Rangelar7ds 6(6), December1984 253 futuresuccess. Experimentaltreatment basedon a growing different cutting and browsing regimes. All of these are understanding of the target species and its environment separate studies that will add to the scientificliterature. But allows usto accumulate knowledge. This stepwiseapproach the real payoff will come when we can put all the studies can be more effective, more economical and lead us more together to meet the needs of land managersfor integrated surely to an understanding of arid and semi-arid tropical brush managementprograms. shrublands and their potential contribution to the welfare of About the Author: Linda earned a BS degree in wildlife and fisheries at the their inhabitants. Universityof Idaho in 1973. Shedid graduatework therein veterinaryscience Our work in Brazil demonstrates this to inte- and then worked forthe Idaho State Departmentof Fish and Gameand later approach worked for theState Departmentof Lands asa rangermanager. During that grated brush management.Other scientists have surveyed time she wasvery active in theIdaho Section, SAM. She receivedthe Aange- Year Award from the Idaho Section for her work with ranchersin and needs, described range manof the production systems producer rangedevelopment. sites, determined sheep and goat diets on cleared and She earned a masters degree in range science in 1980 from Utah State uncleared and am University.At present (1983) she is working on a Ph.D. in range management caatinga, estimated plant productivity. I as a research associate with Utah State University on the USAID/SR-CRSP determining the sprouting potential of woody plants under rangeresearch project in northeastBrazil.

Performance of Icelandic Horses in North- western Alaska William B. Collins and John Brooks Ill

Horses played a significant role in exploration and settle- remain isolated from other horse populations. This was ment of Alaska during gold rush days. However, with the made possible as the Aithing (the oldest parliament in the increase of mechanizedtransportation, horses becameless world) passed a law in 930 forbidding the importation of have important and generally too expensiveto keep for purposes horses to maintain breed purity. Some scholars sug- otherthan recreation.Some would argue thathorses are also gested that the establishment and long existence of the too expensive to keep for recreational purposes. In 1982 a Althingdepended on horsesto enable Icelandicchieftains to differentbreed of horse—onewhich appears well adaptedto gather together from across the rugged country. From the the 20th living offthe range in summerand winterwith littlesupplement- time of settlement until the beginning of century, ation—was introduced to the state. The following is a brief lcelandic horses representedthe sole means of transporta- description ofthat breed,its history, its requirements,poten- tion for peopleand goods. Hadthere beena networkof roads tial uses, and special adaptations which make it more satis- and bridges, perhapsa larger horse would have been bred to factory than its predecessorsas a workor pleasure horse in pull wagons and carriages. As it was, Icelandic horseswere northwestern Alaska. well suited to cross-country travel and could be kept year- round on open range. The Breed Peopleoutside Icelandhave become increasingly awareof the self-sufficiency, stamina, fecundity and longevity of the About 1000 years ago, settlers from Scandinavian coun- Icelandic horse. This animal has become well known for tries and the British Isles began arriving on the volcanic the only remaining European breed to retain five dis- the being island of Iceland. These Viking farmers had crossed tinct gaits, the most notable of which is theTolt, or running North Atlantic in open boats, bringing with them all they walk (The Tolt disappeared from Europe as larger horses thought essential for pioneering in their new, often harsh, were bred for the purposeof carrying mail-clad soldiers and environment. Perhaps the most enduring of their precious pulling wagons and carriages.) The horse is ideal for the cargo was horses. Their horse was relatively small (13-15 Icelandic sport of 'trekking," in which the horse is ridden hands and 850-900 Ib), typical of European horses at that cross-country 20-40 miles/day over several consecutive time. During the next 1000years, "Icelandic" horseswere to days, resting and grazing at night. The breed has avariety of colorsas it was bred only inaccordance withstrict standards Authors' Note: As of March, 1984, there were only eight Iceland ponies in winters Alaska.Prospects for more are good for use aspack animals,sport hunting, on quality of gaits. In addition, extremely severe fishing, and pleasureriding. 254 Rangelands 6(6), December1984 whichoccurred at intervals duringthe period 1200to 1800 Perlormance AD placed positive selection pressure on weather-resistant individuals having relatively low requirements for supple- Icelandic horses demonstrated several advantages for mental feed and an exceptional ability to forage through reindeer herders. Herderswere better able to keepabreast of wind-packed snow and ice. With the exception of the Yaku- the herd when on horseback than on foot (anyone who has tian horse found in Siberia, no other breed is known to ever tried walking any distance over tussock tundra can exhibit such specialadaptation to severe winter environments. readily appreciate this fact). Unlike snowmachinesand 3- wheelers(all-terrain vehicles),the horse can also swim rivers and streams. From atop the horse, the herder commands a

