ISSN 0002-9920 (print) ISSN 1088-9477 (online)
of the American Mathematical Society August 2017 Volume 64, Number 7
The Mathematics of Gravitational Waves: A Two-Part Feature page 684 The Travel Ban: Affected Mathematicians Tell Their Stories page 678 The Global Math Project: Uplifting Mathematics for All page 712 2015–2016 Doctoral Degrees Conferred page 727
Gravitational waves are produced by black holes spiraling inward (see page 674). American Mathematical Society
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684684 718 26 678 Gravitational Waves The Graduate Student The Travel Ban: Affected Introduction Section Mathematicians Tell Their by Christina Sormani Karen E. Smith Interview Stories How the Green Light was Given for by Laure Flapan Gravitational Wave Research by Alexander Diaz-Lopez, Allyn by C. Denson Hill and Paweł Nurowski WHAT IS...a CR Submanifold? Jackson, and Stephen Kennedy by Phillip S. Harrington and Andrew Gravitational Waves and Their Raich Mathematics by Lydia Bieri, David Garfinkle, and Nicolás Yunes
This season of the Perseid meteor shower August 12 and the third sighting in June make our cover feature on the discovery of gravitational waves stirring and profound. Later in the issue, James Tanton tells you how to prepare for Global Math Week, coming in October. Enjoy the summer while you can. —Frank Morgan, Editor-in-Chief
FROM THE AMS SECRETARY ALSO IN THIS ISSUE
711 Voting Information for 2017 AMS Election 712 T e Global Math Project: Uplifting Mathematics for All James Tanton and Brianna Donaldson COMMENTARY 727 2015–2016 Doctoral Degrees Conferred 761 Interview with Michèle Audin 676 Letters to the Editor Allyn Jackson 682 Opinion: International Mobility 772 T e “ Wide Infl uence” of Leonard Eugene Dickson and US Mathematics Della Dumbaugh and Amy Shell-Gellasch Moon Duchin 779 Ellenberg in Gifted 709 Opinion: Post-Quantum Cryptography: Allyn Jackson A New Opportunity and Challenge Jintai Ding and Daniel Smith-Tone
758 Book Review: One Hundred Twenty-One Days John McCleary Notices A MERICAN M ATHEMATICAL S OCIETY of the American Mathematical Society
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AdvancedTEXTBOOKS 781 Classified Advertising FROM THE AMS 783 Mathematics Calendar Modern Algebra Third Edition, Part 2 TEXTBOOK 786 New Publications Offered by the AMS Joseph J. Rotman, University of Illinois at Urbana- 793 Meetings and Conferences of the AMS Champaign, IL This second part of the new edition of Advanced 808 Te Back Page Modern Algebra (the first part published as Graduate Studies in Mathematics, Volume 165) presents many topics mentioned in the first part in greater depth and in more detail, including group theory, representation theory, homological algebra, categories, and commu- tative algebra. Graduate Studies in Mathematics, Volume 180; 2017; approximately 549 pages; Hardcover; ISBN: 978-1-4704-2311-7; List US$94; AMS members US$75.20; Order code GSM/180
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Online Survey of Publishing Issues The Daughters of John Adams In 2016 I circulated an online survey of mathematicians, On the Back Page (Volume 64, Number 5, May 2017 issue), to elicit opinions on various issues related to journal the editor inserts “and daughters!” into John Adams’s publishing. The survey, which was terminated after 1,000 statement, “I must study politics and war that my sons responses, was propagated via mailing lists (for example, may have liberty to study mathematics and philosophy.” by the European Mathematical Society but not by the AMS) The implication seems to be that Adams must have in- and via direct e-mails to pseudo-randomly chosen depart- tended to include his daughters, even if he did not men- ments and societies in order to reach a wide cross-section tion them explicitly, but this may be an overly generous of the international mathematical community. The raw assumption. Adams penned that line four years after data is available at https://figshare.com/projects Abigail Adams’s famous exhortation to “remember the /Survey_of_mathematical_publishing/16944, and ladies,” and so he was not unaware of the issue of women’s an analysis of the results by Cameron Neylon, David M. education, but he did not make the issue a political prior- Roberts, and me appears in the March 2017 issue of the ity. Abigail Adams Smith, the only one of his daughters Newsletter of the EMS. to survive to adulthood, received no formal education. The results show widespread appetite for change. On a five-point scale, from one being “the status-quo is com- Timothy Chow pletely acceptable” and five being “almost all [journals] Princeton, NJ need serious work,” 78 percent of respondents selected [email protected] three, four, or