifilis ciume asma cleptomania O corpo ainda e pouco O corpo ainda e pouco Reumatismo raquitismo cistite disritmia Hernia pediculose tetano hipocrisia Brucelose febre tifoide arteriosclerose miopia Catapora culpa carie caimbra lepra afasia O pulso ainda pulsa O corpo ainda e pouco Arnaldo Antunes, Marcelo Fromer e Tony Bellotto ABSTRACT Several models have been proposed to explain the causes of oral diseases. However, a full explanation has not yet emerged. The salutogenic model of health, operationalized as a Sense of Coherence (SOC), seeks to explain factors that promote health. It suggests that the stronger the SOC of individuals and groups, the better they will cope with life stressors, and hence maintain their health. Nevertheless, there is no evidence of its application to oral health. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between SOC and oral health on a sample of 664 15 year-olds and their mothers. It was hypothesized that adolescents with better oral health have higher levels of SOC and have mothers with higher levels of SOC. In addition, oral health and SOC are influenced by socioeconomic status. The study was conducted in Goiania-GO, Brazil, and data were collected through questionnaires and clinical dental examinations. Multiple logistic and polytomous ordered regression were used in the data analysis. Adolescents’ SOC was associated with their caries experience in anterior teeth, but the relationship did not remain significant after controlling for other factors. Adolescents with higher SOC were more likely to visit the dentist mainly for checkups, and to have a better self-assessment of oral health, compared with those with lower SOC. Other measures of oral health status and behaviours were not significantly associated with SOC. Mothers’ SOC was strongly associated with children’s oral health. Adolescents whose mothers had higher levels of SOC had better dental caries and periodontal status and a better self-assessment of oral health, than those whose mothers had lower SOC. Mother-child similarities in dental caries status were also found. Socioeconomic status influenced both SOC and oral health. It was concluded that SOC is an important determinant of adolescents’ oral health, particularly via mothers’ SOC. V CONTENTS Abstract iv Contents v List of Tables x List of Figures xiv Acknowledgements xv CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW 1.1- Introduction 1 1.2- Literature review 3 1.2.1- Introduction 3 1.2.2- Conceptual models of oral health and general health 4 1.2.2.1- Conceptual models of oral health 4 1.2.2.2- Psychosocial models of general health 8 1.2.2.3- Mechanisms linking psychosocial factors and disease 12 1.2.3- Psychosocial factors, dental caries and periodontal diseases 14 1.2.3.1- Socioeconomic status 15 1.2.3.2- Psychological factors 15 1.2.3.3- Cognitive factors 19 1.2.4- Self-rated health and self-rated oral health 20 1.2.5- The salutogenic model of health 22 1.2.5.1- The origins of the concept 23 1.2.5.2- Pathogenesis versus salutogenesis 24 1.2.5.3- The Sense of Coherence concept 25 1.2.5.4- The Sense of Coherence scale 28 1.2.5.5- Empirical evidence of the link between Sense of Coherence and health 29 1.2.5.6- Sense of Coherence and other concepts 30 1.2.5.7- Implications of the salutogenic model for health care 1.2.5.8- Implications of the salutogenic model for health promotion 1.2.6- Factors affecting oral health in adolescence 1.2.6.1- Sex, socioeconomic status and other psychosocial factors 1.2.6.2- Microbiological and salivary factors 1.2.6.3- Oral health-related behaviours 1.2.6.4- Family patterns of oral health status and oral health-related behaviours 1.2.6.5- General health and habits 1.2.7- Summary and conclusions 1.3- Aim, hypothesis, and objectives of study 1.3.1- Aim 1.3.2- Objectives 1.3.3- Hypotheses CHAPTER 2 - METHODOLOGY 2.1- Location of the study 2.2- Development of research instruments 2.2.1- Questionnaire for adolescents 2.2.2- Questionnaire for mothers 2.3- Pilot studies 2.3.1- Pre-pilot studies 2.3.2- Pilot studies 2.3.2.1- The first pilot study 23.2.2- Modifications in the study design after the first pilot study 2.3.2.3- The final pilot study 2.4- Main study 2.4.1- Main study population 2.4.2- Sample size calculation and sampling method 2.4.2.1- Sample size calculation 2.4.2.2- Sampling method 2.4.3- Consent 2.4.4- Response rate 2.4.5- Data collection 