Bluejoint rangein midsummer. (They eat cottongrass and willows in winter). In the of the 1929, several decades before riding qualities Baldwin Peninsula in late summer. Horses on a robust made recreational riders out- feeding Icelandic horse it popular to sedge,Carex saxatilis. side Iceland, A.E. Porsild use of the horse for promoted much better view of the herd an reindeer in North America. He said: movements, advantage herding which should valuable as the of The Iceland would be well suited to this prove especially practice pony, particularly, with is reestablished Alaska reindeer country, as it would need no more care or protection than the herding dogs among reindeer and would do well on practically the same feed. All herders. Herderson horsebackare also able to more readily cross-country travel during the summer has, at present, to be approach and calm reindeer.Horses provideda readymeans done on foot with pack-dogs, which meansthat tent, blankets, of transporting camp across country. Finally, Icelandic etc., must bedispensed with, also that on account of scarcity of horses demonstratedability to forage productively on most game, dog feed must be carried. To a future reindeer industry, tundra sites, a topic addressedin the following section. ponies should prove a factor of great importance and would NANA's 8 horses exhibited amazing resiliency in their make much easier more attractive. herding and response to stress and work into which they were thrust following their purchase: were trucked for However, more than 50 years would pass before Icelandic immediately they horseswould betried for in North America. 3 days from British Columbia to Alaska; rested for a week; reindeer herding flown to rested 4 rides to In NANA native head- Kotzebue; days (actually, gave June, 1982, (a regional corporation of the children in Kotzebue this ridden in the coastal town of Kotzebue,Alaska, 30 miles many during "rest"); quartered for 5 days to Church Rock (a distance of nearly 110 northof the Arctic Circle) purchased 7 geldings and 1 mare miles), for of reindeer and crossing much rough country and many streamsand rivers purposes herding transporting camp swollen with spring runoff; rested 2 days; and ridden across supplies during the summer when snowmachinesare not in functional. NANA chose lcelandic horses over otherbreeds countryto Calahan (70miles 2days), then toArctic Circle because learned from that forroundup ofa butcher herd. Afterthe horses left Kotzebue, they prior experience larger on native little breedswere tooexpensiveto maintain during theannual 6 or they foraged vegetation, receiving grain sup- plementation. Later, the horses were used almost daily, 12 7 months the horseswere idle. Indeed, with the exception of a not recommendedand later in the of this most who h/day, practice discontinued. freightcompanies early part century, this time, the horses received to 7.5 lbs. of have tried to justify keeping horses on a cost-benefit basis During up barley have found it is much maintain them per day, but declined in conditionuntil the work load was too expensive to reduced. Much ofthe summer reindeer took in through the winter. In Klondike days horseswere generally herding place areas of knee-high tussocks, interspaces of which are used foraseason, slaughtered, and new ones brought inthe In next With the breeds NANA it spongy, wet ground. contrast to the larger breeds pre- year. larger originally used, used, Icelandic horses this ofterrain it have been less to the horses viously negotiated type appeared might expensive fly well. This is in that most south for the winter rather than to winter them in the extremely particularly noteworthy try herders had never ridden horse 1982. The Kotzebue area. a prior to June, horses tolerated the variety of riders very well. They were Rangelands 6(6), December 1984 25b also very tolerant of clouds of mosquitoes which attacked supplementation in winter unless the horses are kept on face and belly. Insect repellent reduced mosquito and fly range types having greater protein availability. attacks, but even when without its protection, the horsesdid Dietary levels of zinc (in summer) and copper (in summer not appear overlydistressed. The horses remained in rela- and winter) were also low, but these are easily and inexpen- tively good condition under the described conditions, except sively supplementedby use of mineralizedsalt. Regularmin- when worked hardon a daily basis. A few additional horses eral supplementation can also help prevent digestive upset should have been used in the NANA