five. Free-form comments concentrated heavily on peer review quality, administrative efficiency, (Received May 28, 2017) price, and access, and almost 200 journals from fifty- seven publishers were mentioned by name as needing serious improvement. When asked what should happen if efforts by editors to reform a journal are blocked by the publisher, over half of respondents favored resignation, with 29 percent suggesting the editors join a better journal and 32 percent supporting creation of a new journal. Only EDITOR'S NOTE. Or maybe our implication is that 4.5 percent favored settling for the status quo. Respon- Adams should have included his daughters! dents showed substantial support for innovations such as banning monetary payments to editors (43 percent) and editorial term limits (30 percent), credit for referees, open access, open refereeing, and election of editors. The results also show that reputation of journals is strongly believed to follow from peer review quality and editorial board research quality, while the identity of the publisher is almost negligibly important. Interestingly, when asked what they thought the opin- ion of the community was on all these issues, respondents consistently rated themselves as much more progressive than the community at large. I hope that making this public will help dispel some of the myths around jour- nal reform and encourage editors, readers, and authors to investigate changes to the status quo. I am currently involved in several projects to improve the current jour- nal system, notably MathOA (mathoa.org), and welcome feedback from fellow AMS members.
Mark C. Wilson University of Auckland Department of Computer Science mcw.blogs.auckland.ac.nz *We invite readers to submit letters to the editor to notices- [email protected] and post commentary on the Notices webpage (Received March 29, 2017) www.ams.org/notices.
676 NOTICES OF THE AMS VOLUME 64, NUMBER 7 A MERICAN M ATHEMATICAL S OCIETY
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WHAT ISº Symplectic Geometry page 1252 and all publication support, will be provided by A Conversation with Helen Grundman, AMS Director of Education and Diversity page 1258 AMS staff . The Chief Editor will operate from her or his home base. Compensation will be negoti- ated for this half-time position and local part-time secretarial support will be provided. In order to ISSN 0002-9920 (print) ISSN 1088-9477 (online) begin working on the January 2019 issue, some
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To receive full consideration, nominations and applications should be sent on or before September 15, 2017. COMMUNICATION
The Travel Ban: Affected Mathematicians Tell Their Stories
Alexander Diaz-Lopez, Allyn Jackson, and Stephen Kennedy
On Friday, January 27, 2017, Donald Trump signed Execu- would describe his work. His tive Order 13769 banning entry into the United States by visa application to attend that citizens of seven Middle Eastern nations. Innocent people ceremony was in process when ‘‘could were detained and expelled; families were divided; chaos, the executive order was issued. confusion, and discord were widespread. On Monday, The uncertainty about his abil- negatively January 30, the AMS Trustees issued a statement oppos- ity to enter the US forced him to affect the ing the ban (see sidebar on page 680). Notices sought out deliver the lecture and receive individuals directly affected by the ban, and we report his prize via a livestream from US status in their stories here. The publication schedule of Notices Lausanne on March 24. undoubtedly means that these colleagues’ situations will Major conferences in Raza- science’’ have changed by the time their stories appear in print. vi’s field are regularly held in Hamed Razavi is a postdoc- —H. Razaviii the United States; he assumes toral researcher at the bioro- that these are now closed to botics laboratory of the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lau- him. He had considered aca- sanne (EPFL), Switzerland. Ra- demic employment in the United States at the conclusion zavi is an Iranian citizen with a of his current postdoctoral position but assumes this bachelor’s degree in mathemat- option is also closed to him. ics and mechanical engineering Razavi’s main concern is not his own future. He is and a master’s in the latter dis- more worried about younger Iranian and Middle Eastern cipline from Shiraz University. would-be mathematicians and scientists who will not have the opportunity for US visits and educations. He is worried Hamed Razavi, a recent He came to the United States Michigan PhD and an in 2010 and earned a PhD from about the people in the United States who might, with no Iranian citizen, was the University of