Laboratory Instructions and Study Guide for Human Anatomy. Part One, Fourth Edition

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AUTHOR Conrey, Kathleen TITLE Laboratory Instructions and Study Guide for Human Anatomy. Part One, Fourth Edition. PUB DATE Sep 89 NOTE 91p.; For related documents, see SE 051 218-221. Black and white illustrations will not reproduce clearly. AVAILABLE FROM Aramaki Design and Publications, 12077 Jefferson Blvd., Culver City, CA 90506 ($7.75). PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Use - Materials (For Learner, (051)

EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS *Anatomy; *Biological Sciences; *College Science; Higher Education; *Human Body; *Laboratory Procedures; Science Activities; Science Education; Secondary Education; Secondary School Science; Teaching Guides; Teaching Methods

ABSTRACT During the process of studying the specific course content of human anatomy, students are being educated to expand their vocabulary, deal successfully with complex tasks, and use a specific way of thinking. This is the first volume in a set of laboratory instructions and study notes which are designed to accompany a lecture series in human anatomy. This volum includes investigations of the skeleton including bones and joints; studies of the musculature of the body; and studies of the nervous system including the central, autonomic, motor and sensory systems. General instructions and laboratory procedures are followed by illustrations of anatomical concepts using cat and sheep organs as dissection specimens. Appendices include anatomical checklists and a set of homework sheets to accompany the laboratory exercises. (CW)

Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. **R*******R***It************A******************************************* "PERMISSION TO REPRODUCETHIS OF EDUCATION U.S. DEPARTMENT MATERIAL IN MICROFICHEONLY Office ed EduoatiOn$11 Resear0and onanovement INFORMATION GRA EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES CENTER (ERIC} i sproduced as fkThis chxument hasbeen received from the demonor orgentlation ColgirlatIng ,t improve r Mow changeshave been made to reproduction Rosily ;foredo.' rhiscloccr TO THE EDUCATIONALRESOURCES Points ohne* mammon official men) do not nerIV,Safily represent BORATOR INFORMATION CENTE 3 (ERIC)." OERI position or poiscv RUCTIONS DY GUIDE 1 t. ''..4sto ,.$ Xs . ..aa. 4 $.. t- , - :,

ANA

.4 .;; 4 ..1.:'V A..: Part 14:<.*4 r ..$j) Fourth Edition

by KATHLEEN CONREY

2 BEST COPY AVAILABLE LABORATORY INSTRUCTIONS AND STUDY GUIDE

FOR HUMAN ANATOMY

Part One Fourth Edition

The author is a Professor of Natural Sciences at El CaminoCollege. She holds a master's degree from the Department of Human Anatomy, University ofCalifornia, SanFrancisco, and has been teaching human anatomy at the community college levelsince 1967. by KATHLEEN CONREY

3 Aramaki Design & Publications 12077 Jefferson Boulevard,Culver City, California (213) 822-9800

Fourth Edition, September, 1989 Copyright eb1988 by Kathleen Conrey

All rights reserved. No part of this publicationmay be reproduced, stored in a retrievalsystem, or transmitted in any formor by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording or otherwise, without the prior writtenpermission of the copyrightowner.

First edition and first printing 1982

Printed in the United States of America

4 TABLE OF CONTENTS

OSTEOLOGY 1 Bones of Pectoral Girdle & Upper Limb 2 Bones of Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb 5 Bones of the Skeleton 9 Bows of the Skull 13 Joints and Ligaments: 18 SKINNING THE CAT 19 CAT MUSCLE DISSECTION INSTRUCTIONS 21 Preliminaries 21 Superficial Shoulder and Back 22 Pectoral Muscles and Anterior Abdominal Wall 24 Anterior Nee- and Head 25 Deep Back and Neck 26 Deep Shoulder 27 Muscles of Upper Arm 28 Muscles of Forearm 29 Thigh and Gluteal Region 30 Lower Leg Muscles 32 LABORATORY STUDY OF HUMAN MUSCLES 34 LABORATORY STUDY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 35 Microscopic Study 35 Peripheral Nervous System in the Cat 36 Autonomic Nervous System in the Cat 38 Sheep Brain 39 Cow Eye 43 APPENDIX A: CHECKLISTS 45 Bones 46 Arthrology 51 Cat Muscles 52 Human Muscles (by actions) 53 Human Muscles (by regions) 57 Nervous System, miscellaneous 59 Sheep Brain 60 Human Brain 61 Cow Eye 62 APPENDIX B: HOMEWORK 63 Introductory Terminology 65 Bones 66 Ossification 71 Arthrology 72 Muscles 73 Nervous System 76 Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part 1 Table of Contents OSTEOLOGY LABS: GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

order). Only after applying all steps can you decide for sure between right and Each scheduled lab period concentrates on a left. particular section of the skeleton. Lab exer- STEPS: cises that are specific to the bones for that 1. Distinguish medial from lateral. days assignment are provided. 2, Distinguish superior from inferior.

sa ss. You have available for your use a bone box 3. Distinguish anterior from posterior. containing one half of a disarticulated human skeleton, either right or left, including half of a skull, and parts of the vertebral column. There will also be one or perhaps Look at the X-Rays on display at the front of two articulated human skeletons in the the room. The view box has only so much classroom that you may use for reference. room for display at any one time. You are When we study the skull you will beproided expected to shuffle through the X-Rays on with whole skulls, disarticulated skulls and the view box, taking X-Rays down and put fetal skulls. new ones up until you have looked through them all. Most of the X-Rays will have

*z,N,b*%.MN., %-- s3 s- labeled feature and many textbooks and reference books have pictures of X-Rays. A While looking at the bone read its descrip- good way to understand what you are look- tion in your textbook and use many different ing at is to bring the actual bone to the view pictures of the bone from various reference box and sight along the bone as you study books. Anatomy is a 3-dimensional visual the X-Ray. Imagine that you have X-Ray subject and you need to engage fully in the eyes and can see both sides of the bone at discovery process during lab. once. USE THE CHECKLISTS BONE. cpM...p9$11:..10N Turn to the osteology checklists in the Adult bone is composed of mineralized appendix. Study the articulated and disar- osteoid tissue. Both components of bone ticulated skeletons and skulls, and learn to together are stronger than either component distinguish all the features included on the alone. checklists. The checklists are like a contract; Examine the chicken bones that have been if a feature of the bone is not on your check- soaked in vinegar. The acid dissolves the list you don't have to remember it. minerals in the bone, leaving only osteoid tissue. Describe the bone. Can you bend it? DISTINGUISH RIGHT I LEFT Next examine the chicken bones that have You must be able to distinguish righ from been baked. The heat has carbonized the left on all the bones of the disarticulated osteoid tissue, leaving only the minerals. skeleton (except for the smaller bones of the Will this bone bend? face, and the bones of the hand and foot). To do this, use the following 3 steps (in any

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 1 Ostr!olog, Bones of Pectoral Girdle & Upper Limb A 1. Go through the checklist on page 46. 4. Look at the X-Ray of a broken clavicle. Carefully observe the features of the bones The clavicle serves as a strut holding the until you can easily recognize whether the shoulder in place. A fracture of the clavicle bone comes from the right or the left side of is one of the most common skeletal injuries, the body. Make sure you practice this and results from a direct fall on the shoulder stOciently, the more rehersals the better. or from a fall on the elbow with the shoulder abducted. 2. Palpate your own clavicle and notice that it's superior surface is covered by skin only 5. Roll the ulnar nerve against the posterior (no muscle attachments). The pull of surface of the medial epicondyle of your muscles creates rough markings on bones, humerus with your fingers. This is the therefore the "funny bone", so called because the ulnar superior surface nerve is found of the clavicle is just below the relatively smooth skin, between and unmarked the skin and the compared to the bone. rougher inferior 6. Hold a match surface. (medial) ing radius and A SUPERIOR VIEW 3. To distinguish end ulna against one between a right another and carefully ob- and a left clav- sternal rough markings made icle, hold the (medial) serve how they by subclavius muscle bone as here di- end acrornialarticulate at their rected, matching (lateral)proximal and P'`li411 t*" it to your own end distal ends. It body after each should now be clear to you why step. B. INFERIOR VIEW coracoid tubercle the "ulnar a. The thinner notch" belongs flattened end of to the radius, the bone is the clavicle and the "radial lateral end. Hold notch" belongs it flat. coracoid tubercle to the ulna. coracoclavicular ligament_ b. Hold the side with rough markings on both ends coracoid down. scapula c. Hold the C. ANTERIOR VIEW medial end of the bone so that it bulges forward. Fig. 1- Three views of the Right Clavicle

Lab instructions & Study Guide, Part 1 2 Osteology Fig. 3- Anterior View of Right Scapula

Fig. 2- Posterior View of Right Scapula

head anatomical neck facets on greater tubercle lesser tubercle coronoid fosse

ma... medial intertubercular 1.11/epieondyle (bicipital) groove ......

trochIca capitulum (medial condyle) deltoid (lateral condyle) tuberosity Fig. 4- Distal End of Right Humerus anterior view Lateral View Anterior View

Fig. 5- Proximal End of Right Humerus

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part 1 3 Osteology olecranon radial process notch

sernilunar head of radius notch

coron/id process

ulnar tuberosity radial tuberosity

Fig. 6- Distal End of Right Humerus Fig. 7- Anterior View of Proximal Radius posterior view and Ulna

Fig. 8- Anterior view of Humerus and Ulna showing annular ligament for head of radius

ulnar notch (on radius) head of styloid process distal end ulna of ulna head of of radius ulna

111 styloid process of radius Ik;2.

5. J. 7. 8.

Fig. 9- Anterior View of Right Carpus KEY:1. navicular 2. lunate 3. triangular 4. pisiform 5. greater multangular 6. lesser multangular 7. capitate 8. hamate

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part 1 4 Osteology Bones of Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb 1. Go through the checklist on page 47. 5. Carefully study Carefully observe the features of the bones figures 11 & 12 articular until you can easily recognize whether the showing the surface bone comes from the right or the left side of approxi- the body. M ike sure you practice this mate lines sufficiently, the more rehersals the better. of fusion for the 2. To distinguish between a right and a left three patella: bones of articular facets a. Hold it so that the the in- apex is pointing nomi- away from nate. Fig. 11- Interior of Acetabulum your body and showing lines of fusion the articular surface is down iliopectineal b. Place it on line the table.

c. The side to POSTERIORVIEW greater which it falls, sciatic notch is the side to superior which it pubic ramus belongs. ischial spine

lesser sciatic notch

ischial tuberosity apex inferior ramus of ANTERIOR VIEW pubis inferior ramus of ischium Fig. 12- Right Innominate Bone Fig.10.- Two Views of Right Patella medial view showing lines of fusion These lines of fusion ossify between ales 20-25. 3. It is difficult to distinguish between a right and left fibula, chiefly because it is difficult to distinguish anterior from posterior. 6. To distinguish a male pelvic girdle from that of a female compare the subpubic Carefully observe the articulated skeleton angles of each to the ani,le made by spread- then practice with the disarticulated fibula. ing your index finger and middle finger as far apart as you can without straining. The 4. While observing the articulated pelvic angle between your two fingers will match girdle, locate the false pelvis and the true the subpubic angle of a male skeleton. See pelvis. figure 13.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 5 Osteology 1 ala (wings) iliac crest of sacrum .0%.,pubic tubercle

inferior pubic ramus

Fig. 13- Articulated Pelvic Glirdle, Anterior View

lateral interosseus candyle membrane

fibula

tibia tibial tuberosity lateral malleolus

medial malleolus

lateral surface calcaneus

Fig. 14- Posterior View medial medial malleolus of Ankle malleolus

Fig. 15-- Right Tibia Fig. 16-- Right Tibia posterior view anterior view

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 6 Osteology 11 fovea capitis

greater trochanter

fovea greater capitis trochanter trochanter

lesser trochanter

adductor tubercle

articular linea surface asPera for patella

Fig. 17- Right Femur anterior view adductor tubercle lateral epicondyle

tibial tuberosity tibial spine lateral condyle lateral medial rondyle Lintercondylar fossa condyle Fig. 19- Right Femur posterior view

Fig. 18- Superior View of Tibia

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 7 A. 4, Osteology Fig. 20- Two Dorsal Views of Right Foot

lateral longitudinal arch medial longitudinal arch

Fig. 21- Medial View and Lateral View of Right Foot

Key to Figures 20 and 21

1, navicular 8. 3rd metatarsal 2. medial cuneiform 9. proximal phalanx 3. middle cuneiform 10. middle phalanx 4. lateral cuneiform 11. distal phalanx 5. cuboid 12. talus 6. 1st metatarsal 13. calcaneus 7. 2nd metatarsal

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 8 Osteology 1 Bones of the Axial Skeleton 1. Carefully observe the parts of a typical 3. On the articulated skeleton, carefully ob- vertebra. The vertebra of choice for this serve the Wfferences between the upper, exercise is a midthoraic vertebra. middle, and lowerthoracic vertebrae.If

superior articulating process

Fig. 22- Lateral and Superior Views of a Typical Aildthoracic Vertebra

2. Go through the checklist on page 48. Ob- handed a single thoracic vertebra be able to es- serve the regional features of the vertebrae timatewhich area of the thoracic region it comes very carefully so that when challenged you from. Practice this skill. will be able to classify any disarticulated vertebra with respect to whether it is a 4. Be able to recognize Atlas and Axis as well cervical, thoracic, or lumbar vertebra. Make as C7 and T12. Look for transitional features on sure you practice this skill sufficiently with these latter two; each one has some of the features of the region above, and some of the the disarticulated vertebrae. features of the region below.

bifid spine transverse intervertebral notch foramen vertebral foramen lamina (spinal canal)

superior articulating process transverse foramen Fig. 24- Vertebra Prominens (C7) Lateral view showing long spinous process.

body Fig. 23.- Superior View of Cervical Vertebra Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 9 Osteology Fig. 26- Lumbar Vertebra, SuperlorView

Fig. 25- Lumbar Vertebra, Lateral View

superior articulating pre-rass body of sacrum spinous process

superior articulating process

articular (auricular) surface

sacral foramens coccyx (anterior intervertebral foramena)

Fig. 28- Lateral View of Sacrum

Fig.'27- Anterior View of Sacrum

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 10 Osteology 5 S. Look at the X-Rays of the vertebral column, including those that show examples of scoliosis and lordosis.

