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Chapter 1: Towards a History of Malaysian Ulama No. 122 Towards a History of Malaysian Ulama Mohamed Nawab Mohamed Osman S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies Singapore 22 February 2007 With Compliments This Working Paper series presents papers in a preliminary form and serves to stimulate comment and discussion. The views expressed are entirely the author’s own and not that of the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies The S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies (RSIS) was established in January 2007 as an autonomous School within the Nanyang Technological University. RSIS’s mission is to be a leading research and graduate teaching institution in strategic and international affairs in the Asia Pacific. To accomplish this mission, it will: • Provide a rigorous professional graduate education in international affairs with a strong practical and area emphasis • Conduct policy-relevant research in national security, defence and strategic studies, diplomacy and international relations • Collaborate with like-minded schools of international affairs to form a global network of excellence Graduate Training in International Affairs RSIS offers an exacting graduate education in international affairs, taught by an international faculty of leading thinkers and practitioners. The Master of Science (MSc) degree programmes in Strategic Studies, International Relations, and International Political Economy are distinguished by their focus on the Asia Pacific, the professional practice of international affairs, and the cultivation of academic depth. Over 120 students, the majority from abroad, are enrolled in these programmes. A small, select Ph.D. programme caters to advanced students whose interests match those of specific faculty members. RSIS also runs a one-semester course on ‘The International Relations of the Asia Pacific’ for undergraduates in NTU. Research RSIS research is conducted by five constituent Institutes and Centres: the Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies (IDSS, founded 1996), the International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research (ICPVTR, 2002), the Centre of Excellence for National Security (CENS, 2006), the Centre for the Advanced Study of Regionalism and Multilateralism (CASRM, 2007); and the Consortium of Non- Traditional Security Studies in ASIA (NTS-Asia, 2007). The focus of research is on issues relating to the security and stability of the Asia-Pacific region and their implications for Singapore and other countries in the region. The S. Rajaratnam Professorship in Strategic Studies brings distinguished scholars and practitioners to participate in the work of the Institute. Previous holders of the Chair include Professors Stephen Walt, Jack Snyder, Wang Jisi, Alastair Iain Johnston, John Mearsheimer, Raja Mohan, and Rosemary Foot. International Collaboration Collaboration with other professional Schools of international affairs to form a global network of excellence is a RSIS priority. RSIS will initiate links with other like- minded schools so as to enrich its research and teaching activities as well as adopt the best practices of successful schools. i ABSTRACT The ulama have always played an important role in the realm of the political and socio-economic development in the Muslim world. However, scholars tend to underestimate their importance in this area. As a result, it was only after the 1970s that sufficient appreciation has been shown for their role in the Muslim society in various scholastic works. It is also in recent years that interest has been shown in the study of ulama in South and Southeast Asia. In the case of the Malaysian ulama, works on them have been limited to biographical accounts of the ulama in the country. While some works on ulama did attempt to assess their religio-political role, these works tended to be limited to the discourse about the Kaum Tua and Kaum Muda ulama. However, little has been written about the religio-political role of ulama in the Malaysian society during the 1940s to the 1980s. In this regard, this paper attempts to reduce this gap. This key argument of the paper is that historically, the ulama have maintained a symbiotic relationship with various political authorities. From the early Islamic history to the Japanese Occupation, ulama have usually worked with any power willing to secure their authority and influence. This paper will also show that even when the ulama oppose the government (exemplified by the opposition of PAS’ ulama to the UMNO led Malaysian government), this opposition tends to stem from differences in politics rather than religious ideologies. *************** Mohamed Nawab Mohamed Osman is Research Assistant to the Dean of S Rajaratnam School of International Studies (RSIS). He is also an associate of the Contemporary Islam Program in RSIS. His research interests includes history and politics of Southeast Asia and South Asia with focusing on, Malaysia and Pakistan, the history of Islam in Southeast Asia, the Islamic movements in