Michigan in warning, be cut off from families and friends again. He prevented by the ban applied mathematics in 2016. points too to the damage being from returning to Ann Razavi works in control the- done to the reputation and Arbor to collect the ory. In his thesis, he developed practice of US science, saying, Sumner Myers Prize. a mathematical theory to de- “It is not only about the spe- sign algorithms for stable peri- cific people that the travel ban odic walking of legged robots. His work at EPFL is focused has affected, it is also about on implementing that theory. His PhD thesis was awarded the atmosphere that it has gen- Michigan’s Sumner Myers Prize for the best mathemat- erated which could negatively ics dissertation of 2016. That prize was to be awarded affect the US status in science.” this spring at a ceremony in Ann Arbor at which Razavi Beheshteh Tolouei Rakh- The authors are Notices editors. Their e-mail addresses are Beheshteh Tolouei shan, originally from Iran, [email protected], [email protected], and skennedy@ Rakhshan is a graduate has been a PhD student in carleton.edu. student at Purdue. Her applied mathematics at Pur- For permission to reprint this article, please contact: Iranian fiancé is unable due University since the fall of [email protected] . to join her in the United 2016. Because she has multiple DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1090/noti1548 States. sclerosis, she must try to avoid
678 NOTICES OF THE AMS VOLUME 64, NUMBER 7 COMMUNICATION strong mental pressure and stress, which can seriously is another executive order that will significantly affect my affect her physical well-being. life,” he said. Since November 2013 she has been en- Rasekh plans to graduate next year gaged to an Iranian man. The two studied and hopes for a postdoc with a strong at the same university in Iran and together homotopy theory group. He feels rea- began the application process for further ‘‘I was hoping I sonably secure about being able to stay study in the United States. She was accepted in the United States to finish his degree. at Purdue, and he was accepted in applied could play a part But he has decided that he must focus mathematics at Georgia State University. his job search outside the United States Although they would be geographically sep- in changing these given the uncertainty of his status here. arated, they resolved to meet every chance conceptions.’’ He points out the logistical difficulty of they could. This resolution helped Rakhshan looking for a job outside the country both emotionally and physically to have the —N. Rasekhgg while simultaneously being unable to strength she needed for her studies. leave the country because of possible Rakhshan received her F1 Visa at the difficulty in returning. For that same United States embassy in Armenia. However, reason he has stopped considering her fiancé’s five visa applications were denied under Sec- conference travel outside the United States. tion 214(b), meaning that he did not demonstrate suffi- Rasekh stresses that he doesn’t feel that he has been ciently strong and long-term ties outside the United States. particularly harmed by the ban. He is more worried about The denials all occurred before the executive order. Now, others: refugees in dire danger being denied safety, other with the executive order in place, the young couple fear foreigners being denied the educational opportunities he they will never be able to carry out their plans. Unable to has enjoyed. He worries too about the misconceptions in see her fiancé or her family, Rakhshan is considering leav- the United States that lead to such policies. “There seem ing the United States to continue her education elsewhere. to be a lot of misunderstandings in this society when it This would not be an easy decision, since she worked hard comes to Iranian or in general Middle Eastern people,” he in Iran to save enough money to come to the United States said. “I was hoping I could play a part in changing these and realize her educational goals. Her illness, together conceptions.” with the emotional stress she has endured, have left her Camelia Karimianpour is without the concentration needed for her mathematical postdoctoral assistant pro- work. fessor at the University of Nima Rasekh is a fourth- Michigan working in represen- year graduate student at tation theory of p-adic groups. the University of Illinois at She was born and grew up in Urbana–Champaign studying Tehran and attended the Uni- homotopy theory, specifically versity of Tehran for her un- higher category theory. Rasekh dergraduate education. Her is an Iranian citizen who spent master’s and PhD are from the his childhood in Germany and University of Ottawa. She inter- attended