1. cervical CAM ature (secondary)

111.11\:e 134- riw; _..7a_,... :rt,.44 2. thoracic curvature (PrinlarY) tam .4...50,. ....-...,i.

iIateKt..- 2-.4p,

k::: 14- -1::.c.v.: ..3. lumbar curvature t:...... (secondary)

S.. 1 Fig. 30- Anterior-PosteriorView of Spine *:... 4. sacral curvature Showing Normal Vertical Alignment (Primary) Lateral deviation from the normal A-P axis is called SCOLIOSIS.

Fig. 29- Lateral View of Spine Showing Normal Adult Spinal Curvatures An exaggerated thoracic curvature is called KYPHOSIS. An exaggerated lumbar curvature is called LORDOSIS.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 11 1 6 Osteology 6. Carefully observe the rib cage. Howmany 7. Observe the sternum. Locate thesternal different vertebrae are touched byone rib in angle and the jugular notch. Notice thatthe the cervical region? In the thoracic region? In sternal angle is a reliable landmark for thesec- the lumbar region? How many intercostal ond rib, and the jugular notch is level with the spaces are there? How many floating ribs are second thoracic vertebra. there? How many false ribs?

12"

pit

Fig. 31- Left Ninth Rib posterior inferior view

Fig. 33- Bony Thorax, Midsagittal View showing levels and lengths

jugular notch

cos tochondral joint Fig. 32- Lateral View of Rib In Sity Sternal end of rib lies at lower level than vertebral end. Middle of costal arch lies at a lower level than either end of the rib. Fig. 34- Bony Thorax, Anterior View showing levels and landmarks

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 12 17 Osteology Bones of the Skull 1. It is most important to carefully study the checklist for the skull, pages 49 - 50.

key to Figs. 35-36 1. sphenoid, greater wing 2. nasal 3. axonal suture 4. squamosal suave 5. Imadokial =We 6. zygomatic portion of =weal bone 7. external auditory meatus 8. mastoid portion of temporal bone 9. styloid process of temporal bone 10. mental foramen of mandible 11. alveolar margins of mandible 12. sagixal suture 13. external occipital protuberance 14. superior nuchal line 15. inferior nuchal line 16. occipital crest

Fig. 35- Lateral View of Skull

14 zygomatic process of temporal bone

foramen alveolar margins magnum of maxilla

Fig. 36- Posterior View of Skull alveolar margins of mandible

Fig. 37- View Showing Teeth in $itu

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 13 18 Osteology 2. While looking at the interior of the articulated human skull learn to associate each foramen with the structures that use it, as given in the following table:

Fig. 38- Major foramen of the Skull & the Structures That Use Them

FORAMEN USED BY :

Cribrifcem Plate Cranial Nerve I olfactory

Optic Canal Cranial Nerve II optic

SuperictOrbital Fissure Cranial Nerves III, IV, part of V & VI occolomotor, trochlear, trig' minds abducens Foramen Rotundum Foramen Ovale Cranial Nerve V trigeminal Foramen Spinosum

Internal Auditory Meatus Cranial Nerves VII & VIII facial and auditory

Jugular Foramen Cranial Nerves IX, X, XI, & Jugular Vein slossoPharYnSeal. vagus, spinal accessorY

Hypoglossal Canal Cranial Nerve XII hypoglossal Carotid Foramen Carotid Canal Carotid Artery Foramen Lacerum

superior orbital fissure e foramen rotund=

foramen ovale

aro foramen spinosum

Fig. 40- Crescemt Shaped Chain of Foramina in Greater Wing of Sphenoid

Fig. 39- Interior of the Skull Showing the Main Fossae

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part 1 14 19 Osteology Fig. 41- Details of the Anterior and Middle Fosses of the Skull

mandibular notch

mental foramen

Fig. 42- Lateral View of Mandible Fig. 41 Medial View of Mandible

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 15 Osteology 0 3. The following exercise is designed to drawyour attention to special features of the articulated skull that involve more than one bone, and henceare not part of the regular checklist. Fill in the blanks by observation and with the help of textbooks. Note thata bone is counted twice if left and right are both involved. See the second example.

Fig 44 Parts of the Skull that Involve More Than OneBone . , 2 boles :perperxi:mlar plate of ethmoid & vomer Nasal Septum , 4 bones: palatine x 2; maxilla x 2 Hard Palate (palatine process of the maxilla) --. Foramen Lacerum 3 bones:

2 bones: Jugular Foramen

usually 2 bones: Foramen Spimum

Zygomatic Arch 2 bones:

. 5 bones:

Inferior Orbital Fissure

7 bones:

Orbital Fossa

13 bones:

Nasal Cavity

5 bones:

Choanae

......

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 16 21 Key to Fig. 45

I. frontal 5. ethmoid 2. zygoma 6. spbenoif 3. maxilla 7. superior orbital fissure 4. lacrimal 8. inferior orbital fissure

optic foramen

orbital process of palatine bone

infraorbital foramen

Fig. 45- Details of the Right Orbital Fosse, Anterior View

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 17 Osteology Z 2 Joints and Ligaments:

1. Use the articulated skeleton to identify 3. Examine the demonstration specimen ofa and observe the joints mentioned in your cow's knee joint which has been obtained arthrology checklist p. 51. While observing from a local butcher shop, and dissected by the joint keep in mind its classification in your instructor. Observe as many of the terms of degree of movement. following features as the specimen permits:

2. Locate the following specific joint fea- compact bone tures on whatever illustrations are available spongy bone to you. Some illustrations are provided in yellow bone marrow the book of lecture notes, but you will want red bone marrow to consult other reference sources as well. epiphyseal plates femoral condyles annular ligament radial collateral ligament articular cartilage ulnar collateral ligament medial and lateral menisci interosseous membrane anterior cruciate ligament tibial collateral ligament posterior cruciate ligament fibular collateral ligament patellar ligament capsular ligament of the knee collateral ligaments medial meniscus capsular ligament lateral meniscus synovial membrane anterior cruciate ligament synovial fluid posterior cruciate ligament patellar ligament anterior iliofemoral ligaments sacrospinous ligament sacrotuberous ligament sacroiliac ligaments

Lab lurtructkons & Study Guide, Part I 18 Arthrology 23 Skinning The Cat

"..kh,W.,:a V. from the surface of the arm and sometimes WW:ArAV1:..k adheres to the skin and is torn in the process First determine the sex of your specimen of removing the skin. for yourself. Do not rely on the sex deter- 4. In the hindlimb and tail region leave an mination supposedly made by the biological apron of skin around the genital area. supply house. They seem to be wrong about 50% of the time. S. In the inguinal region you will enccunter large fat deposits. These masses of fat can Carefully follow the directions given be removed after the skit! is off. If your cat below for removing the entire skin in one is a male, first locate the paired spermatic piece. The removed whole skin will be used cords in the inguinal region and take care (like an overcoat) to wrap the cat in for not to cut them when removing the skin and storage. The mammary glands and the mus- fat in this area. cle of the skin itself (cutaneous maximus and platy:ma) should come off with the 6. After the skin has been removed, the skin since they are not attached to the specimen is perpetually at risk of drying out. skeleton. (They do however attach to the It is difficult or impossible to make a good superficial muscles in the axillary and jaw dissection on dried out tissue. During the lab period, cover the cat with the removed skin regions. (when not actually dissecting.) When bag- ging the cat for storage first wrap it in the removed skin. Check the plastic storage bag for holes, and tie the mouth of the bag tightly with string. These precautions will 1. When removing the skin in the chest help to keep the specimen moist. region be careful not to cut or tear the thin xiphihurneralis muscle. It is best to pull the skin from anterior to posterior in this area. 2. In the axillary region the cutaneous 1. Begin with the cat in the supine position. maximus muscle irterdigitates with.the Make the first tiny opening in the skin with edges of the latissimus dorsi and the pec- scissors in the midventral line. These cuts toralis muscles. This tends to make the should be made with scissors, not with the anatomy of the axillary region very confus- knife. ing because bits of cutaneous maximus may 2. Next enlarge the initial opening. by be obscuring the underlying muscles. The inserting the closed scissors into the open- solution to this problem is to carefully peel ing. Spread the scissors. The spreading tech- away any remaining cutaneous maximus un- nique that you have just used will be useful til the underlying muscle grain is visible and throughout the dissection of the cat. the latissimus and pectoral muscles are positively identified. 3. Once you have enlarged the initial opening you may then prepare the incision line 3. On the forelimb, crossing the front of the for a short distance by inserting the closed elbow joint is an extremely narrow and thin blunt scissors (or your fingers) into the straplike muscle, the brachioradialis. Watch opening and running them horizontally be- for it when removing the skin. It stands out

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part 19 Muscular System 4- neath the surface of the skin to separate skin from body. Do not insert the point of the scissors at too steep an angle or you will damage the superficial muscles. 4. With scissors cut the ski.. along the pre- pared incision line from the pubis to the neck and then laterally along the limbs (level with the shoulders and level with the groin). Insert the the blunt end of the scissors under the skin and leave the pointed end of the scissors on top of the skin. S. Now make circular incisions around the paws about 2 inches from the distal ends of the limb. You will be leaving a covering of skin on the paws. 6. In the neck region the skin is quite thick and difficult to work with. Run your fingers (or closed scissors) up under the skin toward the head as high as you can all the way around the neck. Next, using scissors make a circular cut in tl'e neck skin about half an inch above the shoulders. You will be leaving the skin on the head for the time being but it is necessary to leave a loose flap of an inch or more for later access. 7. Actual lemoval of the body skin is ac- complishea by pressing against the body with one hand and pulling the skin away from the body with the other hand. Avoid using the scalpel or scissors until you en- counter an area that will not come free using your fingers and hands alone. Use the scalpel only as a last resort. When using a scalpel always hold the blade of the scalpel flat rather than vertical. Always stretch and elevate the tissue before cutting. Never cut down and never cut blindly when using a scalpel.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part 1 20 Muscular System 4 Dissection Preliminaries

41111111111r The muscles of the body are layered on top Dissect primarily the left side of the cat, of one another, and some of the muscle doing the right side only as time permits. layers are quite thin. Each muscle is wrap- Most cat illustrations show of the left side of ped in connective tissue (fascia), and the the body. same connective tissue also forms fascial planes that separate the muscles into layers. Position the head of the cat to your left on the dissection table. This is the way the To locate and identify a muscle you must specimens will be laid out for examinations, first remove enough fascia from its surface and you will find it easier to orient yourself to allow you to clearly see the grain (fiber if you are accustomed to seeing cat in direction) of the muscle. Then you must this position. compare what you see before you with a "map" or illustration of the area CAT MUSCLES WITH NO HOMOLOGUE IN MAN Once you have located a muscle, the Peetr antebrachialis objective of dissection is to separate it along ?nihumeralis its entire length, so that you can demonstrate Rhomboideus Capitis to yourself the points of origin and insertion, (a.k.a. Levator Scapulae Dorsalis) and determine for yourself the shape and Epitrochlearis thickness of the muscle. Caudofemoralis Tenuissimus In doing this, Use your thumbs more Extensor Digitorum Lateralis than your knife. Usually the fascial planes can be separated with your fingers or CAT MUSCLE NAME CHANGES thumbs. Use the scalpel only as a last resort. The following cat muscles are very similar to certain human muscles. When you en- If you adequately separate and loosen each counter these cat muscles it is recommended muscle from its neighbors, it is only rarely that you substitute the corresponding human that will you need to transect or detach any muscle name in recognition of this simi- muscle in order to observe the deeper layers. larity. In any case never do so unless you have first determined the entire length of the muscle from origin to insertion, and have also CAT MUSCLE NAME HUMAN MUSCLE NAME determined how thick the muscle is. Levator Scapulae VentralisLevator Scapulae For the study of muscles use the checklist , i Serratus Ventralis Serratus Anterior

as a review only. It is inappropriate to use , . the check lists as a dissection guide be- Adductor Femoris Adductor Magnus cause they are broken into regions without regard to layers (superficial vs deep). Clavobrachialis Clavodeltoid

Follow the dissection sequence specified. Fig 46- Cat Muscle Name Changes Do not skip any part of the sequence because the various areas blend one into another.

