Volume: VI, Number: I January - June, 2018 ISSN: 2319-8192 Intellection A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal Editorial Board Chief Editor: Prof. Nikunja Bihari Biswas, Former Dean, Ashutosh Mukharjee School of Educational Sciences, University, Editor Managing Editor Dr.Baharul Islam Laskar , Dr. Abul Hassan Chaudhury Principal , Assistant Registrar, M.C.D College, Sonai, Cachar Assam University, Silchar Associate Editors Dr. S.M.Alfarid Hussain, Dr. Anindya Syam Choudhury, Assistant Professor, Department of Mass Associate Professor, Department of English, Communication, Assam University, Silchar Assam University, Silchar Assistant Managing Editors Dr. Monjur Ahmed Laskar Dr. Nijoy Kr Paul Research Associate Professional Assistant, Central Library, Bioinformatics Centre, Assam University Assam University, Silchar EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS Dr. Humayun Bakth , Prof J.U Ahmed , Associate Professor, Department of Sociology, Department of Management, NEHU, Assam University Tura Campus Dr. Merina Islam, (founder Editor), Dr. Pius V.T, Associate Professor, Department of Assistant Professor, Department of Philosophy, Philosophy , Cachar College, Silchar Assam University, Silchar Dr.Najmul Islam Barbhuiya, Prof Sk Jasim Uddin, Assistant Professor, Department of Arabic, Department of Chemistry, Assam University, Assam University, Silchar Silchar Dr.Himadri Sekhar Das , Dr. Debotosh Chakraborty Assistant Professor, Department of Physics, Assistant Professor, Department of Political Assam university, Silchar Science, Assam University, Silchar Dr. Moynul Hoque, Dr. Md. Aynul Hoque, Assistant professor, Department of History, Former Assistant Professor, , Silchar NERIE, Shillong Dr. Taj Uddin Khan Dr. Subrata Sinha, Assistant Professor, Deptt.of Botany, System Analyst, Computer Centre, S.S.College, Hailakandi Assam University, Silchar Dr. Ayesha Afsana Dr. Ganesh Nandi Former Guest Faculty, Deptt. of Law, Asstt. Professor, Deptt. of Visual Arts, Assam University, Silchar Assam University, Silchar

Disclaimer : Opinion expressed in the articles are those of the contributors and do not necessarily reflect the opinion and views of the Editorial Board or Advisory Board and even Barak Education Society, Silchar. Cover designed by: Mr. Baharul Islam Laskar, Department of Visual Arts, Assam University To contact: Chief Editor: Phone No. 9435072204(M), Email id: [email protected] Editor: Phone: 9435988843 (M), Email id: [email protected] N.B. All concerned with the journal have extended honorary service voluntarily for the publication of the journal smoothly.

Volume: VI, Number: I January – June, 2018 ISSN: 2319-8192 Intellection A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal Advisory Board Chief Advisor Prof. Tapodhir Bhattacharjee, Former Vice Chancellor, Assam University, Silchar Advisors Prof. Y. V. Satyanarayan, Prof. Devendra Nath Tiwari Former Emeritus Professor, Department of Philosophy, and Religion Department of Philosophy, Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam, A.P Varanasi , UP Prof. Yasien Mohamed, Prof. Dr. Abdul Jalil Bin Othman, (Arabic & Islamic Studies) Faculty of Education, Department Foreign Languges, Department of Language and literary Education University of the Western Cape, South Africa University of Malaya, Malayasia Prof. Dr. Md. Saiful Islam Prof. M Asad Uddin Department of Economics, Department of English, Khulna University, Bangladesh Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi

Prof. Niranjan Roy, Prof. Asoke Kr. Sen, Dean, School of Economics & Commerce, Dean, School of Physical Sciences, Assam University, Silchar Assam University , Silchar

Prof. G.Ram, Prof. A. Rasak T, Head, Department of Sociology, Dean, School of English & Foreign Assam University, Silchar Languages, Assam University, Silchar