Operation so that which might be caused by sudden changes in diet as would occurunder emergencyfeeding or abrupt changesof range. We did not determine dietary levels of vitamins, since defi- ciencies on tundra ranges are unlikely. Horses generally obtain sufficient vitamin D from range vegetation and/or exposure to sunlight. Thiamine is found in most forages in adequate amounts, in addition to being synthesized in the digestivetract and absorbed in thececum. Vitamin B12 is also synthesized and absorbed in the large intestine, and sup- plementation is deemed unnecessaryin mature horses. We are certainthe horses consumed adequate vitamin A because they ate significant amounts of living, green plant tissue year-round. The cambium of willow, leaves of mountain cranberry (an evergreen shrub) and winter production of cottongrass provided vitamin A in winter. Additionally, a 5-6 month supply of this vitamin is stored in the liver following Packing camp to keep abreastof widely ranging reindeer. good summergrazing. worked stock couldbe rotatedwith rested onesat leastevery We were impressedthat these horses continued toforage 3 days. During the peak of the work season, the horses through wind-packed and iced snow more than 20 inches simply expended more energy than they could safely con- deep. Only when ice layers form right at the plant/ground sume, and received inadequaterest. surface are the horses unable to break through, making it Nutrition and Care necessary to supplement with hay at approximately 9 lbs/day. It is also noteworthy that NANA's horsesappeared Preliminary observations suggestthat the Icelandic horse tolerant of winterwinds which 10 to 20 miles/h at will consumea wide of found on averaged variety plantspecies ranges temperatures of 0° to -30° F in an area which afforded little in northwestern Alaska. It utilizes a much wider array of fromthe wind. Theseobservations recom- than other breeds and continues to under protection support plants forage mendation that Icelandic horses be wintered on the range severe climatic conditions. Principal species in the summer and as needed. for diet were and carex only supplemented Supplementation dunegrass (Elymus arenarius), (Carex mares becomesmandatory in the last 2 months of gestation spp.). Afterthe first snow in October, dietsshifted more to and in the first 2 months of lactation. In Iceland a common tufted and fescue hairgrass (Deschampsiacaespitosa) (Fes- means of supplementing energy, protein and minerals is to tuca spp.). Then, beginning in mid-November, the horses set out barrels of salted which are consumed the consumed diamond wil low and blue- herring by primarily (Salix pulcra) horseson an ad lib basis at 1 fish day. Not beneaththe wil- approximately per joint (Ca/amagrostis canadensis) growing only do Icelandersbelieve it is nutritionally practical to win- low. From mid-Decemberuntil mid-March, the diet consisted ter their horses on the but they believe it is advisable almost oftussock range, entirely cottongrass (Eriophorum vagina- from the standpoint of enabling the horses to develop and turn), the predominant grass-like plant on the Baldwin maintain tendons and Peninsula where the horses were for the remainder of strong joints. kept Energy demands of any animal are greatly increased by the winter. It should be emphasized that the dietary prefer- work,the Icelandic horse no Where 8 ences here were influenced relative being exception. only reported greatly by McaI metabolizable energy per day is recommended for availability of forage species (i.e., the horses wintered in a maintenance of a 840 lb horse, almost 10 is different Mcal/day range type having vegetation composition very recommendedfor easy movement"and nearly 12 McaI/day from those range typeswhere summer and fall feeding pre- fora horse which is ridden2-3 hours daily. Thus,it is easyto ferences were observed). understand NANA's horses declined in condition when for why Researchersreport maintenanceenergy requirements worked 12 hours per day, even when receiving 7.5 lbs. sup- the Icelandic horse which are at least 2O% lower than It should be that no recommendationsfor breeds. we were plemental barley per day. recognized other Initially, skepti- amount of supplementation can allow a horse to be over- cal ofthis. However, observation that NANA'shorses remained one with such abusein theshort term, in while idle and worked; may get away relatively good condition totally dependent but will greatly reduce the years of satisfactory service. on winter range causes us to conclude that energy supple- the use of Icelandic horses mentationis not for Icelandichorses Hopefully, anyone considering necessary over-wintering will not be so impressed by the horse's strength and hardi- on thiskind of tunda We did that range. determine, however, nessso asto abuseit. The fact is, thatif properly treated, the digestible protein availability was considerably less than lcelandic horse has the to work for to 25-30 for maintenance. we recommend potential up adequate Thus, protein years, and a life expectancy of 35-40 years. At least one 25b Rangelands 6(6), December1984