21 Muscular System Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I ti Dissection of Superficial Shoulder andBack Muscles

PRELIMINARIES: lb work on this area it will be necessary to clavo- peel the skin of the head upward over the clavotrapezius ears. Make a midline incision under the chin deltoid and also on the back of the neck. '7 1. CLAVOTRAPEZIUS: levator scapulae Trace the origin of this muscle all the way acromio- to the superior nuchal line at the oack of deltoid acromio- the head. Elevate the muscle and separate s trapczius it from underlying muscles. Separate the . .4/ #;,; . = posterior edge from the acromiotraperius. , .. . , . 2. ACROMIOTRAPEZIUS: spino- . deltoid The origin of this muscle is a thin A aponeurosis in the dorsal midline of .11": .".% the body between the shoulder blade *it r"' Try not to damage the aponeurosis. ..1.1 Separate the inferior border of this 4 muscle from the spinotrapezius and spinatus elevate it off of the underlying teres muscles. major 3. SPINOTRAPEZIUS: This is a flat triangular muscle which latissimus originates in the middle of the back as posterior dorsi lateral head (.4 a sharp pointed "V" on the surface of head of triceps X V sPint!" the latissimus dorsi muscle. Elevate triceps trapenus and separate it from the latissimus. 6\) 4. CLAVODELTOID (CLAVOBRACHIALIS): Fig. 47-Superficial Back and Shoulder Muscles This muscle looks like an extension of of the Cat, dorsal view the clavotrapezius, but if you will Ftbduct the shoulder you will observe a crease over the clavicle which marks the end cc the cla- 5. ACROMIODELTOID: votrapezius and the beginningL the clavo- In the cat the acromiodeltoid is a completely deltoid. The clavodeltoid partially overlaps separate muscle though it is partially over- the pectoralis major. Carefully elevate the lapped by the clavodeltoid. Clear allsur- fascia this area until the edge of the rounding connective tissue from the borders cia _aeltoid is clearly seen. Clear the cla- of the muscle. It comes to a pointon the vodeltoid completely lateral surface of the humerus.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part 1 22 Muscular System 6. SPINODELTOID: 7. LATISSIMUS DORSI: In the cat the spinodeltoid is also a com- This large flat muscle originates as an apo- pletely separate muscle. Look for it lateral neurosis in the low back region and inserts to the acromio-trapezius and posterior to the on the humerus. It's anterior ventral edge acromio-deltoid. Clear all surrounding fuses with the edge of the pectoralis minor connective tissue from the borders of the muscle. Separate this area of fusion and muscle. completely loosen and free all surfaces and borders of this muscle.

8. TERES MAJOR: This muscle originates on the border of the scapula and inserts on the medial surface of the humerus by a common tendon with the latissimus dorsi.

2 3 Pell"

17 16 15

Key to Figure 48 14 1. ternporalis 10 2. parotid salivary gland 13 .r* 3. sternomastoid or _or -orm--- 4. clavotrapezius ." v"vegS1X-41*. 5. levator scapulae 12 6. acromiotrapezius P_ 1;v1r 1: A . 11 7. spinodeltoid 'r etvi" 'r

8. spinotraperius ;TAW4 r.....7441111.1.,:: 9. latissimus dorsi 10. posterior head of triceps 11. pectoralis minor 12. lateral head of triceps 13. clavodeltoid 14. acromiodeltoid 15. submandibular salivary gland Fig. 48- Superficial Back, Neck, and Shoulder Muscles 16. anterior facial vein of the Cat, lateral view 17. masseter

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 23 Muscular System Dissection of the Pectoral and Anterior Abdominal Wail Muscles:

4N% *VI'A11S A14::: sterna- mastoid 1. PECTOANTEBRACHIALIS: clavotrapezius There is no homologue for this muscle in cleido- crease marking man. '1 his is a very thin straplike muscle mastoid position of clavicle lying on the surface of the pectoralis major. clavodeltoid It is especially thin in young animals. It Pect7alis major inserts on the fascia of the forearm (ante- pectoanti- brachium) below the elbow. Loosen this brachialis muscle completely from the underlying muscle all the way from origin to insertion. Sever the insertion.

2. PECTORALIS MAJOR: There is a superficial head and a deep headpectoralis minor which overlap one another but are consid- ered to be one muscle. In the cat this muscle is smaller than the pectoralis minor. epitrochlearis 3. PECTORALIS MINOR: This is the largest chest muscle in the cat. triceps brachii long head The insertion of this muscle in the cat is not xiphi- - - homologous to that in man. In the cat the humeralis latissimus dorsi pectoralis major only partly overlaps the pectoralis minor. The different fiber di-Fig. 49- Pectoral Region, and Upper Arm ofthe Cat rections of the two muscles will be your ventral view, superficial muscles. main guide to distinguishing between them 4. XVIIIHUMERALIS: There is no homologue for this muscle in 2. INTERNAL OBLIQUE: man. The fibers of this muscle run at an In the cat the fibers run almost transversely angle to and underneath pectoralis minor. rather than obliquely. The ventral portion is an aponeurosis. Transect this muscle on the side of the abdomen. It is very thin and this ERIOR ABDOMINAL OVAL. maneuver is even more difficult to do than it 1. EXTERNAL OBLIQUE: was for the external oblique. The fibers pass downward toward the 3. TRANSVERSUS ABDOMINIS: midline from origin to insertion. The ventral This is the deepest layer, it is very thin and portion of the muscle is an aponeurosis.. lies directly over the parietal peritoneum. Transect the muscle on the side of the Do not transect. abdomen, and at right angles to the grain in order to expose the next deeper layer whose 4. RECTUS ABDOMINIS: fibers run at a different angle. Proceed This is a narrow strap of muscle sandwiched slowly and carefully as this is a difficult between the aponeurosis of the oblique maneuver. muscles. Do not dissect this muscle. Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 24 Muscular System 29 Anterior Neck and Head

PRELIMINARIES: 3. STERNOHYOID: Loosen additional skin up to the jaw on These are two narrow straps of muscle on both sides of the neck. either side of the midline in the anterior neck, deep to the sternomastoid. With scis- On the left side remove skin from the jaw sors separate them in the midline and ex- to the temple. The fascia is very pose the trachea beneath them. thick in this area Clean the digastric fascia off of the external 4. DIGASTRIC: parotid mylohyoid jugular vein, leaving the salivary Separate the digas- trics. They follow lymph nodes attached. Sland masseter the line of the Elevate the external jaw on both sides jugular vein off of the 1 of the neck. underlying muscles without Yrj 5. MYLOHYOID: cutting it. Clean thelymph node super-ficial fascia (paire,d) facial vein This muscle off of the muscles is deep to submandibular transverse jugular vein under the vein. salivary gland the digas- trics; it's stemohyoid Locate and fibers expose the sub- clavotrapezius external jugular vein run mandib-ular sternomastoid cleidomastoid trans- salivary gland % clavodeltoid versely SOO and the across the parotid salivary gland. midline. Fig.50- AnteriorNeck Region of the Cat Locate the following structures 6. MASSETER: and separate them cleanly Locate this from origin to insertion: muscle deep to the parotid glands. The duct 1. STERNOMASTOID: of the parotid passes over the surface of this This is a broad strap of muscle that extends muscle on it's way to the mouth. If you are from sternum to mastoid process of temporal extremely careful and a little lucky you will bone, running underneath the submandibular find this duct. and parotid salivary glands. In the cat the 7. AURICULARIS: sternomastoids are united at the sternum. This is a superficial muscle attached to the With scissors separate the two sides in the external cartilage of the ear and used in cats midline and trim the anterior border to make to move the ear. a clean straight edge. 8. TEMPORALIS: 2. CLEIDOMASTOID: Find this muscle high on the side of the In cats this is separate fromthe sternomas- head, deep to the auricularis muscle. It is toid. It is largely overlapped by the cla- best distinguished from the a-ricularis votrapezius. Separate it cleanly from all sur- muscles by its fiber direction. It inserts on rounding muscles and fascia. the coronoid process of the mandible.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 25, Muscular System Dissection of the Deep Back and Neck Muscles

1. LEVATOR SCAPULAE: rhomboids now appear much the sameas In the cat this muscle lies deep to the cla- they do in man. There is no homologue in votrapezius, anterior to the acromiotrapezius man for the thin straplike rhomboideus and at right angles to the spinodeltoid. capitis (levator scapulae dorsalis). The Locate it and clear it from origin to inser- rhomboideus major in cats is smaller than tion. the rhomboideus minor and is named by 2. SPLENIUS CAPMS: position rather than size. This muscle lies deep to the clavotrapezius. 4. SERRATUS ANTERIOR: It inserts on the back of the head. This a fan shaped muscle with theappear- 3. RHOMBOIDS: ance of a serrated edge where the individual Transect the acromiotrapezius and reflect it; slips of origin arise from the anterior sur- the rhomboids lie deep to it. Extend the faces of the first ten ribs. forelimb of the cat to imitate the position of the arm in man, and you will see that the

Fig. 51- Deep Back and Neck Left Side, Lateral View Trapezius and Latissimus dorsi have been removed.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 26 Muscular System 31 Dissection of Deep Shoulder Muscles

1. INFRASPINATUS: to locate teres minor. It is very small and This muscle is partly obscured by the spi- lies right next to the insertion of the infraspi- nodeltoid, which in cats originates in part natus. Teres minor also inserts on the head from the surface of the infraspinatus (their of the humerus just one position below the being insufficient room for it on the spine of infraspinatus' insertion. the scapula). Sever the origin of the spinod- 3. SUPRASPINATUS: eltoid and lift it off of the infraspinatus. Supraspinatus occupies the supraspinous Also sever the origin of acromiodeltoid and fossa of the scapula. Examine it's insertion reflect it so that the entire extent of in- at the top of the humerus (greater tubercle). fraspinatus can be seen. Follow it all the way to the insertion on the head of the 4. SUBSCAPULARIS: humerus. Subscapularis occupies the subscapular .fossa on the ventral surface of the scapula. It 2. TERES MINOR: inserts on the greater tubercle of the If you followed the instructions in the humerus. previous paragraph you should now be able

medial head of spine of the scapula triceps brachii

posterior head of infraspinatus triceps brachii

teres major

rhomboideus major

scrratus anterior

Fig. 52- Muscles of Deep Shoulder and Upper Arm of the Cat left side, dorsal view Trapezius, Deltoid, and lateral head of Triceps Brachii have been removed.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 27 Muscular System Dissection of the Arm and ForearmMuscles

4 2. BRACHIALIS: Brachialis is on the lateral surface of the EXTENSORS brachium, ventral to the triceps. Notice that 1. EPITROCHLIARIS the pointed lower end of the acromiodeltoid The epitrochliaris is a thin flat muscle im- insertion points to the brachialis. This fta- mediately beneath the fascia. The muscle ture is helpful for the positive identification originates from the surface of the latissimus of brachialis. The lower end of brachial i3 is dorsi and inserts on the olecranon process of overlapped by the brachioradialis. the ulna; it has no human homologue. 3. BRACHIORADIALIS Detach the insertion of this muscle. Brachioradialis in the cat is a flatnarrow 2. TRICEPS BRACHII: ribbon of muscle that arises from the lateral In the cat the three heads of the triceps look surface of the brachialis. It insertson the like three separate muscles. Indentify each styloid process of the radius. part 4. PRONATOR TERES: a. The long head is the largest and most Pronator teres arises from the medial epi- posterior. Its origin is the scapula, and its in- condyle of the humerus and insertson the sertion is on the olecranon process. radius. Look for it on the anterior medial b. The lateral head originates on the upper side of the elbow joint. end of the humerus and inserts on the olecranon process. Bisect this head in order to see the medial head of the triceps and the . .e0 head of humerus anconeus muscle. supraspinatus c. The medial head lies deep to '-- the lateral head. It is long and 1":74.1.,1414.41T coracobrachialis slender. . Weep; brachii 3. ANCONEUS: subscapularis

The anconeus muscle also lies g, it A 0::12",er."4 ?" f ' deep to the lateral head of the teres major triceps. It is small, flat, and tri- . angular in shape, and insertion for usually has a charac- serratus anterior teristic dark or pinkish color that is helpful in pronator recognition. lens posterior head of triceps brachii LEXORSi medial head of 1. BICEPS BRACHII: triceps brachii medial epicondylc The biceps brachii is found of humerus on the ventral surface of the brachium, somewhat Fig. 53- Muscles of Deep Shoulder and Upper Arm of the Cat hidden by the insertion of ventral view, left side the pectoralis maior. Serrates anterior bar been detatehed from vertebral border of scapula. -,- ^ - ^ - - -^ - _I Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 28 33 Muscular System \N

LEXORS 3. FLEXOR CARPI ULNARIS: This muscle is seen next to the palmaris 1. FLEXOR CARPI RADIALIS: longus. It forms the lateral border of the Flexor carpi radialis lies next to the pronator forearm. teres.

2. PALMARIS LONGUS: In the cat this muscle is much larger and more important than it is in man. It is the largest of the flexors and inserts on all the digits, therefore it is not homologous to man. In man the palmaris longus inserts on the palmar aponeurosis, and is absent in some people. Fig. 54 Flexor Compartment, Left Forelimb

extensor carpi radialis Vlt."41 brevis

brachioradislis

extensor carpi ulna ris

.XTENSORS extensor digitorum lateralis extensor carpi radialis longus 1. EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS LONGUS: extensor digitorum communis This is a narrow muscle, that lies next to the brachioradialis on the dorsal Fig. 55- Extensor Compartment, Left Forelimb side of the forearm.

2.EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS BREVIS 4. EXTENSOR DIGITORUM LATERAL'S lies next to the longus. This muscle has no homologue in man.