Prof. Dibyojyoti Bhattacharjee Prof K.M. Baharul Islam, Dept. of Statistics & Director, IQAC, Fellow, Indian Institue of Advanced Assam University, Silchar Study, Rastrapati Nivas, Shimla Prof Dipendu Das Dr. Deshraj Sirswal. Head, Department of English, Assistant Professor, Department of Assam University, Silchar Philosophy, P.G Govt. College for Girls, Chandigarh Prof M.K.Sinha, Dr. Reyaz Ahmed Head, Dept. of Library & Information Assistant professor, Sciences, Software Engineering Department, Assam University, Silchar College of Engineering and IT Al Ain University of Science and Technology, UAE Dr. Mijanur Rahman, Dr. Jashobanta Roy, Principal, Haflong Govt. College, Associate Professor& HOD, Philosophy Haflong, Dima Hasao Radhamadhab College, Silchar District,Assam

Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, January - June, 2018 Vol. VI, No. I, ISSN: 2319-8192

EDITORIAL

I am happy to inform that Barak Education Society has entered twenty first years of its inception and the ‘Editorial Board’ is elated and privileged to publish the 11th successful issue “INTELLECTION”. Our Journal has started its swift journey from January’ 2013 with a few articles to promote and inculcate the spirit of research activities among students, academicians, scholars and intellectuals across the globe. With the passage of time and to cope up with the latest developments especially in the field of information technology, ‘Intellection’ has occupied its place in the web and also in the list of approved journals by University Grants Commission (UGC) the apex academic body of the Country. The response to our appeal for paper contribution and write-ups for publication in the journal ‘Call for Papers’ was beyond our expectations. The paper contributors have spent their time and energy to produce good articles, but we could not include all; even after declining several articles on review, we had to include foureen papers in this issue. Being an interdisciplinary journal this issue of ‘Intellection’ like its earlier issues includes articles from Literature, Philosophy, Economics and Commerce, History and Politics, Sociology and Psychology, information and communication technology etc, which makes the issue much more interesting and useful to academic readers. I take this opportunity to appreciate and thanks to the Executive Committee, Editorial Board and Advisory Board of ‘Barak Education Society’, contributors of articles, all those who have supported us in this endeavour, make it possible for us to publish the journal successfully and to the best of our capabilities. We solicit your support and help for the future issues of the journal too and believe that this issue of the journal would turn out to be of significant use to all categories of readers, especially researchers and educators. We welcome feedbacks, remarks and suggestions from all our readers regarding this issue and for improvement of our future issues. You can access the soft copies of the journal since its inception at http://www.besngo.org and mail your responses to [email protected].

I convey my best wishes for overall success of the journal.

With warm regards

Dated: Silchar the 22nd April, 2018

Dr. Baharul Islam Laskar Editor, Intellection Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, January - June, 2018 Vol. VI, No. I ISSN: 2319-8192 (Included in the list of UGC approved research journals) CONTENTS ………….. Page Nos 1. Discussion of Dharma in the Bhagavadgītā 01-09 - Ms. Arifa Ara Begum 2. Replication of Consciousness: An Analytical Study 10-19 - Ms. Ariba Zaidi 3. Status of Tribal Women : A Case Study on Barman Women of 20-26 Dhanipur Village, Cachar, Assam

- Dr.Ruma Deb Nath and Dr. Dipak Nath

4. Raman Maharshi : A Living Embodiment of Advaita Vedanta 27-32 - Dr.P.I.Devraj and Dr. Shyamla 5. Contemporary Art Progress in : An Analytical Study 33-40 - Dr. M. Irikhomba Meetei and Dr. Partha Sarkar 6 Self Help Groups - A Key to Women Empowerment and poverty 41-48 Elevation: Kudumbashree Experience - Ms. Jayasree T.O 7. Globalization and Television in a Tribal Village in Manipur 49-57 - Panmei Gungapou Rongmei 8. Genesis of Art Activism in Medieval Assam : A Case Study on 58-62 ‘Vrindavani Vastra’ of a Collaborative Initiative by Srimanta Sankardeva - Dr. Raj Kumar Mazinder