high school and uni- rupted her graduate education versity in Shiraz, Iran. Rasekh Camelia Karimianpour to teach high school mathe- spent one year at the Univer- is a postdoc at matics in Tehran for two years. sity of Western Ontario, earn- Michigan whose sister She returned to Ottawa and Nima Rasekh is a ing a master’s degree, before was stranded in Tehran earned her PhD under Monica graduate student at moving to the United States after attending their Nevins and Hadi Salmasian Illinois. His wife was and UIUC in fall 2013. father’s funeral. with a thesis titled “The Stone- trapped outside the On the day that the travel von Neumann construction in country by the travel ban was issued, Rasekh’s wife, branching rules and minimal degree problems.” ban. an Iranian citizen with a valid Karimianpour is concerned about her ability to travel US Visa, was in Iran visiting outside the United States. She believes it would be “very family. The ban would prevent her from returning. He de- risky” to leave the United States, though she had been scribes his life and state of mind as “completely upended” anticipating traveling for conferences and collaborations as he contemplated finishing his studies apart from her for to both Canada and Europe. he knew not how long. The stress and uncertainty made it Much of Karimianpour’s family remains in Tehran. She difficult to work. When Judge Robarts of the district court now feels unable to visit them, and, of course, they cannot stayed the executive order, Rasekh immediately bought a visit her. She has a sister and brother-in-law who live in plane ticket for his wife to return, and, fortunately, she Philadelphia. In November of last year Karimianpour and made it home. “The other lasting effect is that it just makes her sister traveled to Iran for their father’s funeral. Karim- doing math more difficult, as I am now forced to spend a ianpour returned to the United States before the ban was portion of every day to read news and see whether there put in place, but her sister remained behind in Iran for an
AUGUST 2017 NOTICES OF THE AMS 679 COMMUNICATION
extended visit. As of this to face a tenuous future in the United States. And second, writing, Karimianpour’s foreign mathematicians who are unaffected by the ban sister remains stranded in might just decide, either out of solidarity or a desire to ‘‘long-term Tehran, unable to return avoid mistreatment at the border, to avoid scientific trav- home to Philadelphia, be- els to the United States. effect [on] cause embassies will not the way schedule appointments Photo Credits to renew visas for citizens Photo of Hamed Razavi is courtesy of Hamed Razavi. mathematicians, of the seven countries ex- Photo of Beheshteh Tolouei Rakhshan is courtesy of Illia Photo cluded by the ban. and Film Studio. and science As was the case with Photo of Nima Rasekh is courtesy of Nima Rasekh. Photo of Camelia Karimianpour is courtesy of Camelia Karimi- every affected mathe- anpour. in general, matician with whom we talked, Karimianpour was progress’’ more concerned about the 3 effect on others and on Statement by AMS Board of Trustees —C. Karimianpourrr mathematics itself than The members of the Board of Trustees of the American she was about her own Mathematical Society wish to express their opposition situation. “I think we all to the Executive Order signed by President Trump that know the progress of math benefits enormously from temporarily suspends immigration benefits to citizens bright mathematicians regardless of their race, religion, of seven nations. or nationality. There is no doubt that limiting the access For many years, mathematical sciences in the USA of certain bright minds to some of the elite institutions have profited enormously from unfettered contact of mathematics will have a long-term effect [on] the way mathematicians, and science in general, progress.” She with colleagues from all over the world. The United cited two specific potential harms. First, talented young States has been a destination of choice for interna- foreign mathematicians, who already have to separate tional students who wish to study mathematics; the from their families and friends and endure an arduous US annually hosts hundreds of conferences attracting and extreme visa process, might be less willing to do that global participation. Our nation’s position of leadership in mathematics depends critically upon open scientific borders. By threatening these borders, the Executive 1 AMS Council Statement on Immigration Order will do irreparable damage to the mathematical The Council reaffirms its policy on immigration2, enterprise of the United States. adopted in March of 1997. We urge our colleagues to support efforts to main- Mathematical