3. EXTENSOR DIGITORUM COMMUNIS 5. EXTENSOR CARPI ULNARIS lies next to the extensor carpi radialis. This muscle lies next to the extensor digito- Notice the tendons of insertion that spread rum lateralis out to all four digits.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 29 Muscular System 3 4 Dissection of theThigh and Gluteal Region AzN,""WIC.M.M Nk,.11:1V 3. GRAMS: This muscle very much resembles the sartorius Start by separating the more obvious in that it also is broad, thin, and flat. However, muscles. Do not remove any blood vessels gracilis runs straight down themedialsurface from the thigh. Remove as much fat of the thigh from the crotch to the and fascia from the gluteal ftsgina"bfiqueknee. Detach the insertion of region, close to the tail, as pos- mo- peer nous snottialis gracilis from the medial knee. sible. pectinous mum=4. BICEPS FEMORIS: The tough thick fascia encas- This is a massive muscle on the ing the thigh is called the imps posterolateral surface of the fascia lata. The strongest .act thigh. Free the borders of part of this fascia is found on"VnISj thismuscle, and elevate it the anterior and lateral sur- off of the surface of the faces of the thigh, and this part is underlying muscles. called the iliotibial band. Lift the Identify the large sciatic fascia and with scissors trim the nerve which runs deep to edges of the iliotibial band. Detach onnitsulinasus the biceps, and take care the insertion of the iliotibial band from not to damage the nerve. the lateral knee area and reflect it. Detach the insertion of the biceps from the lateral SUPERFICIALMUSCLES: knee. Clearly demon- 1. TENSOR FASCIA LATA: Fig. 56- Superficial Thigh Musclesstrate the origin atthe ischial tuberosity. This is a muscle embedded in Left Leg, Medial View the proximal end of the iliotib- 5. CAUDOFEMORALIS: ial band of fascia. Elevate the iliotibial Separate the caudo- band forcefully and you will see the femoralis muscle from 1 muscle. Part of the muscle tensor fascis I:1 1.111 gluteus the anterior border of the also overlaps the gluteus me- lata 1. iv #.., medius biceps. In man this dius. Detach this part from 9:;11*/ muscle would be part of the gluteus medius. tit ilio tibial /#/7/f gluteus the gluteus maximus. tract //if ill. at 2. SARTORIUS: maximus .: 1/.4' 6. GLUTEUS MAXIMUS: This is the broad, thin, flat The gluteus maximus is / muscle, which is the most immediately anterior to superficial muscle in the A.." biceps 4/1. gI' the caudofemoralis. In .v. femoris anterior and medial ./ _rte .`0,19tX a is it is quite small, thigh region. It runs on smaller than the gluteus the diagonal from lateral medius. Notice that the thigh to medial knee. %),,N kR s gastrocnemius sciatic nerve emerges t .Detach the insertion of the from underneath the sartorius at the medial Fig. 57- Superficial Thigh Musclesgluteus maximus on its knee. Left Leg, LateralView passage into the posterior thigh.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 30 Muscular System 4. GLUTEUS MEDIUS. QUM t This muscle is partly overlapped by two neighboring muscles, the gluteus maximus 1. VASTUS LATERALIS: posteriorly, and the tensor fascia lata muscle This is a very large muscle covering the anteriorly. Separate the three muscles so anterolateral surface of the thigh. It partly that they are clearly distinct. overlaps the rectus femoris.

2. RECTUS FEMORIS: Look medial to the vastus lateralis. It is 1. SEMIMEMBRANOSUS: overlapped by both vastus lateralis and Return to the posteromedial thigh, and vastus medialis. Transect the rectus femoris. locate semimembranosus, which is a mas- 3. VASTUS MEDIALIS: sive muscle beneath the gracilis. Do not Look medial to the rectus femoris. detach this muscle. Trace it to the ischial tuberosity, which is also the origin for the 4. VASTUS INTERMEDIUS: biceps femoris and the semitendinosus. In Look deep to the rectus femoris. It is often a humans this muscle is strictly a posterior darker or pinker color than the neighboring thigh muscle. In cats it is so large that it muscles. occupies much of the medial thigh.

2. SEMITENDINOSUS: iliopsoas This musae lies close upon the semimembranosus in the posterior thigh, medial side. Do not detach it. Trace it to it's origin.

3. ADDUCTOR MAGNUS: This muscle is large and triangular shaped, and is seen in the medial thigh anterior to the setnimembranosus.

4. ADDUCTOR LONGUS: This muscle lies parallel to and anterior to the adductor magnus in the medial thigh. It is quite small.

5. PECTINEUS: Look high in the thigh, above (anterior to) adductor longus, and just medial to the femoral artery, vein and nerve.

6. ILIOPSOAS: Fig. 58- DeepThigh Muscles Look just lateral to the femoral artery, vein and nerve in the anterior thigh. The muscle Left Leg, Medial View will look very small at first.It is actually just the distal end of a very large muscle which is emerging from the body cavity. To see more of it use a probe to push against the body wall in the groin region.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 31 Muscular System Dissection of the Lower LegMuscles

3. EXTENSOR HALLUCIS: This muscle is absent in the cat.

1. GASTROCNEMIUS: tATEWORUP.M..GROUP: This is the large superficial muscle of the calf. Free all surfaces of the muscle, and PERONEUS LONGUS, BREVIS, & TERTIUS: follow it from origin on the femur to inser- Observe their tendons on the lateral side of tion as part of the tendocalcaneus (Achilles' the ankle. They are arranged justas they are L idon). in man, with peroneus tertius passing in front of the lateral malleolus, and the others 2. SOLEUS: passing behind the lateral malleolus. Care- In the cat the soleus is a small muscle. Look fully peel away the connective tissue which for it deep to the gastrocnemius on the lat- keeps the tendons of the longus and brevis eral side of the leg. It joins the tendocal- behind the malleolus. Lift the tendonsout caneus, but does not cross the knee joint individually with a blunt probe. since it originates on the fibula..

3. PLANTARIS: MEDIAL CRURAL GROUP: Behind the knee the plantaris lies between the two heads of the gastrocnemius. It then Observe that these tendons pass behind the passes deep to the gastrocnemius and lies medial malleolus of the ankle, justas they between the gastrocnemius and soleus. In do in man. Carefully peel away the fascia the cat the plantaris is larger than the soleus. which keeps these tendons in placeso that Like the soleus it too joins the tend: vl- you can observe them individually. Lift caneus It can best be seen on the medial them out from behind the malleolus with side of the leg since on the lateral side of the your blunt probe. Peel the fascia away from leg it is fused with the gastrocnemius. the bottom of the foot and observe the broad flat ligament that servesas a spring for the ANTERIOR CRURAL GROUP: arch of the foot.

1. TIBIALIS ANTERIOR: 1. FLEXOR DIGITORUM LONGUS, & FLEXOR This muscle lies just lateral to the tibia in the HALLUCIS LONGUS. anterior leg. Notice that it inserts at the base Flexor digitorum longus lies anteriorto the of the 1st metatarsal on the medial side of plantaris on the medial side of the lower leg. the foot, just as it does in man. Its tendon passes behind the medial malleolus at the ankle and fuses with the tendon of 2. EXTENSOR DIGITORUM: the larger flexor hallucis longus on the Observe the tendons of this muscle as they plantar surface of the foot. Thecommon spread out to the toes on the top surface of tendon then divides and is distributed to all the foot. Notice the retinaculum which of the toes. In humans the tendon of flexor holds the tendons down at the ankle. hallucis longus stays separate.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 32 37 Muscular System 2. TIBIALIS POSTERIOR: The tendon of this muscle lies anterior to that of flexor digitorum as they both pass ' I; 10 behind the medial malleolus. Find the .10 tendon first, because the muscle itself is hard * Al to see since it is small and flat and com- 01.. pletely hidden deep to the flexor digitorum. biceps fantasia

3. POPLITEUS : gastrocnernius The popliteus forms the floor of the pop- tibialis anterior soleus liteal fossa. It is a small muscle in humans, but a large one in the cat. Look for it deep to peroneus brevis tendocalcaneus the lateral head of the gastrocnemius. retbuteulum peroneus longus lateral peroneus tertius malleolus extensor di eitorum semimembraaosus

semitenclinosus

gastrocnemius tl

plantaris soleus Fig. 60- Muscles & Tendons of Lower Leg LateralView, Left Leg flexor digitorum longus

flexor hallucis longus tibialis anterior

extensor digitorum tibialis posterior

Fig. 59- Muscles & Tendons of Lower Leg Medial View, Left Leg

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 33 Muscular System Suggestions for LaboratoryStudy of Human Muscles

;.:Ncr.::.-:;;;:Sx1K,N....,...,;:k 4.',..Z,..1. 1 r 3 ),I A synergist is a muscle which is function- ,L.., ,',S5sx.,-.,6:;; ..:Sxx:;,".,...., ,,,.,,,:,.:;',>-,;;N:::,:q.::::,:,:,:*.:,):,,N4s,,,, nz.z.,:::;:,,,rz.N.s.:;:,Nssy,,:..x.;;;;NN,:. ing to steady a movementor help accom- The three attributes ofa muscle that are plish a movement by another muscle. usually emphasized ina lecture and in Synergists cooperate withone another at the reference books are action, origin, and in- same joint which,i.e. cause the sameor a sertion. Of these three themost important similar action at that joint attribute is action, however action usually cannot be understood (let alone remem- An antagonist isa muscle whose move- bered) unless origin and insertionare first ment counteracts the action ofany given clearly located. prime mover. Antagonistsare on opposite sides of a joint fromone another. When the If you are having difficulty understanding prime mover is working the antagonistmust how a particular muscle does w:tat it is said relax. to do, locate its origin and insertionon the laboratory skeleton and visualize how the TWO HELPFUL CHECKLISTS FOR HUMAN skeleton will move when the insertion is MUSCLES ARE INCLUDED IN THE APPENDIX: brought closer to the origin. It is also very Two checklists for human musclesare helpful to take note of the grain (fiber direc- included in the Appendix. The checkliston tion) of the muscle, and which side ofa joint pages 53-56 is a summary of the major the muscle crosses. (anterior, posterior, human muscles arranged intogroups ac- medial, or lateral). cording to their most important actions.The second checklist, onpages 57-58 arranges IN &1 E the human muscles by body region. The origin is the fixed end,or at least the less moveable end, usually the proximal end. The insertion is the end which ismost moveable, usually the distal end.

Vo.

The action of a muscle refersto the kind of movement that a muscle causes at a joint.

Muscles do work only when theycontract or shorten. A muscle which is being stretched is not doing work. Stretching is passive.

The prime mover is the primaryagent causing any given movement.

Lab Instructions &Study Guide, Part 1 34 Muscular System 39 Laboratory Study of Nerve Cells & Spinal Cord

'''.V...',. 0 ..._,I

--N,:tk-ss....,s,::ty,:s..,:.;::,0%-.A., .k. Using low power on the compound micro- Using the dissectirt; microscope, identify scope identify the following: the following:

1. EPINEURIUM; 1. VENTRAL HORN the connective tissue sheath around the 2. DORSAL HORN outside of the nerve. 3. DORSAL ROOT GANGLION 2. PERINEUFUUM; 4. ROOTS OF THE SPINAL NERVE the connective tissue surrounding the 5. CENTRAL CANAL 6. CENTRAL GRAY MATTER bundles (fasciculi) of nerve fibers. 7. DORSAL MEDIAN SEPTUM 3. ENDONEURIUM; 5. VENTRAL MEDIAN FISSURE the connective tissue surrounding each 9. LATERAL HORN (IF PRESENT) individual nerve fiber. 10. ANTERIOR HORN CELLS

"-:`, Using high power identify the following:

4. AXON (AXIS CYLINDER) Examine a model of the spinal cord in 5. MYELIN SHEATH 6. NEURILEMMA cross section. Identify all of the items on the 7. NUCLEUS OF A SCHWANN CELL: spinal cord checklist on page 59. (seen in the neurilemma region)

Using low power on the compound microscope identify the following:

1. AXON 2. MYELIN 3. NODES OF RANVIER 4. NEURILEMMA

ADDI. .1

Examine any other nervous system slides that are available to you such as a spinal cord smear (showing large anterior horn cells), a motor nerve ending (motor end plate), a muscle spindle (stretch receptor), and various brain cell preparations. Nerve cells do not stain well, and thus historically the nervous system has been difficult to study microscopically.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 35 Nervous System A Dissection of Cat PeripheralNervous System

.-..:::,:f::::::;:,;:',.;:.:,,,,,,x,-..s.:k:Ns.,:,,,';',';:kist.-11::. 0 Lc i 11it. .:::,,::::::.;;,a3:§;:::*:WM:14...,,\,<§::....,-k44,ws.,,..., -:, Opening the Visceral Cavities: This plexus supplies the muscles and skinof In order to proceed with the following dissec- the anterior compartment of theupper arm. tionofthe peripheral and autonomicnerves it It was exposed during the dissection ofthe will be necessary to open the visceral cavity of muscles of the chest andarm. If more expo- the cat. sure is needed. cut carefully through the pectoralis group io the axillary region, With the cat in the supine position elevatea fold of the body wall in the abdominal region. looking for the strollg white cords whichare Insert the point of a scissors through the body the nerves. You are responsible for identifi- wall and make a midventral incision. Enlarge cation of the four tet ninal branches of the the incision enough to be able to locate the plexus. Elevate the ventral portion of the diaphragm by inserting your finger into the plexus with a proty, and look fora formation incision. Extend the incision from the pubic which resembles ele capitol letter M. region to the diaphragm. MUSCULOCUTANEOOUS NERVE Again insert the point of the scissors through This is a small nerve, the most lateralnerve of the M formation. It the body wall this time above the diaphragm passes along the and next to the sternum. Extend the incision lower edge of the biceps brachii muscle, and anteriorly until you reach the top of the ster- supplies the biceps, coracobrachialis, and num. brachialis muscles. In the pelvic region cut from the midline later- MEDIAN NERVE ally on both sides. Cut the diaphragm free This nerve forms the middle bar of the M.It from its attachment to the anterior body wall. travels with the brachial artery, and together they pass through the humerus (supra- Bend the chest wall laterally untilyou have adequate access to the chest cavity (some ribs condyloid foramen, not present in the hu- will have to be cracked). man) to reach the forearm. The median nerve supplies muscles in the forearm and ,ss hand, anterior compartment, radial side. CERVICAL PLEXUS ULNAR NERVE PHRENIC NERVES... This nerve forms the most medial branch of Locate these nerves in the mediastinum of the M. It passes over the medial epicondyle the chest. They )ass between the pericar- of the humerus, protected by skin only (the dium and the pleura on each side of the "funny bone"), into the forearm, where it chest, and end on the diaphragm. Clear them supplies forearm and hand muscles of the of fat and excess connective tissue, andtrace anterior compartment, ulnar side. them to their origin in the cervical region. In humans the phrenic is mostly C4, withsome RADIAL NERVE contribution from C3 and C5. In cats the This is the largest of the four terminal phrenic is formed by C5 and C6. branches of the brachial plexus. It is also the most posterior in position, and it supplies all of the posterior compartment muscles of both arm and forearm.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part 36 41 Nervous System There are twelve pair of these emerging from the vertebral column in the dorsal region of the thoracic cavity, passing between and parallel to the ribs, traveling with the intercostal arteries and veins. They supply the intercostal muscles.