Contd. Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, January - June, 2018 Vol. VI, No.I ISSN: 2319-8192 (Included in the list of UGC approved research journals)

Page Nos 9. Interpreting Gandhi’s Ethics as an Ethics of Virtue 63-67

- Dr. Shilpi Srivastava 10. Enrolment and Retention of Tribal Students at Primary and 68-73 Upper Primary Stages in - Mr. Litan Das and Dr. R.K.Mahto

11. Social Book Marking and Tagging : A New Way of Teaching, 74-79 Learning and Library Services - Mr. Partha Majumdar

12. Rubber Plantation in British Cachar as Potential Industry : A 80-84 Critical Study

- Dr. Sahabuddin Ahmed 13. Glorious Journey of Modern Polo and Its Birth Place Silchar: 85-89 An Overview Dr. Ganesh Nandi

14. Recapitulating the Days of Tebhaga Movement in Cachar: A 90-94 Phase of Unbeaten Struggle - Ms. Jhuma Banerjee Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, January - June, 2018 Vol. VI, No. I ISSN: 2319-8192

Discussion of Dharma in the Bhagavadgītā

Arifa Ara Begum Research Scholar Department of Philosophy North-Eastern Hill University Shillong, Email: [email protected]

Abstract

In The text the Bhagavadgītā, the word dharma holds different position. In the Bhagavadgītā, Dharma is presented as Varṇadharma, Sanātanadharma, Śāśvatadharma or Śatdharma and Svadharma. In this scriptural text Dharma is mainly taken in the sense of duty. In the Bhagavadgītā, the question of what is dharma, arises from the dharmasaṁmūḍhacetaḥ (2.7)actual confusion in mind of warrior Arjuna. The present paper will deal with the role of dharma in the text the Bhagavadgītā. The paper will focus in critically analyzing the concept of Varṇadharma which appears to be traditionally misunderstood and misinterpreted. The paper will clarify the distinction between the dharma (righteousness) and adharma (unrighteousness) and have a look in reinterpreting the traditional Sanātanadharma and Varṇāshramdharma by interpreting the words of the verses in the Bhagavadgītā. In this paper the main aim is to analyse and explore the way Dharma (duty) is treated by Kṛṣna, which was taught by him to his friend, Arjuna, in the mythic spiritual dialogue, the Bhagavadgītā. This paper will explore various aspects of Dharma (duty) as explained in the Bhagavadgītā and reflect upon the point that Varṇa(colour) is determined by nature (svabhāva) not birth. The paper will also equally put emphasis on the point that the concept of Dharma (duty) is highly relevant in the contemporary society as it inspires the people to carry out their responsibilities and duties to serve humanity for the purpose of unity and solidarity (lokasaṁgraha). Keywords: Dharma, Svadharma, Adharma, Śāśvatadharma, Sanāatanadharma, Svabhāva etc. including both primary and secondary Objective literature has been consulted. The main objective of this paper is to Introduction study and analyze the concept of dharma as it The concept of Dharma played a appears in the text Bhagavadgītā. Secondary great role in the Bhagavadgītā, which is literatures were also consulted. considered as the platform for constructing an Methodology ideal society. The word Dharma comes from This paper is based on the qualitative the root, “dhṛ”, which means to form, research methodology called hermeneutics, support,sustain, maintain, hold and keep. which is the interpretation of text and Among the four ideals of life it is dharma classical literature. Different scholars and that created a consistent position in the Indian commentators works on Bhagavadgītā, thinking through decade’s .The Bhagavadgītā