sciences profit enormously from un- tain the international collegiality, openness, and ex- fettered contact between colleagues from all over the change that strengthens the vitality of the mathematics world. The United States is a destination of choice for community, to the benefit of everyone. international students who wish to study mathematics; We have all signed the online petition of academ- the US annually hosts many conferences attracting ics4 opposing the ban. We encourage our colleagues global participation. Our nation's position of leadership to consider joining us in signing it and in asking the in mathematics depends critically upon open scientific Administration to rescind the Executive Order. borders. We urge our colleagues to support efforts to Robert Bryant, president of the AMS maintain the international collegiality, openness, and Kenneth Ribet, president-elect of the AMS exchange that strengthens the vitality of the mathe- Ruth Charney matics community, to the benefit of our nation and Ralph Cohen the world. Jane Hawkins Note: This Statement was adopted by the AMS Council Bryna Kra in April 2017. Robert Lazarsfeld Zbigniew Nitecki 1April 2017 Council Statement: www.ams.org/about-us/gover- Joseph Silverman nance/policy-statements/statements-immigration-0417 Karen Vogtmann 2March 1997 AMS Policy Statement: www.ams.org/about-us/ Note: The AMS Board of Trustees made this statement governance/policy-statements/sec-immigration on January 30, 2017, while Robert Bryant was AMS 3Board of Trustees Statement: www.ams.org/news?news_id=3305 president. Bryant's presidential term ended two days 4Academics Petition: https://notoimmigrationban.com/ later; he was succeeded by Kenneth Ribet.
680 NOTICES OF THE AMS VOLUME 64, NUMBER 7 A MERICAN M ATHEMATICAL S OCIETY
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Contact the AMS Development Offi ce by phone: 401-455-4111 or email: [email protected] OPINION International Mobility and US Mathematics Moon Duchin
Note: The opinions expressed here are not necessarily those of Notices. Responses on the Notices webpage are invited.
ticians and other scattered undesirables and malcontents ABSTRACT. United States mathematical history has fled the Fascists. American universities seized the op- been shaped by social, political, and religious flows portunity to raise their level of mathematics to rival the around the world. Policies fostering international ex- traditional European powerhouses, and US mathematics change and mobility are essential for a healthy math- has never looked back. Einstein may be the most famous ematical community. scientific name to come to our shores in those years, but Gödel, Noether, Weyl, Artin, Siegel, Bers, Courant, and By any account, the United States is now a world super- von Neumann all participated in the great transformation power on the mathematical stage. In mathematics, as in [1]. The reception of this new crop of mathematicians many fields, the US rose to its current prominence on was uneven, but the indisputable long-term effect was the strength of flows of ideas and of people across its the crystallization in the United States of the strongest borders in both directions. A special role was played by mathematical community in the world. immigration, as people moved around the world on strong Partly as a function of its new internationalism, post- religious and political currents. WWII America continued to attract immigrants from all An immigrant arguably started it: J. J. Sylvester came over the world at the highest levels of mathematics. New to the United States because his advancement was limited research centers like the Institute for Advanced Study in Britain: a brilliant Second Wrangler of the Cambridge (founded 1930) and the Courant Institute (founded 1935) Tripos, he was barred from receiving a Cambridge degree were flourishing by midcentury with a rich mix of na- by the university’s (Anglican) Articles of Faith. Neither tive-born and immigrant scholars. The postwar decades Sylvester, being Jewish, nor his contemporary Augustus brought A. Borel, Calderón, Chern, Chow, Harish-Chandra, De Morgan, being a “Dissenter,” could be fellows or pro- and Hironaka, among many others, and a constant flow fessors at Oxford or Cambridge at the time. De Morgan of visitors. went only as far afield as University College London, but Three brief profiles will help to illustrate both the Sylvester ultimately struck out for the United States on attractive force of American mathematics across the two separate occasions. Here he infused US mathematics twentieth century and the stultifying effects of nationalist with energy and ambition and founded the nation’s first insularity around the world. mathematical journal, the