2.4.5.1- Clinical dental examination 2.4.5.2- Questionnaires 2.4.6- Reliability of the questionnaires and clinical examinations 2.4.6.1- Consistency of the Sense of Coherence scale 2.4.6.2- Reliability of the questionnaires 2.4.6.3- Reliability of the clinical data 2.4.7- Data processing and construction of the variables 2.4.7.1- Outcome variables 2.4.7.2- Explanatory variables 2.4.7.3- Confounding variables 2.4.8- Data analysis 2.4.8.1- Steps in the regression modelling 2.4.8.2- Testing specification of model when fitting a continuous variable 2.4.8.3- Simple regression analysis 2.4.8.4- Multiple regression analysis 2.4.8.5- Checking for interactions between variables 2.4.8.6- Testing for between schools variation CHAPTER 3 - RESULTS 3.1- Introduction 3.2- Descriptive data 3.3- The relationship between social class and the variables studied 3.4- The relationship between Sense of Coherence and other explanatory variables 3.5- The relationship between Sense of Coherence and oral health 3.5.1- Sense of Coherence and oral health status 3.5.1.1- Sense of Coherence and dental caries status 3.5.1.2- Sense of Coherence and oral cleanliness 3.5.1.3- Sense of Coherence and periodontal status V lll 3.5.2- Sense of Coherence and oral health-related behaviours 106 3.5.3- Sense of Coherence and self-assessment of oral health 108 3.5.3.1- Sense of Coherence and self-rated dental health 109 3.5.3.2- Sense of Coherence and satisfaction with dental appearance 111 CHAPTER 4 - DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 4.1- Introduction 151 4.2- Discussion 151 4.2.1- Discussion of main results 151 4.2.2- Methodological considerations 159 4.3- Conclusions 161 4.4- Recommendations 162 4.4.1- Recommendations for future research 162 4.4.2- Recommendations for public health policy 163 REFERENCES 164 APPENDIX A - First pilot study 183 A .l- Data analysis and results 184 A.2- Clinical form and questionnaires in English 192 A.3- Questionnaires in Portuguese 210 APPENDIX B - Main study 229 B.l- List of schools selected and number of students 230 B.2- Official and media communications used before data collection 231 B.2.1- Letter from the dental school Dean to the education authorities 232 B.2.2- Article published in the private schools trade union newsletter 233 B.2.3- Letter from the dental school Dean to the private schools Deans 234 B.2.4- Letters from the local education authorities to the public school Deans 235 ix B.2.5- Letter from the researcher to the parents asking consent 237 B.3- Research instruments 239 B.3.1- Clinical form and criteria 240 B.3.2- Questionnaires in English 244 B.3.3- Questionnaires in Portuguese 267 X LIST OF TABLES Page 1.1- Previous studies on the association between Sense of Coherence, physical health status and health-related behaviours 31 1.2- Previous studies on the association between Sense of Coherence and self-rated health status 32 2.1- Outcome variables used in the statistical analysis 88 2.2- Potential confounding variables selected for statistical analysis 89 2.3- Variables included in the model to study the association between Sense of Coherence and dental caries status 90 2.4- Variables included in the model to study the association between Sense of Coherence, periodontal status and oral cleanliness 91 2.5- Variables included in the model to study the association between Sense of Coherence and oral health-related behaviours 92 2.6- Variables included in the model to study the association between Sense of Coherence and self-assessment of oral health 92 3.1- Frequency distribution of the adolescents according to socio-demographic variables 113 3.2- Frequency distribution of the adolescents according to oral health status 115 3.3- Distribution of DMFS index and components 116 3.4- Frequency distribution of the adolescents according to oral health-related behaviours 117 3.5- Frequency distribution of the adolescents according to self-assessment of oral health 118 3.6- Frequency distribution of the adolescents according to habits, participation in social activities and school performance 118 3.7- Frequency distribution of the adolescents according to mother-related factors 119 3.8- Bivariate analysis of the relationship between social class and adolescents’ oral health status using the Chi squared test 120 3.9- Bivariate analysis of the relationship between social class and adolescents’ oral health-related