South-East and South Asia with regards to the Islamic Party of Malaysia (PAS), the Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan , the Hizbut Tahrir and the international politics of Southeast Asia and South Asia. He has conducted field research in Pakistan, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, United Kingdom and Germany. He is also actively involved in various organizations and regional networks. He is currently the Secretary General of the Young Association of Muslim Professional and is part of the Southeast Asia Islam and Democracy Workshop. Mohamed Nawab Mohamed Osman graduated with a Bachelor of Arts with a 2nd Class Upper Honours from the National University of Singapore (NUS) and has also obtained a Master of Arts (History) from the same university. ii Towards a History of Malaysian Ulama As scholars of Islamic law and the Hadith—exegetes of the Qur’an and religious guides—ulama have shaped dominant religious discourses in Muslim societies throughout most of Islamic history. Despite their important role in Muslim societies, debates continue to spark among Muslims over the basic definition of ulama. The term ‘ulama’ is mentioned only twice in the Qur’an. In addition, the Qur’anic term referring to ulama does not limit its usage only to those with religious education but includes anyone who is knowledgeable. Modern scholars such as Muhammad Kamal Hassan argue that an alim is someone who has iman, meaning who possesses useful knowledge, does good deeds, and has a good character.1 However, for most of Muslim history, an alim refers to only those who are knowledgeable in the religious sciences, and more specifically, to those who are familiar with Islamic jurisprudence. Another important determinant of an alim is the recognition that a person receives within the fraternity of ulama as well as that from the Muslim community.2 Ulama are distinguished by virtue of their learning and scholarship, but there is no formal procedure for their ordination or investiture. Ulama are not thought to embody the Divine Will nor treated as the exclusive representatives of God’s law. The authority that a particular jurist might enjoy flows from his formal and informal education as well as his social and scholastic popularity. In classical Islamic theory, jurists are supposed to play an advisory and consultative role, and to assume judicial positions in the administration of justice.3 The ulama also play an important role in the realm of political and socio- economic development in the Muslim world. However, scholars tend to underestimate their importance in this area. As a result, it was only after the 1970s that sufficient appreciation has been shown for their role in the Muslim society in various scholastic works. It is also in recent years that interest has been shown in the study of ulama in 1 Abdullah Yusuf Ali, The Holy Qur’an: Text, Translation and Commentary (Brentwood, Md: Amana Corp, 1989). See Surah Al-Shuraa, 26:197 and Fatir 35:28; Imam Al Zarnuji, Ta'lim al-Muta'allim Tariq al-Ta'allum, (Beirut: Dar-Ihyā al-Turāth al Arabī, 1990) p. 10; Muhammad Kamal Hassan, “Penghayatan Islam Dalam Mempelajari dan Mengembangkan Ilmu,” Jurnal Pendidikan Islam, No 3, (Sept 1985): 14. 2 Al Zarnuji, Ta’alim, p. 12. 3 Muhammad Kamali Abdul Majid, “Ulama Dan Perubahan Social Dalam Islam,” Jurnal Usuluddin, 10, (July 1999): 87. 1 South and Southeast Asia.4 In the case of the Malaysian ulama, such literature has been limited to biographical accounts of the ulama in the country.5 While some works on ulama did attempt to assess their religio-political role, these tend to be limited to the discourse about the Kaum Tua and Kaum Muda ulama.6 Little has been written about the religio-political role of ulama in the Malaysian society during the 1940s to the 1980s. In this regard, this paper attempts to reduce this gap. The key argument of the paper is that historically ulama have maintained a symbiotic relationship with various political authorities. From the early Islamic history to the Japanese Occupation, ulama have usually worked with any power willing to secure their authority and influence. This paper also attempts to show that even when the ulama oppose the government, this opposition usually stems from differences in politics rather then in religious ideologies. Ulama and Their Role in the Muslim World The ulama draw their authority from several sources. Many ulama reserve the right to interpret and comment on the Qur’an and Hadith in a process called ijtihad. The Qur’an and Hadith provide guidelines on many issues concerning Islam. As such, there is a need for a process of juristic reasoning employed to determine the permissibility of an action, ijtihad, when the Qur’an, Hadith and earlier scholars have not ruled on the matter.7 The product of this ijithad, Fiqh, is the set of laws that govern the everyday life of Muslims. The Shariah is not sterile and dormant but is constantly evolving to suit the needs and challenges of modern life, as such, the ijtihad of ulama can differ and change over time.
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