SCIATIC NERVE This is the largest of the peripheral nerves. It can be observed in the gluteal and dorsal thigh regions, emerging from beneath the gluteus maximus and quadratus lumborum muscles and traveling beneath the biceps femoris muscle of the thigh. It supplies the muscles of the dorsal thigh and all of the lower leg, splitting into two branches, tibial and peroneal, in the popliteal fossa.

FEMORAL NERVE Look for this nerve in the inguinal region, ventral thigh, traveling with the femoral artery and vein. It supplies the ventral thigh muscles.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 37 Nervous System e4 Dissection of the Autonomic Nervous Systemin the Cat

VAGUS NERVE IN THE ABDOMEN The main descending portion of eachvagus SYMPATHETIC TRUNK IN THE THORAX in the mediastinum gives off many branches Push the lung out of the way and examine to heart and lungs. Below the root of the the surface of the vertebral column beneath lung each vagus forms a dorsal and ventral the parietal pleura. There are two of these branch which then unite, penetrating the trunks, one on each side of the thoracic well, diaphragm along with the esophagus and lying near the heads of the ribs. Each is quite forming a plexus on both the lesser and the delicate, looking like white thread. Most of greater curvatures of the stomach. This the ganglia are quite small, hardly visible to plexus also blends with the solar (celiac) the naked eye. You may use the dissecting plexus of the sympathetic division. Fibers scope to examine them more closely, and from this plexus extend to the abdominal with luck may be able to see the rami corn- viscera as far as the transverse colon. tnunicantes connecting the ganglia to the spinal nerves. COLLATERAL GANGLIA: There are three major sympathetic ganglia VAGUS NERVE IN THE THORAX found in the abdominal cavity Theyare Pick up the carotid artery in the neck. Look easy to locate due to the fact that they lie for a nerve adhering closely to the artery and close to the artery for which each is named, running parallel to it. This is the vago- just at the point where the artery branches sympathetic trunk. The vagus separates off of the abdominal aorta. The first two lie from the sympathetic trunk just before so close to one another that they are spoken entering the thorax, at the level of the first of jointly as the solar plexus. rib. Observation of the ganglia may optionally Each vagus gives off a recurrent laryngeal be reserved until such time as the abdominal branch headed for the larynx. The left re- arteries are dissected. The ganglia are current laryngeal nerve hooks around the described here for the sake of completeness. aortic arch. The right recurrent laryngeal nerve hooks around the subclavian artery. 1. CELIAC GANGLION: Look for it at the base of the celiac artery.

2. SUPERIOR MESENTERIC GANGLION: Look for it at the base of the superior mesenteric artery. SYMPATHETIC TRUNK IN THE ABDOMEN Follow the thoracic sympathetic trunks 3. INFERIOR MESENTERIC GANGLION: through the diaphragm to observe the ab- Look for it at the base of the inferior mes- dominal portion. Here the two sympathetic enteric artery. trunks lie near one another on the surface of the vertebral bodies near the midline. They are concealed by the psoas muscles, and they gradually become smaller and harder to see its they descend toward the lumbar region.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 38 43 Nervous System Laboratory Study of the Sheep Brain

The sheep brain is much larger than the cat *1T-- E brain, and is therefore very much more The pontine cistern is seen on the ventral convenient to work with. Study the intact surface of the brain stem at the lower edge (whole) brain first, and then follow instruc- of the pons. tions for cutting it in half through the mid- 3. INTERPEDUNCULAR CISTERN: sagittal plane. The interpeduncular cistern is seen on the ventral surface of the brain stem at theupper edge of the pons.

DURA MATER 4. SUPERIOR CISTERN: The dura mater is most likely missing, The superior cistern is seen on the dorsal having been left behind in the sheep's skull surface of the brain superior to the cerebel- when the brain was removed. The only piece lum and between the cerebellum and occipi- of dura still sure to be present is the pituitary tal lobe. diaphragm (diaphragms sellae) surrounding the infundibulum of the pituitary In the inferior surface of the brain. 1. MEDIAN LONGITUDINAL FISSURE: Remove the pituitary gland, taking care to The median longitudinal fissure is the same leave the cranial nerves attached to the brain as themidsagittal fissure. stem. Use scissors to cut the cranial nerves 2. TRANSVERSE FSSURE : free from the diaphragms sellae. The transverse fissure is between cerebellum

PIA MATER and occipital lobe. The pia matter is present clinging to the 3. LATERAL (SYLVIAN) FISSURE surface of the brain, but is too delicate to be The lateral fissure is very shallow in the visible. sheep brain due to the small size of the

ARACHNOID MATER temporal lobe. The arachnoid mater is the layer of meninges most in evidence. Identification can be confirmed by noticing that the membrane CORPORA QUADRIGEMINA stretches from the top of one gyrus to the top Separate the transverse fissure widely and of the neighboring gyrus; it does not dip look down at the surface of the midbrain; the down into the sulci as it would if it were pia four rounded swellings are the corpora mater. quadrigemina, i.e.the two superior colliculi and the two inferior colliculi. The pineal SUBARACHNOID SPACE body is also visible between the two supe- The subarachnoid space is any space under- rior colliculi. lying the arachnoid membrane. Some of LATERAL GENICULATE BODIES these spaces are larger than others and hence Bend the temporal lobe of the cerebrum have names. Identify the following: away from the midbrain, and trace the optic tracts from the optic chiasm to the dorsal 1. CISTERNA MAGNA: The cisterna magna is located on the dorsal surface of the brain stem. They will lead you directly to the lateral geniculate bodies surface of the brain at the lower edge of the cerebellum, next to the spinal cord. of the thalamus.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 39 Nervous System 44 CORPUS CALLOSUM 11. POW

Look down into the raidsagittal fissure to 12. MEDULLA see the corpus callosum. 13. PYRAMIDS OF THE MEDULLA CEREBELLAR PEDUNCLES : The pyramids are two faint swellings barely Theo are three: middle, superior, and visable on the inferior surface of the meulla. inferior. The middle peduncle connects the pons to the cerebellum; the superior 14. CRANIAL NERVES: Try to identify all XII pair of cranial peduncle connects the corpora quadrigemina nerves. (IX & X are usually not visible) to the cerebellum, and the inferior peduncle connects the spinal cord to the cerebellum. 16. BASILAR ARTERY & CIRCLE OF WILLIS The basilar artery is the midlineartery seen VEIWIWOIV1 BODY OF CEREBELLUM nr: the inferior surface of the medulla and The vermiform body is a midline structure pons.The rime of Willis is on the posterior surface of the -.=bellum. seen in the vicinity of the cerebral peduncles. PINEAL BODY The pineal body can be seen on the dorsal Review your work to this point by wing the surface of the brain just anterior to the checklist for the whole sheep brain found corpora quadrigemina. in the appendix on page 60.

Refer to Fig. 56 and identify the following: To make a sagittal section follow these Instructions: Rest your whole brainon its 1. OLFACTORY BULBS dorsal surface on a cutting board. Usea 2. OLFACTORY TRACTS large carving knife (not a scalpel). Line the 3. OLFACTORY TRIME: knife up exactly in the midline. Makeone The olfactory trigone (also called the ante- slow steady continuous slicing motion, with rior perforate substance) is thearea of cortex the knife moving from anterior to posterior, found between the olfactory tracts. making every effort to stay exactly in the midline at all times. Study both halves since 4 OPTIC NERVES the midline structures will usually showup 5. OPTIC CHIASM better on one side than on the other. 6. OPTIC TRACTS At this point in your work turn to the check- 7. iNFUNDIBULUM list for the sheep brain in sagittal section The infundibulum is also called the stalk of found in the appendix. Using the checklist the pituitary. en page 60 and Fig. 56, identify all the structures mentioned. 8. MAMMILLARY BODY This is the only part of the hypothalamus visable from the outside of the intact brain.

UNCUS The uncus is gray matter (cortex) belonging to the temporal lobe. Follow the olfactory tracts to the uncus.

10. CEREBRAL PEDUNCLES These white matter structures belong to the midbrain. They connect the forebrain to the hind brain.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 40 Nervous System Lab 12. Instructions 11. 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. & cranial cranial cranial basilar cerebral posterior anterior olfactory olfactory cranial Study nerve nerve nerve artery manunillary infundibulum tract nerve VIII VI peduncle body cerebral trip= Guide, Xl(spinal of artery (stria) FIG, communicating (olfactory I (anterior 56 Part (auditory) (abducens) artery bulb) KEY I accessory hypothalamus perforate TO SHEEP 41 ) substance) FIGURE BRAIN, 24. 23. 22. 21. 20. 19. 18. 17. 16. 15. 14. 13. 56 1.fc INFERIOR optic uncus pans of internal cranial cranial cranial cranial medulla cranial cranial cranial 6 chiasm carotid nerve nerve nerve nerve nerve nerve nerve VIEW temporal III IV V VII IX X XII lobe artery (Magus) (trochlear) (facial) (oculomotto) (trigeminal) (hypoglossal) Nervous (glossopharyngeal) System 3

5 6 7

FIG. 57. SHEEP BRAIN, MIDSAGITTALVIEW 1. corpus callosurn 11. marnmillary body 2. pineal body 12. infundibulum 3. superior colliculus 13. optic chiasm 4. inferior colliculus 14. hypothalamus & Ilird ventricle 5. cerebral aqueduct 15. anterior commissure 6. cerebral peduncles 16. interventricular foramen 7. arbor vitae of cerebellum 17. fornix 8. IVth ventricle 18. septum pellucidum 9. medulla 19 cingutate gyros 10. ports 20. mass. intermedia of thalamus

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 42 47 Nervous System Laboratory Dissection of the Cow Eye

The cow eye is quite large and almost 2. LENS: identical to the human eye, and hence is a remove it and observe that it magnifies print. suitable subject for dissection. The preserva- 3. CILIARY BODY: tives will have qffected the otherwise trans- black, resembling the gills of a mushroom. parent cornea and lens to varying degrees 4. IRIS: so that these structures will appear translu- observe closely to identify circular and cent or opaque rather than transparent. radial muscles

5. PUPIL: the hole in the middle of the iris. The outside surface of your specimen has much attached fat which helps to cushion & ANTERIOR CHAMBER: the eye in it's bony fossa. You will also note the space in front of the iris. the presence of several extrinsic muscles 7. POSTERIOR CHAMBER: attached to the eyeball. Trim away the fat the space behind the iris. and muscles and identify the following: 7,Identify the following on the posterior 1. SCLERA: 'on of the specimen:., : the tough white external tunic of the eye 1. VITREOUS HUMOR: 2. CORNEA: remove it from the vitreous chamber and the transparent portion of the sclera in the observe that it magnifies print; it's function anterior position. is to hold the retina smooth against the 3, CONJUNCTIVA: choroid layer.