Icelandic horse has been reported to be alive and well at 53 breeds, and it becomesapparent that their purchasemay be years. Both mares and stallions remain reproductively fit economically justified for many purposes. until approximately 25 years. In the long history of the breed, the Icelandic horse has unquestionably demonstrated its usefulness as a riding, Conclusions herding, pack and draftanimal. In the past two years, it has demonstratedits value in Alaska's reindeer industry. We can Gunnar Iceland's has Bjarnason, expert on horses, said, think of many other potential uses for this horse. It would horse "There are many incredible things about our unique appear to have prospectsas a pack animal in sport hunting which are difficult to understand and accept in the begin- and and it is conceivablethat sports like trekking or character- fishing, fling" (pers. comm.). Perhapsthe mostsurprising dude riding could become significant attractions to recrea- istics of this horseare its ability to utilize tundra vegetationas tionistsand tourists in some ofour communities. We cannot and to remain fit in its principalsource of food year-round imagine a more enjoyable way for one to get out and expe- thearctic environment with minimal energy and protein sup- rience the beautiful lands of the north. plementation. It is a willing servant in terrain and conditions where most other breeds are reluctant to go or unable to (NOTE:This articleis based on one published by the Agricul- perform. These characteristics, alone, command the atten- tural Experiment Station of the University of Alaska, Fair- tion of individuals considering the acquisition of horses for banks;Agroborealis 16:27-32.) use in tundra regions. Add to the above that the lcelandic horse can provide far more years of service than other

The Range Manager's Contribution to Small, Mixed-farming Systems: Portugal as a Case Study Linda Howell Hardesty and Thadis W. Box

Topography varies from flat, shifting lowlands bordering Editor'sNote: A proof that good rangemanagement can occuranywhere in the world on any sizes of unit. the Atlantic coast to steep, boulder-strewn mountainsin the Northeast. TheTagus River bisects the country north-south does nothave what is considered Portugal generally range- and roughly defines the undulating plains ofthe Alentejo in land, but livestock are produced there under conditions that the South. our to new on man- challenge profession perspectives range Livestock production systems follow these topographic agement. Portugal's ancient landscape has been intensively divisions. cultivated and grazed for centuries. While the country has grown into a busy, modern nation, its livestock production The Littoral systems share aspects common to many lesser developed The coastal areas north and south of Lisbon are densely regions. Agricultural production has a restricted land base populated but still support extensive pine and eucalyptus which must meet dozens of conflicting, interchange- plantings, descendants of the pine forests planted by Dom able demands. This precludes the extensive livestock pro- Dinis in the 13th century to stabilize sandy soils and protect ductionsystems to which most range managersare accus- inlandareas from the sea. Thisis also Portugal's most indus- tomed and requires that we adapt our understanding of trialized region, and many farm families are partially sup- rangelands to small, intensive, mixed-production systems, ported by the men'sfactory jobs. Land holdings averageless where grazing animals may be a luxury. Livestock must co- than 2 ha (5 acres) and are often composed of up to twenty exist withinthe framework of a closely integrated and flexi- far-flung parcels, as land is divided at death and reshuffled ble agricultural production system. by marriages. Many of these parcels are too small to farm Portugal has a Mediterranean climate. Rainfall occurs with machinery, though tractors have replaceddraft animals primarily in winterand ranges from2,800mm (112inches) in whenever possible. the northeast to 400 mm (16 inches) in the south. Tempera- The cattle in this region are mostly Friesians and they tures are mild (averageannual temperature 15 degreesC.), produce over half the nation's milk supply. Most villages rarely below freezing except at high elevations.The growing have cooperative milking parlors, and evening driving pres- seasonis balanced betweenthe rainy buttoo cool winter and ents a frightening obstacle course of women leading their the warm but too dry summer. cows to milk as the men return home on bicycles or motorcycles. Authors are research associateand professor,Range ScienceDepartment, Utah State University,Logan. The averagefarm hasonly one or two cows. Cows are kept Field work for this paper was supported bythe U.S. Feed Grains Council, to the home and fed and Washington,D.C. Thanksare due Dr. David Hutchison,Texas Agr. Experiment adjacent green chop, silage, hay, Station,Amarillo, Texas, forthe photographs. by-products like turnip tops. Grain feeding is mostly limited