1 Discussion of Dharma in the Bhagavadgītā ISSN: 2319-8192 points out righteousness as the essence of Kurukṣetra is the battlefield where the battle dharma. It is instrument for remoulding our of righteousness took place. It is the land of nature. Kṛṣṇa says in the Bhagavadgītā that the Kurus a leading clan of the period. The He created the four-fold division of varṇas whole world is referred to as dharmakṣetre. based on differences of opportunity (karma) Dharma is what promotes worldly prosperity and ability (guṇa) and can be destroyed with and spiritual freedom. The world is full of the demand of time. In the Bhagavadgītā, imperfection and evil. We can change the dharma is used in the sense of duty. It is a world by applying the ideal of dharma. corpus of duties essential for the sound Arjuna decided not to fight seeing his family organization of human societies. In the members standing against him as he is Bhagavadgītā dharma is define as the law of actually confused in mind the righteousness for the regulation of the (dharmasaṁmūḍhacetāḥ) (2.7) about the real whole Universe. It is the underlying principle meaning of dharma. When one’s mind used in the social evolution of humanity towards to be perpelexed regarding duty and manifestation and demonstration of the unity. responsibility one take direction from the Dharma is established in work, it is impelling higher authority. In the case of Arjuna also, man day and night to run after work for who was in doubt as to whether it was happiness. The present paper highlights of righteous or unrighteous for a Kṣatriya to what does the word dharma means and the give up fight surrendered to Kṛṣṇa with the various aspects of dharma and in the words (tvām prapannam) without hesitation Bhagavadgītā. inorder to ask for spiritual guidance. The Dharma in the Bhagavadgītā: The verse referred to here is: Bhagavadgītā, begins with the word dharma. “kārpaṇyadoṣopahatasvabhāvaḥ pṛcchāmi Dhṛtarāṣṭra the father of Kurus said to tvāṁ dharmasaṁmūḍhacetaḥ/ yacchreyaḥ Sañjaya that he is highly doughtful about the syānniścitaṁ brūhi tanme śiṣyaste ‘haṁ śādhi possible victory of his sons. The word māṁtvāṁ prapannam//” (2.7) 3“My very dharma arises in the form of a question: being is stricken with the weakness of dharmakṣetre kurukṣetre samavetā (sentimental) pity. With my mind bewildered, yuyutsavaḥ /Māmakāh pāṇḍavāścaiva, my duty, ask thee. Tell me, for certain, which kimakurvata sañjaya//1 “In the field of is better. I am Thy pupil; teach me, who am righteousness, the field of the kurus, when seeking refuge in Thee”4.This verse is a my people and the sons of Pāṇdụ had milestone in the Bhagavadgītā, as it reflects a gathered together, eager for battle, what did change in Arjuna’s thinking. Arjuna at last they do O Sañjaya?”2. The word gained back reasoning capacity and decided dharmakṣetre means the field of to indulge in war to fulfill his dharma (duty) righteousness. It is referred to as dharmakṣetre because Kṛṣṇa was actively present in the battlefield. Kṛṣṇa is the 3 The Bhagavadgītā; translation by protector of the dharma. S.Radhakrishnan, Chapter-II, verse: 7, HaperColins Publication Press-1993, 1 The Bhagavadgītā; translation by p.112 S.Radhakrishnan, Chapter-I, verse: 1, 4 The Bhagavadgītā; translation by HaperColins Publication Press-1993, S.Radhakrishnan, Chapter-II, verse: 7, p.87. HaperColins Publication Press-1993, 2 ibid p.113 2 Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018 of righteousness against the unrighteousness eternal dharma. According to the (adharma). Bhagavadgītā: “tvam Śāśvataḥdharma or Sāttvata dharma: akṣaraṁparamaṁveditavya tvam asya There is certain kind of the principle of the viśvasya paraṁ nidhānam / tvamavyayaḥ family tradition (kula dharmāḥ) (1.40) of the śāśvata dharma goptāsanātanas tvam puruṣo ancient society. This dharma is eternal matome //”5 “Thou art the Imperishable, the dharma (sanātanaḥ).Arjuna at the begging of Supreme to be realized. Thou art the ultimate the war misunderstood the real meaning of resting place of the Universe; Thou art the (sanātanaḥ dharma). He said to