A continuous layer of epithelium covering 2. RETINA: the anterior surface of the cornea and sclera, the white inner tunic that collapses as the and the under surface of the eyelids. In hu- vitreous humor is removed. mans it is transparent, in cows, it is pigmented so that no "white of the eye" shows. OPTIC DISC: the attachment point for the retina; the point 4. OPTIC NERVE: at which optic nerve exits from the eye. located at the posterior pole of the eyeball. 4. CHOROID LAYER: INTER T the black pigmented middle tunic of the eye. To examine the internal anatomy of the eye 5. TAPETUM LUCIDUM: use scissors to puncture the sclera 1/4 inch An iridesce at portion of the choroid layer, is not present in humans. It is this structure outside the edge of the cornea. Make a cir- which causes the eyes of some animals to cular (360 degree) incision following the shine with reflected light when caught in the edge of the cornea. Grasp the edges of the glare of headlights at night. It is a special ad- incision and separate the front of the eye aptation for vision in dim light that works by from the back of the eye. reflecting light back onto the retina that Identify the following on the anterior would otherwise escape. rtion of the specimen: 6. SCLERA: 1. SUSPENSORY LIGAMENTS: the "whites of the eye" transparent threads attaching lens to ciliary body; stretch them and they will break. Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 43 48 Nervous System APPENDIX A

CHECKLISTS

One of the greatest difficulties encountered by any student of anatomy is that the amount of material in the various reference books isso overwhelming that left to himself or herself the student cannot decide whatto study and what to leave alone. One of the chief _functions of the checklists provided here is that theyserve to set boundaries for the student so that heor she will not become bogged down by this familiar dilemma. 5-fowever,you are evected to know the checklist thoroughly, andyou would be well advised to rehearse the fist frequently, untilyou know it 's details' frommemory.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 45 Appendix AChecklists 49 I 0

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INNOMINATE BONE TIBIA acetabulum medial and lateral condyles obturator foramen intercondylar eminance or tibial spine greater sciatic notch tibial tuberosity lesser sciatic notch medial malleolus iliopectineal line (arcuate line) pelvic brim (pelvic inlet) FIBULA head ILIUM lateral malleolus auricular (articular) surface anterior superior iliac spine PATELLA anterior inferior iliac spine articular surface (2 large facets) iliac crest apex iliac fossa TARSUS ISCHIUM ischial tuberosity calcaneus ischial spine talus inferior ramus of the ischium navicular superior ramus of the ischium cuneiforms (medial, intermediate, lateral) cuboid (distal row, lateral side) PUBIS pubic arch (subpubic angle) METATARSUS pubic tubercle (one through five) pubic symphysis (symphysis pubis) inferior ramus of the pubis PHALANGES superior ramus of the pubis (proximal, medial, distal, except big toe has only two) FEMUR head neck greater trochanter lesser trochanter linea aspera medial and lateral condyles medial and lateral epicondyles adductor tubercle intercondylar fossa patellar surface fovea capitis (for ligamenturn teres)

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 47 Appendix A - Checklists Boneslist: Axial Skeleton Ncl n t t V, 4 LUMBAR REGION ;t -- , massive body VERTEBRAL PARTS thick rectangular spinous process (nid-thonicic ) thin bladelike transverse processes body of the vertebra interlocking intervertebral articulations transverse process spinous process SACRAL REGION 2 superior articular processes note surface for articulation with ilium 2 inferior articular processes lamina COCCYX pedicle 3-5 rudimentary, nodular appearing verte- vertebral arch brae) vertebral foramen intervertebral foramena intervertebral notches

VERTEBRAL REGIONS STERNUM (special regional features) manunrium body CERVICAL REGION xiphoid process transverse foramena on all 7 vertebrae sternal angle bifid spine on most. suprasternal notch (jugular notch) facets for clavicle Atlas (C1): facets for costal cartilages 1-7 anterior arch posterior arch body is absent. RIBS head Axis(C2) neck dens (odontoid process). body Vertebra Prominens (C7) angle prominent spinous process. tubercle costal groove THORACIC REGION articulations 2 facets or 4 demifacets on body of vertebra for head of rib HYOID BONE: 1 facet on transverse process for rib tu- the only nonarticulating bone in the body. bercle intervertebral articulations permit lateral rotation

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I Appendix A - Checklists Bones .g list: Skull

foramen spinosum foramen rotundum (2) FRONTAL BONE: sphenoid sinuses (2) supraorbital foramen ETHMOID BONE (1): frontal sinus crista galli OCCIPITAL BONE: cribriform plate external occipital crest perpendicular plate external occipital protuberance superior conchae (2) superior nuchal line middle conchae (2) inferior nuchal line olfactory foramena occipital condyles foramen magnum FACIALBONES hypoglossal foramen ZYGOMATIC (2) TEMPORAL BONES (2): squamous portion LACRIMAL (2) petrous portion NASAL (2) mastoid process styloid process MAXILLARY (2): zygomatic process alveolar margins carotid foramen palatine process carotid canal zygomatic process foramen lacerum (in part) lacrimal groove stylomastoid foramen maxillary sinus mastoid air cells infraorbital foramen external auditory meatus incisive foramen internal auditory meatus auditory canal PALATINE (2) horizontal process PARIETAL BONES (2) orbital process SPHENOID BONE (1): INFERIOR NASAL CONCHAE (2) sella turcica anterior clinoid processes (2) HOMER (1) posterior clinoid processes (2) MANDIBLE (1): lateral pterygoid processes (2) coronoid process medial pterygoid processes (2) condyloid process greater wings (ala) (2) angle lesser wings (ala) (2) ramus superior orbital fissure (2) mental symphysis optic canal (2) mental foramen optic foramen (2) mandibular foramen foramen lacerum (in part) mandibular notch foramen ovale (2) alveolar margins Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 49 Appendix A - Checklists _

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FIND THE FOLLOWING JOINTS ON THE ARTICULATED SKELETON.

tempromandibular atlantooccipital atlantoaxial acromioclavicular sternoclavicular sternal angle sternochondral costochondral costovertebral costotransverse glenohumeral humeroulnar radiohumeral proximal radioulnar distal radioulnar intermediate radioulnar radiocarpal femeropatellar proximal tibiofibular distal tibiofibular intermediate tibiofibular symphyzis pubis sacroiliac

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I SI Appendix AChecklists e

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: Muscles 14 list: Human Muscles Listed by Actions

ANTERI R FL ION F HEAD ECK) stemocleidotnastoid (x2)

FACIAL EXPRESSION LATERAL FLEXION OF HEAD (NECK) frontalis trapezius (clavo) occipitalis levator scapulae (reversed) corrugator ROTATE HEAD (NECK) procerus sternocleido mastoid orbicularis oculi splenius capitis nasalis levator labii superioris (quadratus labii superioris) 4:4 levator anguli oris EXTEND TRUNK (SPINE) zygomaticus major erector spine group risorius ANTERIOR FLEXION OF TRUNK (SPINE) orbicularis oris rectus abdominis depressor anguli oris psoas major (and minor) depressor labii inferioris iliacus mentalis buccinator LATERAL FLEXION OF TRUNK (SPINE) platysma quadratus lumborum

MASTICATION (JAW) ROTATE TRUNK (SPINE) temporalis external oblique masseter internal oblique medial pterygoid transversus abdominis lateral pterygoid COMPRESS ABDOMEN ELEVATE LARYNX rectus abdominis (for speech and swallowing) external oblique stylohyoid internal oblique digastric transversus abdominis mylohyoid BREATHING DEPRESS LARYNX diaphragm (for speech and swallowing) external intercostals sternohyoid internal intercostals omohyoid scalenii thyrohyoid PECTORAL GIRDLE AND EXTEND NECK (HEAD ) trapezius (clavo) UPPER LIMB semispinalis capitis MUSCLES ACTING ON THE SCAPULA splenius capitis (x2) levator scapulae (x2 reversed) ELEVATE SCAPULA trapezius (clavo) levator scapulae

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 53 Muscular System ADDUCT SCAPULA triceps brachii (retution) anconeus trapezius (acromio) rhomboids (major & minor) PRONATE FOREARM pronator teres DEPRESS SCAPULA pronator quadratus trapezius (wino) pectoralis minor SUPINATE FOREARM biceps brachii ABDUCT SCAPULA brachioradialis setratus anterior supinator

MUSCLES ACTING ON SHOULDER MUSCLES ACTING ON WRIST AND FLEX ARM FINGERS pectoralis major coracobrachialis PALMAR FLEX ION OF WRIST deltoid (clavo) palmaris longus flexor carpi ulnaris EXTEND ARM flexor carpi radialis latissimus dorsi flexor digitorum: superficial/deep teres major deltoid (spino) EXTENSION (DORSIFLEX ) OF WRIST extensor carpi radialis longus ABDUCT ARM extensor carpi radialis brevis supraspinatus extensor carpi ulnaris deltoid (acromio) extensor digiti minimi ADDUCT ARM extensor digitorum communis latissimus dorsi extensor pollicis longus & brevis teres major ABDUCT WRIST pectoralis major flexor carpi radialis coracobrachialis extensor carpi radialis longus deltoid (spino & clavo) extensor carpi radialis brevis LATERAL ROTATION OF ARM ADDUCT WRIST infraspinatus flexor carpi ulnaris teres minor extensor carpi ulnaris deltoid (spino) FLEX FINGERS MEDIAL ROTATION OF ARM flexor digitorum superficial/deep subscapularis latissimus dorsi EXTEND FINGERS teres major extensor digitorum communis pectoralis major extensor digiti minimi deltoid (clavo) extensor pollicis longus & brevis MUSCLES ACTING ON THE ELBOW

FLEX FOREARM biceps brachii .brachialis brachioradialis pronator teres

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 54 Muscular System *1 ,NiL Plantaris 4'1 Popliteus

EXTEND KNEE MUSCLES ACTING ON HIP JOINT Quadriceps femoris: Rectus femoris FLEX THIGH Vastus lateralis Iliopsoas Vastus intermedius Tensor fascia lata Vastus medialis Sartorius Gluteus medius BRACE KNEE (MEDIAL SIDE) Rectus femoris Sartorius Gracilis EXTEND THIGH Semitendinosus Gluteus maximus Semimembranosus Gluteus medius Hamstring group: BRACE KNEE (LATERAL SIDE) Biceps femoris Biceps femoris Semitendinosus Tensor fascia lata Semimembranosus Gluteus maximus BRACE KNEE (ANTERIOR) ABDUCT 'THIGH Gluteus medius Quadriceps femoris: Gluteus minimus Rectus femoris Tensor fascia lata Vastus lateralis Sartorius Vastus intermedius Vastus medialis ADDUCT THIGH Adductor group: MUSCLES ACTING ON ANKLE AND Gracilis Pectineus TOES Adductor magnus FLEX ANKLE Adductor longus (dorsiflex) Adductor brevis Tibialis anterior Extensor digitorum longus LATERAL ROTATION OF THIGH Gluteus maximus Extensor hallucis longus Gluteus medius Peroneus tertius Sartorius EXTEND ANKLE 6 Deep gluteal muscles (plantar flex) Tibialis posterior MEDIAL ROTATION OF THIGH Gluteus medius Peroneus longus Gluteus minimus Peroneus brevis Gastrocnemius MUSCLES ACTING ON KNEE JOINT Soleus Plantarir. FLEX KNEE Hamstring group: Flexor hallucis longus Biceps femoris Flexor digitorum longus Semitendinosus FLEX TOES Semimembranosus Flexor hallucis longus Sartorius; Flexor digitorum longus Gastrocr emius Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 55 Muscular System EXTEND TOES Extensor digitorum longus Extensor hallucis longus

INVERT ANKLE Ilbialis anterior Tibia lis posterior

EVERT ANKLE Peroneus longus Peroneus brevis Peroneus tertius

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 56 Muscular System C Muscles -V list: Human Muscles Listed by Region Nfd. $,N. levator scapulae scalenus posterior FACE scalenus medial frontalis scalenus anterior occipitalis corrugator procerus orbicularis oculi DEEP MUSCLES OF BACK & NECK nasalis erector spinae :. levator labii superioris semispinalis capitis (quadratus labii superioris) spleneus capitus levator anguli oris ANTERIOR ABDOMINAL WALL zygomaticus major rectus abdominis risorius external oblique orbicularis oris internal oblique depressor anguli oris transversus abdominis depressor labii inferioris mentalis POSTERIOR ABDOMINAL WALL buccinator iliopsoas: platysma psoas major psoas minor JAW iliacus temporalis quadratus lumborum masseter medial pterygoid lateral pterygoid ANTERIOR NECK STRAP MUSCLES

SUFRAHYOID GROUP MOORING MUSCLES OF SCAPULA stylohyoid trapezius digastric rhomboid major mylohyoid rhomboid minor

INFRAHYOID GROUP levator scapulae sternohyoid serratus anterior omohyoid pectoralis minor thyrohyoid ROTATOR CUFF GROUP POSTERIOR TRIANGLE OF NECK supraspinatus infraspinatus BORDERS OF THE TRIANGLE teres minor stemocleidomastoid subscapularis trapezius

CONTENTS OF THE TRIANGLE splenius capitis

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 57 Appendis A Checklists 61 BETTER LEVERAGE AT SHOULDER POSTERIOR THIGH (HAMSTRINGS) deltoid biceps femoris latissimus dorsi semitendinosus teres major semimembranosus pectoralis major coracobrachialis MEDIAL THIGH (ADDUCTORS) ARM gracing (Muscles which act on the elbow joint) adductor magnus biceps brachii adductor longus brachialis adductor brevis brachioradialis pectineus pronator teres triceps brachii ANTERIOR THIGH anconeus iliopsoas supinator sartorius pronator quadratus quadriceps femoris ANTERIOR FOREARM rectus femoris (Muscles which act on the wrist & fingers) vastus laterals palmaris longus vastus medians flexor carpi ulnaris vastus intermedius flexor carpi radialis flexor digitorumsuperficiais and profundus ANTERIOR LEG tibialis anterior POSTERIOR FOREARM extensor hallucis (Muscles which act on the wrist & fing.as) extensor digitorum extensor carpi radialis longus peroneus tertius extensor carpi radialis brevis extensor digitorumcommunis and indicis LATERAL CRURAL GROUP extensor digiti minimi peroneus longus extensor carpi ulnaris peroneus brevis THUMB POSTERIOR LEG extensorpollicis longus SUPERFICIAL GROUP extensor pollicis brevis gastrocnemius abductor pollicis longus soleus flexor pollicis longus plantdris popliteus