American Journal of Mathemat- Chinese mathematical immigration spanned the full ics, still a top journal today. century, building from a trickle to a rapid flow. In 1907 Later, turmoil in Europe completely reshaped American Teddy Roosevelt agreed to accept political reparation mathematics. Hitler rose to power in February 1933, and money from China for the bloody, anti-Christian, nativ- by April an order was issued purging Jewish citizens from ist Boxer Rebellion in the form of the Boxer Indemnity national service, which included university employment. Scholarship program: educational scholarships for Chi- In the months and years that followed, Jewish mathema- nese students to study in the United States. By the 1930s, Moon Duchin is associate professor of mathematics at Tufts Uni- Chern reports that this had become a natural place for the versity. Her e-mail address is [email protected] . best Chinese students to come, though he himself chose
682 NOTICES OF THE AMS VOLUME 64, NUMBER 7 Opinion
Europe for his studies and only came to the States when received a US PhD and 76 have permanent jobs here, where his mathematical isolation in postwar China caused him their research programs and their teaching and training to reach out for other options [3]. Chern returned contin- activities are fundamental elements of our continued ually to China in efforts to build up a strong tradition for mathematical excellence. mathematics, but his and many colleagues’ hopes were Generations of immigrants have made American mathe- dashed amidst the repression and anti-intellectualism of matics what it is today: a world-historical magnet for talent the Cultural Revolution, and the work had to be begun and innovation. Some people come to the United States anew in the 1980s. Meanwhile, a generation of Chinese fleeing authoritarianism and violence; others are simply mathematicians, most notably S.-T. Yau, had set up in the looking to a stable, open society for intellectual opportu- US and helped establish the pipeline of Chinese talent that nity. Not just immigration, but, more generally, mobility today accounts for more than one in ten students in the makes the scientific community stronger through col- top tier of American doctoral programs. laboration and intellectual exchange. The lessons of 150 The aftershocks of the 1917 Russian Revolution years teach us clearly that our mathematical leadership brought us refugees and other escapees who developed depends on our hard-won tradition of internationalism. pure and applied mathematics in the States, including Science withers in closed societies. Lefschetz, Tamarkin, Timoshenko, and Zariski. Later, it became difficult to leave the Soviet Union or even to References communicate freely with the outside mathematical world. [1] Lipman Bers, The migration of European mathematicians to Political efforts on behalf of Soviet colleagues grew in the America, A Century of Mathematics in America, Part I, Hist. US through the Cold War period. In the 1970s and 1980s Math., 1, Amer. Math. Soc., Providence, RI, 1988, pp. 231–243. MR1003172 came a vanguard of Soviet emigrants, including Bernstein, [2] George J. Borjas and Kirk B. Doran, The collapse of the Gromov (first to the US and later to France), Kazhdan, Rat- Soviet Union and the productivity of American mathemati- ner, Margulis, and Zelmanov, who were allowed to leave cians, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 127 (2012) no. 3, the USSR under an ostensible policy of Jewish “repatria- 1143–1203. tion” that only gestured towards Israel. After the collapse [3] Allyn Jackson, Interview with Shiing Shen Chern, Notices of the Soviet Union in 1992, hundreds of mathematicians Amer. Math. Soc. 45 (1998), no. 7, 860–865. MR1633718 flooded from the Soviet bloc into other countries, many [4] Martin Andler, Who are the Invited Speakers at ICM 2014? of course coming to the United States. The effects were European Math Society Newsletter, no. 92, June 2014. dramatic: according to an AMS survey, immigrants from Photo Credit Eastern Europe and the former USSR made up 10%–13% of all new faculty hires in mathematics in 1991–92 [2]. Photo of Moon Duchin is courtesy of Tufts University. Iran has a storied mathematical tradition with ancient and medieval Persian antecedents, and the twentieth century saw the establishment of modern universities and renewed mathematical institutions. The 1979 Ira- ABOUT THE AUTHOR nian Revolution was devastating for intellectuals, with its own Cultural Revolution purging academics and keeping Moon Duchin is associate professor universities closed for years in the early 1980s. In mathe- of mathematics at Tufts University and serves as director of the Pro- matics Iran rebuilt a global profile with