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The Dark Side of Dharma: Why Have Adverse Effects of Meditation Been Ignored in Contemporary Western Secular Contexts?

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The Dark Side of Dharma: Why Have Adverse Effects of Meditation Been Ignored in Contemporary Western Secular Contexts? The dark side of Dharma: Why have adverse effects of meditation been ignored in contemporary Western secular contexts? Anna Lutkajtis A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (Research) Department of Studies in Religion The University of Sydney 2019 1 Statement of Originality This is to certify that to the best of my knowledge, the content of this thesis is my own work. This thesis has not been submitted for any degree or other purposes. I certify that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work and that all the assistance received in preparing this thesis and sources have been acknowledged. Anna Lutkajtis 2 Acknowledgements To the many people who have made this thesis possible, I am truly grateful. To Professor Carole Cusack for allowing a serendipitous phone enquiry to result in this research project – thank you! This has proved to be the most intellectually satisfying project I have undertaken. To Ricardo Farago, for his unconditional love, belief and support. And to Daniel M. Ingram, for helping me through my own Dark Night of the Soul. Finally, thank you to all my fellow academics, meditators, and seekers. Your work, your lived experiences and your enlightening conversations provide an unending source of inspiration. 3 Contents Chapter 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 8 Thesis Chapter Outline .................................................................................................................. 8 Background ................................................................................................................................... 8 Meditation in the West: Mainstream ......................................................................................... 8 Meditation in the West: Clinical ............................................................................................... 16 The Meditation Backlash .......................................................................................................... 20 Adverse Effects: Meditation Research ...................................................................................... 21 Central Research Question .......................................................................................................... 27 Explanation of Key Terms ........................................................................................................... 28 ‘Secular Meditation’ ................................................................................................................ 28 ‘Transcendental Meditation’ .................................................................................................... 32 ‘Mindfulness’ ........................................................................................................................... 32 ‘Vipassana’ .............................................................................................................................. 33 ‘Meditation Adverse Effects’ .................................................................................................... 34 Theory and Methodology............................................................................................................ 35 Chapter 2. From Enlightenment to Symptom Relief and Personal Transformation ........................ 38 The Role of Meditation in Religion .............................................................................................. 38 Hindu Approaches to Meditation ............................................................................................. 38 Buddhist Approaches to Meditation ........................................................................................ 41 Meditation as a Western Therapeutic Intervention .................................................................... 44 Meditation as a Panacea: “The Answer to All Your Problems?” ................................................ 44 Meditation and the Relaxation Response ................................................................................. 49 Issues of Self and Non-self ....................................................................................................... 52 Research Methods in Meditation Studies ................................................................................. 57 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 61 Chapter 3. Meditation Divorced From Religion .............................................................................. 63 Meditation as a Detachable Technique ....................................................................................... 64 De-contextualisation: Privileging Meditation and Marginalising Religious Context ................... 65 Simplification: Psychological, Pathological and Neural Reductionism ....................................... 69 Re-contextualisation: “The Buddha was a Scientist” and the Creation of a Western Meditation Lineage .................................................................................................................................... 72 Meditation Adverse Effects in Religious Traditions ..................................................................... 75 4 Preparation ............................................................................................................................. 80 Supportive Context .................................................................................................................. 83 Teacher and Technique ............................................................................................................ 86 Individual Differences and Psychopathology ............................................................................ 92 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................... 95 Chapter 4. Meditation, Commodification and the Media ............................................................... 96 All Good News Stories ................................................................................................................. 96 Celebrity Gurus and Celebrities Meditating ................................................................................ 103 Meditation as a Commodity....................................................................................................... 106 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 111 Chapter 5. Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 113 Bibliography.................................................................................................................................. 119 5 Abstract In contemporary Western society, meditation techniques that were previously taught within the context of Eastern religious traditions are now increasingly being practiced in secular settings. So-called ‘secular forms’ of meditation first came to mainstream public awareness in the early 1960s, when Hindu-inspired Transcendental Meditation (TM) gained popularity in the United States. In the 1970s, vipassana, a standardized residential 10-day meditation retreat undertaken in a secular format, also became popular among Westerners. More recently, ‘mindfulness’ meditation, a form of secular meditation derived from Theravada Buddhism, has found widespread use as both a therapeutic intervention and a mainstream self-help tool. ‘Meditation as self-help’ has become a booming commercial industry, and alongside these practices there now exists a variety of secular meditation courses, apps, podcasts and meditation-related wearable technologies. While the boundary between the secular and the religious is blurred, popular mainstream meditation techniques such as TM, vipassana and mindfulness are generally promoted as being derived from Eastern religions, but inherently non-religious, and suitable for a general audience. The popularity of secular meditation has been due in large part to its acceptance within the scientific community. Over the past forty years, thousands of research studies have been conducted suggesting that there are many psychological and physiological benefits associated with meditation. As a result, various meditation techniques have been incorporated into a number of therapeutic interventions and used as tools for the treatment of a variety of clinical issues. Interest in meditation has also grown as a result of mainstream media attention, particularly coverage of TM and mindfulness. The media has played a crucial role in driving public acceptance of meditation by positioning the practice as an inherently secular, side-effect free, therapeutic technique that is ‘good for everyone.’ Although the scientific studies and popular media coverage of secular meditation have been overwhelmingly positive, meditation has not gone without some criticism. In particular, a small but growing literature indicates there could be adverse effects associated with meditation practice, in both clinical and non-clinical settings. Close examination of the scientific literature reveals that even in early meditation research, adverse effects, including profound but de-stabilising insights,
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