PELVIC GIRDLE AND DEEP GROUP OWER LIMB tibialis posterior flexordigitorum GLUTEAL REGION flexor hallucislongus gluteusmaximus gluteus medius gluteus minimus tensor fascia lata deep gluteal group

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I Appendix A - Checklists e

Nervous System lists: Miscellaneous Lists

MICROSCOPE WORK REVIEW CAT : PERIPHERAL

PERIPHERAL NERVE SLIDES: NERVOUS SYSTEM epineurium phrenic nerve perineuriurn brachial plexus endoneurium musculocutaneous nerve axon median nerve myelin ulnar nerve neurilemma radial nerve Schwann cell nucleus intercostal nerves node of Ranvier sciatic nerve femoral nerve SPINAL CORD SLIDES: ventral horn ventral horn cells CAT: AUTONOMIC dorsal horn NERVOUS SYSTEM lateral horn (if present) dorsal root ganglion sympathetic trunk roots of the spinal nerve vagus nerve central canal dorsal median septum ventral median fissure

SPINAL CORD MODEL dorsal median septum ventral median sulcus dorsal white column (funiculus) ventral white column lateral white column central canal of spinal cord dorsal white commissure ventral white commissure dorsal horn lateral horn anterior (ventral) horn dorsal root of spinal nerve dorsal root ganglion mixed spinal nerve ventral root of spinal nerve

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 59 Appendix A - Checklists 6 3 Nervous System lists: Sheep Brain

optic nerves optic chiasm MISCELLANEOUS optic tracts MENINGES: infundibulum dura mammillary body of hypothalamus arachnid

SUBARACHNOID SPACES cisterna magna MISCELLANEOUS pontine cistern lateral ventricle interpeduncular cistern IlIrd ventricle superior cistern foramen of Monro cerebral aqueduct CRANIAL NERVES, all 12 pair (IX & X may not be visable) IVth ventricle

FISSURES OHOMBENCEPHALON median longitudinal fissure METENCEPHALON transverse fissure cerebellar cortex lateral (Sylvian) fissure arbor vitae superior cerebellar peduncles IRHOMBENCEPHALON inferior cerebellar peduncles METENCEPHALON pons cerebellar peduncles middle peduncle MYLENCEPHALON superior peduncle medulla oblongata inferior peduncle MESENCEPHALON vermiform body of cerebellum corpora quadrigemina pons superior colliculi MYLENCEPHALON inferior colliculi medulla cerebral peduncles pyramids of medulla ROSENCEPH ALON

ESENCEPHALON 1 TELENCEPHALON cerebral peduncles cerebral cortex corpora quadrigemina DIENCEPHALON ROS ENCEPHALON corpus callosum TELENCEPHALON septum pellucidurr, olfactory bulbs fomix olfactory tracts thalamus olfactory trigone, ( anterior perforate substance) lateral geniculate body of the thalamus uncus massa intermedia of the thalamus hypothalamus DIENCEPHALON infundibulum corpus callosum mammillary body pineal body pineal body lateral geniculate bodies of thalamus optic chiasm Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part 1 60 Appendix A - Checklists 64 Nervous System lists: Human Brain Models MISCELLANEOUS FISSURES midsagittal fissure cranial nerves I-XII centnl fissure (of Rolando) ventricles I-IV 'lateral fissure (Sylvian fissure) foramen of Monro parieto-occipital fissure (midsagival view) cerebral aqueduct calcarine fissure (midsagittal view at right angles to parieto-occipital fissure, extending to tip RHOMBENCEPHALON of occipital pole) MYELENCEPHALON cingulate fissure (midsagittal view above medulla oblongata cingulate gyrus, which is above the corpus callosum) pyramids of the medulla 'collateral fissure (inferior view, runs the length decussation of the pyramids of temporal lobe) CORTEX METENCEPHALON precentral gyrus (motor) cerebellum 'prefrontal cortex (emotional control, thinking, cerebellar cortex planning) arbor vitae postcentral gyrus (sensory) pons 'visual cortex (walls of calcarine fissure) cerebellar peduncles 'visual association areas superior peduncle 'motor speech area (frontal lobe just above middle peduncle Sylvian fissure) inferior peduncle 'speech association areas MESENCEPHALON 'hearing projection cortex 'hearing association areas Cerebral Peduncles 'olfactory discrimination cortex (uncus and Corpora Quadrigemina cingulate gyrus) superior colliculi inferior colliculi DIENCEPHALON thalamus PROSENCEPHALON lateral geniculate bodies TELENCEPHALON medial geniculate bodies olfactory bulbs epithalamus (pineal body) olfactory tracts hypothalamus olfactory trigone mammillary bodies (two) uncus fomix cingulate gyrus (above and parallel to the corpus BASAL NUCLEI callosum) caudate nucleus hippocampus lentiform nucleus corpora striata LOBES frontal lobe TRACTS (WHITE MATER ) parietal lobe internal capsule occipital lobe corona radiata temporal lobe corpus callosum anterior commissure

LabInstructions & Study Guide, Part 1 61 Appendix A - Checklists C5 4 4

' I . . '; ; '; 11

3- : . . 6

. APPENDIX B Homework

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 63 Appendix B. Homework 67 Introductory Homework: Terminology

1. Fill in the blanks in the chart with the correct directional term for the human and for thecat. The body parts are often found in different positions in the humanas compared to the cat. For example, in humans the ventral surface faces anteriorly, whereas in the cat the ventral surface is inferior. Body Part Term Describing Position or Surface Human Cat ventral anterior dorsal cephalic caudal

2. Fill in the blanks in the chart with a synonym for the body plane. The synonym will be different for the human and for the cat. For example: In humans the frontal plane is also the coronal plane, but in the cat the frontal plane is the same as the plane.

Synonym Plane110111=10111111MINIMINV Human Cat frontal coronal

transverse

3. Fill in the blanks with the term which best 6. The serous membrane covering the describes the position stipulated (assume outside of the lungs is called the: that the person is in standard anatomical position unless the word always is used). (2 words) a. the spine is to the umbilicus. 7. What is the difference between a sagittal b. the knee is always to the hip. and a midsagittal section? c. thumb is always to the elbow.

4. The serous membrane lining the thoracic cavity is called the:

(2 words) 5. The serous membrane lining the abdominal cavity is called the:

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part 1 65 Appendix B- Homework es Osteology Homework: Pectoral Girdle& Upper Limb 1. Look up "fractures" inyour medical dictionary, and define the following kinds: lunate

pollex compound styloid greenstick trochlea

2, If you fall and catch yourself on the heel 5. What are nutrient foramena? of your hand with the arm extended stiffly, the fracture most likely to result is called NOTES: Cones' Fracture. Look it up in the dictionry. What bone is involved and where is the break?

3. What is the difference be-A =n the surgi- cal neck and the anatomical heck of the humerus?

4. Look up the following terms inyour medical dictionary. Jot downsome notes t.,n the meanings of the Latin or Greek roots. Notice how these will help you relateto the topic of study. capitulum condyle coracoid epicondyle aamate (hamatum) _ Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 66 6) Appendix B- Homework Osteology Homework: Pelvic Girdle & Lower Limb

1. Look up the following terms in your NOTES: medical dictionary. Jot down some notes on the meanings of the Latin or Greek roots. Notice how these will help you relate to the topic of study. acetabulum articular aspera (as in Linea aspera) auricular cuboid fossa fovea hal lux innominate popliteal ramus

2. What is the fovea capitis? Where is it?

3. What is the ligamentum teres (ligamenturn capitis)?

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 67 Appendix B- Homework #.1 Osteology Homework: Axial Skeleton

curvatures o e t NOTES: spine. Label the "secondary" curvatures?. Label the primary (fetal ) curvatures.

2. Define: kyphosis lordosis scoliosis

3. Where precisely are the intervertebral discs found; what is their function?

4. What are the annulus fibrosus and the nucleus pulposus of a vertebral disc?

5. A laminectomy is done in order to gain access to a herniated disc. What does the "lamina" part of this term refer to?

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 68 I Appendix B. Homework Osteology Homework: the Skull

1. Look up the following terms in your 2. What are Wormian bones? medical dictionary. Jot down some notes on the meanings of the Latin or Greek roots. Notice how these will help you relate to the topic of study. 3. What is the difference between the par- ala anasal sinuses and the venous sinuses of the alveolar brain. Name each.

carotid (carotic)

coronoid

cribriform

crista galli

glossa- (glossal)

incisive 4. Why doesn't the fetal skull have a mastoid process? Be clear about the difference jugular between cause and effect.

lacerum (lacerate)

lacrimal

mental

nuchal 5. Which of the fontanels stays "open" the petrous longest? When does it close? pterygoid

sella turcica

septum

sphenoid (sphcno-) 6. The sigmoid sinus exits the skull through the jugular foramen, and enters the neck. squamous What is this vein called in the neck? vomer

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 69 Appendix B- Homework 7 2 7. Fill in the spaces on the chart to show what bones are present in the structure listed on the left. The number of bones is given in parentheses. If the same bone is present twice (for example, both palatine bones) it is counted twice. The second problem is an example of this.

PROBLEM ANSWER 1. nasal septum (2 bones)

2. hard palate (4 bones)

3. inf.orbital fissure (5 bones)

4. foramen lacerum (3 bones) 5. jugular foramen (2 bones)

6. orbital fossa (7 bones)

7. foramen spinosum (usually 2 bones)

8. zygomatic arch (2 bones)

9. nasal cavity (13 bones)

10. choanae (4 bones)

Lab instructions & Study Guide, Part I 70 7 3 Appendix B- Homework Osteology Homework: Ossification

1. Find the following terms in your medical 4. a. Why is the periosteal bud important dictionary. Take notes on the Latin or Greek b. Why doesn't it invade the cartilage roots. Notice how these meanings will help precursor earlier? you relate to the topic. rancellous chondroblast; 5. What causes the epiphyseal plate to close? chondrocyte diaphysis embryonic (embryologic) endochondral 6. What is the cause of pituitary dwarfism? epiphysis (epiphyseal plate) hemopoiesis; (haemo-; hemato-) hypertrophic 7. Compare giantism and acromegaly. intramembranous necrosis (necrotic) osteoblast; 8. List the sequence of events in er.dochon- dral ossification in correct order. Memorize osteoclast these. osteocyte; osteogenic periosteal bud 9. List the cause effect relationships for the periosteum above (#8.) from memory: spicule

2. Give a precise definition of diffusion.

3. Name three things that interfere with diffusion of nutrients to the cells in the center of the cartilage precursor.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 71 Appendix B. Homework 74 Osteology Homework: Arthrology

1. Look up the following ?erms in your humero-ulnar medical dictionary. Jot down some notes on the meanings of the Latin or Greek roots. costochondral joints Notice how these will he?p you relate to the radiohumeral topic of study. amphi- sterno chondral annular proximal radio-ulnar MUMS arthralgia distal radio-ulnar arthritis radiocarpal arthro- femeropatellar bursitis atlanto-occipital intracapsular distal tibiofibular atlanto-axial meniscus 3. Give specific examples of each of the fol- retinaculum lowing types of joints: synovial ball and socket joint symphysis joint tendosynivitis hinge joint 2. Classify each of the following joints using both of the following schemes: gliding joint I. Fibrous A. Synarthrosis pivot joint IL Cartilagenous B. Amphiarthrosis III. Synovial C. Diarthrosis 4. What joint is moving when you nodyour acromioclavicular head yes? interosseous membrane sterno clavicular 5. What joint is moving when you shake symphysis pubis your head no? glenohumeral tempromandibular

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part 1 72 J Appendix B- Homework Myology Homework

.Look up the following terms in your 2. Define aponeurosis? medical dictionary. Jot down some notes on the meanings of the Latin or Greek roots. anconeus 3. Define the following in terms of muscle antibrachiuni function: biceps a. origin cleido b. insertion aura c. action fascia it. In terms of muscle function: gracile define synergist nucha define antagonist pectoral (pectus) 4. There are different but equivalent ways of peroneal naming specific muscle actions. As examples, fill in the blanks of the following planta exercise. platy- a. Flexion of the hip, = flexion of the , =flexion of the popliteal profunda b. Extension of the knee, = extension of the = extension of the quadrate quadriceps c. Abduction of the arm, = abduction of the = abduction of the rectus sartorius d. Flexion of the forearm = flexion of the , =flexion of the serrate soleus 5. Name the muscles that move the mandible? splenium teres

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 73 p4 Appendix 8- Homework 6. Regarding the muscles of facial expres- 11. Name a flexor muscle and an extensor sion, which ones are for: muscle, both of which abduct the wrist: Smiling

Grimacing

Frowning 12. Name a flexor muscle andan extensor Kissing muscle, both of which adduct the wrist: Other

7. The extensor muscles of the weight bearing joints are called posture muscles 13. Some muscles cause actions at because they are antigravity muscles. Name more the following: than one joint. Name the muscle or muscle group: a. that crosses the shoulder joint and the a. four posture muscles of the head and elbow joint: neck:

b. that flexes the elbow and supinates the arm: b. posture muscle group of the spinal column: c. that flexes the elbow and pronates the ann. 8. Which muscles compress the abdomen (for urinati ',n, defecation, vomiting, parturi- tion, sneezing, coughing) d. that weakly flexes the elbow and strongly flexes the wrist and fingers:

14.. Name a synergist of the gluteus maximus. 9. Name a synergist of the rhomboid muscles. 15. Name an antagonist of the iliopsoas muscle.