a key role played gram in Science, Technology, and by the International Mathematical Olympiad—Iran first Society. She is a member of the AMS formed a team in the mid-1980s and became a powerhouse Committee on Human Rights of by the 1990s, winning outright in 1998. IMO credentials Mathematicians. and quietly relaxed US immigration rules have made it Moon Duchin possible for a steady stream of preeminent Iranian math- ematicians to come to the States for graduate study since the 1990s, including leading young figures in geometric topology, algebraic geometry, ergodic theory, number the- ory, dynamics, and many other fields. This wave included Maryam Mirzakhani—first as a graduate student, then a postdoc, and now a professor and one of two American immigrants to receive Fields Medals in 2014. To quantify the global draw of United States mathe- matics, consider a recent demographic analysis of one of the field’s top midcareer honors, a speaking invitation at the International Congress of Mathematicians. Martin Andler conducted a study of the global displacements of the 206 mathematicians so honored at the 2014 ICM in Seoul [4]; his report confirms the leading position of US mathematics and the vital role of immigration. Only 26 of 206 speakers were born in the United States, but 85
AUGUST 2017 NOTICES OF THE AMS 683 THE MATHEMATICS OF GRAVITATIONAL WAVES Courtesy of LIGO/T. Pyle.
This illustration shows the merger of two black holes and the gravitational waves that ripple outward as the black holes spiral toward each other. The black holes—which represent those detected by LIGO on December 26, 2015— were 14 and 8 times the mass of the sun, until they merged, forming a single black hole 21 times the mass of the sun. In reality, the area near the black holes would appear highly warped, and the gravitational waves would be difficult to see directly.
A Two-Part Feature Part Two: Gravitational Waves and Their Mathematics Introduction by Christina Sormani by Lydia Bieri, David Garfinkle, and p 685 Nicolás Yunes Part One: How the Green Light Was p 693 Given for Gravitational Wave Research by C. Denson Hill and Paweł Nurowski p 686 Introduction by Christina Sormani Our second article, by Lydia Bieri, David Garfinkle, and Nicolás Yunes, describes the mathematics behind The Mathematics of Gravitational Waves gravitational waves in more detail, beginning with A little over a hundred years ago, Albert Einstein a description of the geometry of spacetime. They predicted the existence of gravitational waves as a discuss Choquet-Bruhat’s famous 1952 proof of ex- possible consequence of his theory of general relativ- istence of solutions to the Einstein equations given ity. Two years ago, these waves were first detected Cauchy data. They then proceed to the groundbreak- by LIGO. In this issue of Notices we focus on the ing work of Christodoulou-Klainerman and a descrip- mathematics behind this profound discovery. tion of the theory behind gravitational radiation: the Einstein’s prediction of gravitational waves was radiation of energy in the form of gravitational waves. based upon a linearization of his gravitational field Numerical methods are used to predict the gravi- equations, and he did not believe they existed as tational waves emanating from specific cosmological solutions to the original nonlinear system of equa- events like the collision of black holes. Starting in tions. It was not until the 1950s that the mathemat- Section 4 of their article, Bieri et al. describe these ics behind Einstein’s gravitational field equations numerical methods beginning with linearized theory was understood well enough even to define a wave and the post-Newtonian approximation first devel- solution. Robinson and Trautman produced the first oped by Einstein. They then describe the inward family of explicit wave solutions to Einstein’s non- spiraling (as on the cover of this issue) of two black linear equations in 1962. Our first article, written by holes coming together and the resulting waves that C. Denson Hill and Paweł Nurowski, describes this occur as the black holes merge into one. They close story of how the theoretical existence of gravitational with a description of the LIGO detector and how its waves was determined. measurements corroborated the predictions of the numerical teams. Ultimately the LIGO detection of Christina Sormani is a Notices editor. Her e-mail address is gravitational waves not only validated Einstein’s [email protected]. theory of general relativity, but also the work of the For permission to reprint this article, please contact: many mathematicians who contributed to an under- [email protected]. standing of this theory. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1090/noti1551