10. Regarding the muscles which move the 16. Name an antagonist of the quadriceps elbow, which ones are for femoris group. a. Pronation (Medial Rotation) :

17. Name the posture muscles of the hip b.Supination (Lateral Rotation): joint:

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 74 Appendix B- Homework "7 18. Name the posture muscles of the knee NOTES: joint

19. Name the muscles which brace the extended knee.

20. Regarding the muscles which move the ankle, which ones are for

Eversion:

Inversion:

21. Some muscles cause actions at more than one joint. Name the musc'e or muscle group: a. that causes flexion of the hip and extension of the knee:

b. that causes extension of the hip and flexion of the knee: c. that flexes the spine and flexes the hip

22. Name a muscle that extends the ankle and flexes the toes.

23. Name a muscle that flexes the ankle and extends the toes.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 75 Appendix B- Homework Nervous System Homework:Introduction .Define the following divisions of the 6. True or False: Axonscarry impulses nervous system. toward their cell body. a. Central Nervous System (CNS) 7. Name the glia and their functions. b. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) 8. Clearly distinguish between (define): c. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) endoneurium perineurium 2. Find the following nervous system terms epineurium in your medical dictionary. Jot downsome notes on the meanings of the roots. 9. Explain the "jelly roil" theory of myelin afferent formation. Make a clear distinction between efferent myelin and neurilemma. facilitation

a impulse 10. True or False: Myelin helps withnerve regeneration. Explain. inhibition

internuncial 11. Compare and contrast the following myelin pairs of terms: white matter / gray mater synapse

3. Draw a diagram of the anatomy ofa nerve / tract synapse, and describe how an impulses crosses the synapse. nucleus / ganglion

receptors I effectors

4. True or False: At a nerve-nervesynapse afferent / efferent nerves impulses pass from the axLn ofa neuron to the axon of the next neuron. Explain

5. True or False: Dendrites can be thought of as being extensions of the surface area of the axons.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 76 Appendix B- Homework Nervous System Homework: Spinal Cordand Peripheral Nerves 1. Find the following nervous system terms 5. Explain the process which creates the in your medical dictionary. Jot down some cauda equina. notes on the meanings of theroots. cauda cisterna conus equinia filum phrenic 6. What is the filum terminale? plexus reflex sciatic 7. Where is the conus medullaris? wrist drop

2. T1 isn't grouped with the intercostal 8. Why are spinal taps done at the L4-L5 nerves. What is it part of? level of the spinal cord?

3. Compare and contrast: sensory, motor, and internuncial neurons, relating each to their role in the nervous system. 9. How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?

10. List the number of spinal nerves that exit from each region of the spinal cord.

4. Compare and contrast Anterior Horn Cells to Lateral Horn Cells. 11. Name the four major nerve plexuses and list the spinal nerves that feed into each.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 77 Appendix B- Homework S 12. Name the major peripheral nerves 19. True or False: The dorsal horn of the arising from each of the plexuses, and name spinal cord contains the cell bodies of motor the parts of the body served by each nerve. neurons. Explain

20. True or False: The posterior horn of the spinal cord contains cell bodies ofpregan- glionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system. Explain 13. Name the largest of the peripheral nerves. 21. True or False: The radial nerve is a branch of the brachial plexus. 14. Damage to which terminal nerve would result in:

death by suffocation 22. True or False: The phrenic nerve is a inability to extend the hip joint branch of the cervical plexus. Explain wrist drop

ankle drop 23. True or False: When giving intramuscu- lar injections, it is important to know the location of the sciatic nerve in the femoral 15. True or False: The ascending and de- region. Explain. scending pathways of the spinal cord are located in the white mater (not gray mater) of the cord. Explain 24. Practice drawing the cross szction of the spinal cord free hand until you can do it quickly; label it. 16. True or False:The spinal cord extends to the base of the 5th sacral vertebra. Explain

17. True or False: In a reflex arc impulses pass from an internuncial neuron to a sensory neuron. Explain

18. True or False: A lumbar puncture in- volves removing cerebral spinal fluid from a subarachnoid space. Explain

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 78 Appendix B- Homework 81 Homework: Autonomic Nervous S stem 1. Fin the ollowing terms in your medical 4. Draw a:gram showing a white ramus dictionary. Write notes on the Latin and communicans and a gray ramus Greek roots. communicans. autonomous collateral ejaculation homeostasis hypo- hypothalamic para- parasympathotnime tic paravertebral 5. With words, clearly define the differences peristalsis between a white and a gray ramus communi- ramus cans. splanchna sympathomimetic vaso- 6. What is a splanchnic nerve? vasoconstrictive

2. How is motor supply to skeletal muscle different from motor supply to smooth 7. "Thoracolumbar" is a synonym for the muscle? sympathetic system, and "craniosacral" is a synonym for the parasympathetic system. Explain why.

3. Clearly distinguish between preganglionic and postganglionic motor nerves. 8. Explain why "adrenergic " refers to the sympathetic system, and "cholinergic" refers to the parasympathetic system.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 79 Appendix B. Homework 62 9. What cranial nerves carry parasympa- 15. Create another chart comparing the two thetic motor neurons? Give the nerve by systems as to details of physiologic action. name and number (Roman numeral). Include the following target organs and functions:

blood vessels of the skin and muscles blood vessels of the viscera. 10. True or False: Cell bodies of heart rate preganglionic neurons of the sympathetic respiration rate division of the autonomic nervous system bronchiole constriction are located in the lateral he m of the spinal pupil of the eye cord. piloerection sweat glands saliva secretion 11. True or False: The pupil of the eye other G. 1. Tract secretions dilates due to stimulation of the craniosac- urinary sphincter ral division of the autonomic nervous anal sphincter system. sexual functions (ere'tion and ejaculation)

12. Preganglionic sympathetic axons may pass through the chain ganglia without synapsing. True or F ie?

13.True or Falser. The vomiting center is in the medulla oblongata.

14. On a separate piece of paper create a chart in which you compare and contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems with reference to the following topics:

location of the ganglion relative length of the postganglionic neuron relative length of the preganglionic neuron locatia of the cell body of the preganglionic neuron neurotransmitter chemical used at the postganglionic synapse general physiologic action (summary statement) hypothalamic control centers

Lab lob actions & Study Guide, Part l SO )endix B. Homework Nervous System Homework: Cranial Nerves terms in your 6. What four nerves help with swallowing? dictionary. Notice the Latin and Greek roots. You may find it helpful to write some notes en your findings. 7. What four nerves are parasympathetic motor nerves? abducens abduct 8. What three nerves help with speech (two extrinsic via the vocal cords and one via the tongue)? glosso- intrinsic 9.. Which three nerves help to move the oculomotor eyeball around? ophthalmic proprioception NOTES: somatic tic douloureux trigeminy trochlea vagus visceral

2. True or False: The auditory nerve also car es impulses regulating balance.

3 True or False: The glonsopharyngeal nerve connects to most of the internal viscera.

4. Which two cranial nerves are motor to the face?

5. Which are for taste, and also innerva a salivary gland? (It is impossible to swallow dry items, they must be moistened.)

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I Appendix 13- Homework Homework: Meninges, Ventricles, Cerebral Spinal Fluid e o owing terms in your . ere ise cerebrospmal fluid made'/ dictionary. Notice the Latin and Greek roots. You may find it helpful to write some notes on your findings. 6. What is cerebrospinal fluid for? aqueous 7. What is a synonym for "spinal tap"? arachnoid cephalic (cephalo-) 8. What is the immediate cause of hydro- cephalus? cerebrospinal falx 9. Trace a molecule of CSF circulating from the lateral ventricle to the jugular vein. granulation hydro- pia tentoritun trabecula villus (villi)

2. True or False: The dura mater is the layer of the meninges closest to the surface of the brain and spinal cord.

3. True or False: The pia mater forms the floor of the subarachnoid spaces.

4. How many are there (one or two) of each of the following: Lateral ventricle IIIrd Ventricle IVth Ventricle Foramen of Monro Aqueduct of Sylvius Foramen of Magendie Foramen of Luschka

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 82 v 5 Appendix B- Homework Nervous System Homework: Th eHutnanBrain 1. Find the following terms in your medical meta- dictionary and take brief notes on their meanings as these will help you remember myelo- the information on the brain. neo- accommodation paleo amygdala pallium aphasia para- tabor peduncle archi- perforate Broca's area phren- callosum pineal caudate presby- chiasma presbyophrenia circadian rhythms presbyopia collateral proso- colliculus putamen corona quadri- corticospinal radiate decussation reticular discrimination rhinal encephalo- spinothalamic encephalogram stapedius fornix stria geminate supra- geniculate (geniculum) tele- gonadotrophin -riotropin) tympanum hippocampal uncus insular vitae lentiform Wernicke's area meso-

Lab Instructions & Study r.'1, ide, Part I 83 Appendix B. Homework 66 2. Briefly summarize the functions of the 7. What cranial nerves are attached to the following major structures: medulla? medulla (gray matter) pyramids of the medulla (white matter) 8. What cranial nerves are attachedto the pons? pons, gray matter 9. What cranial nerves are attachedto the pons, white matter cerebral peduncles (midbrain)? cerebellum, gray matter 10. What cranial nerve is attached to the diencephalon? superior colliculi

11. What cranial nerve is attached to the thalamus telencephalon? lateral geniculate body 12. What are the parts of the corpora striata? hypothalamus

13. Name one major commissure tract of the 3. Name the lobes of the telencephalon. brain and give it's function.

14. Name one major descending tract of the brain and give it's function. 4. Name the subcortical nuclei (gray matter) of the telencephalon.

15. Name one major ascending tract of the brain and give it's function. 5. Name six white matter structures of the telencephalon.

16. Why is the cerebral cortex convoluted?

6. Name the parts of the diencephalon. 18. True or False: The motor area of the cerebral cortex in the parietal lobe. Ex- plain.

kl"

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 84 Appendix B- Homework a7 19. True or False: The thalamus has a 31. True or False: The lateral spinothalamic control center for body temperature. tract carries information regarding pain.

20. True or False: The thalamus receives 32. True or False: The ventrospinothalamic pain and temperature information. Explain. tract carries information regarding temperature. 21. True or False: The surfaces of all parts of the brain are gray matter. Explain. 33. True or False: The staggering gate of the alcoholic is due to brain damage in the cerebellum. 22. True or False: The surface of the spinal cord is gray matter. 34. True or False: In order to be fully con- scious of pain one's cerebral cortex must be 23. True or False: The respiratory control intact. center and the heart rate control center are in the medulla.

24. True or False: The hypothalamus is the next higher level of control over the medulla.

25. True or False: The limbic system can influence the hypothalamus.

26. True or False: Our emotions can influence the functions of the autonomic nervous system. Give an example.

27. True or False: The cortex can influence the limbic system. Give an example.

28. True or False: The cortex can influencf the hypothalamus. Give an example.

29. True or False: It is possible to learn some measure of voluntary control over the functions of the autonomic nervous system. Explain.

30. True or False: Injury to one of the areas of the brain concerned with (language) will probably result in some type of aphasia.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 85 Appendix B- Homework 88 Nervous. System Homework: The Eye 1. Look up the following words in your In terms cause/ ,state what medical cyclopedic dictionary, being alert happens to the curvature of the lens. when for root meanings that apply to this unit of the ciliary muscles contract and when they study. relax. Why is this different in presbyopia.

accommodation, visual atrophy 5. Explain the relationship between eyeball length and focusing difficulties in myopia exophthalmos and hyperopia. fovea glaucoma hypermetropia 6. Name the three layers of the wall of the hyperopia eye and the function of each. intraocular lutea macula 7. Clearly distinguish between the blind spot and the macula lutea. myopia opthalmoscope presbyopia rhodopsin

2. Trace the pathway of light through the eye, listing all the structures in sequence through which the light passes to reach the rods and cones of the retina.

3. Using the list generated in #2 above, state the effect (if any) that each structure has on the bending of light rays.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I 87 AppendixB-Homework e0 Nervous. System Homework: The Eye 1. Look up the following words in you 4. In terms state what medical cyclopedic dictionary, being alert happens to the curvature of the lens. when for root meanings that apply to this unit of the ciliary muscles contract and when they study. relax. Why is this different in presbyopia.

2. Trace the pathway of light through the eye, listing all the structures in sequence through which the light passes to reach the rods and cones of the retina.

3. Using the list generated in #2 above, state the effect (if any) that each structure has on the bending of light rays.

Lab Instructions & Study Guide, Part I Appendix B. Homework Nervous System Homework: The Ear 1. Look the following words up in your 3. List the sequence of events by which a medical dictionary, being alert 3 root sound wave is changed into nerve stimula- meanings useful in the present context. tion. ambient ambient pressure auricle cerumen 5. How will different loudnesses affect the organ of hearing? cochlea fenestra fenestra cochlea incur lith- 6. How will different pitches affect the malleus organ of hearing? ossicles otitis media oto- otolith 7. Describe how the semicircular canals work. otopharyngeal tube pinna scala stapes 7. Describe how the utricle and saccule work tectorial for detection of gravity when you are not moving (how do you know up from down?). tympanum Secondly, how do they register a change in utricle head position?

2. Explain the function of the Eustachian tuoe in relation to ambient pressure changes.

Lab Instructions & Study Gukie, Part I SS Appendix B. Homework