Kṛṣṇa that undying guardian of the eternal law. Thou art when the people will be killed than the the Primal Person, I think”6. Kṛṣṇa appears to ancient laws will be destroyed. Arjuna be the protector of the śāśvatadharma. misunderstood that the sanātanaḥ dharma Śāśvatadharma is imperishable (akṣaraṁ) will transform to adharma (verse 1.40) if he (11.18). This dharma is different from the took part in the battle. dharma of the four Varṇa. This verse appears Kṛṣṇa’s active participation in the battlefield in the form of an opinion to Arjuna. People wiped away all the doubts of Arjuna usually misunderstood the concept of the regarding the true meaning of dharma. The Varṇa dharma in the Bhagavadgītā. Kṛṣṇa Bhagavadgītā presents before us the concept reinterpreted Varṇa that dharma is not of Śaśvataḥdharma or Sāttvatadharma. It is associated with birth but with the emerging the eternal dharma or the Sat dharma. Arjuna social order. He reinterpreted the concept of is of the view that the fault (doṣair) (1.43) of the existing Varṇa dharma for the betterment destroying the family would destroy the of the human society for maintaining social whole community (jātidharmāḥ) (1.43). It order. This dharma is suited for any kind of would also break the principle set by the the institution. The traditional understanding traditional institution of eternal religion of the four Varṇa is pull down or (sanātana dharma or varṅadharma) (1.43). It deconstructed in the text the Bhagavadgītā. It would devastate (utsādyante) (1.43) the can argued that people are still following the welfare of the whole society. Arjuna also four Varṇa.It becomes clear from the text that presented his argument to Kṛṣṇa that he have it is not the fault of the text but the heard from the authorities of his successor individuals are getting stick to it. An that one who spoiled the tradition of the individual should perform his duty according family (kula dharmanam) (1.43) would to the principle of śāśvatadharma to maintain always have his residence in hell. Here it the unity of the people (lokasamgraha). appears that Arjuna understood the meaning of the dharma in the traditional context which 5 The Bhagavadgītā; translation by Kṛṣṇa clarifies. He rejects Arjuna’s S.Radhakrishnan, Chapter-XI, verse: 18, argument’s as mere ‘weakness of heart’ HaperColins Publication Press-1993, (hṛidayadaurbalyam) (2.3) and impotence p.326-327 (klaibyam) (2.3) and urges him to fight. Kṛṣṇa appeal to Arjuna that it is a sense of 6 The Bhagavadgītā; translation by duty (dharma) that is required for him to fight S.Radhakrishnan, Chapter-XI, verse: 18, as a Kṣhatriya. Sanātana dharma does not HaperColins Publication Press-1993, p. mean going away without performing one’s 327 duty (dharma).Kṛṣṇa is the protector of

3 Discussion of Dharma in the Bhagavadgītā ISSN: 2319-8192

Kṛṣṇa put forward that bhakta who is endued intelligent takes everything to be opposite with (śraddadhānā) (12.20) (with faith) (viparītā) (18.32) of what it is. So, Kṛṣṇa brings transition in the manifestation of the advised Arjuna not to make his intellect yajña. It is required for a bhakta to follow the (buddhi) clouded by tamas (darkness) and to eternal alive dharma or śāśvatadharma for a hold up what is fruitful for him as well as in forceful settlement. One who completely the society. Here, it becomes clear that action engages in this is very dear (atīvapriyāh) (Karma) is performed by the guṇas and is not (12.20) to the Institutional Person or the related to birth. guardian of this eternal dharma. Kṛṣṇa in verse 18. (33-35) points out that In the Bhagavadgītā, Kṛṣna in verse 18. (31- three kind of steadiness (dhṛti) or 32) explain the guṇas of Prakṛti. A person determination is required to perform action with right mentality can only be stick by the with the sense of duty. A man under the mode principle of the dharma and bring about of sāttvikidhṛti (18.33) determination never social solidarity in a particular society. It abandons his activities even if difficulties takes a long time for one to understand arise. The dhṛti or determination that is (prajānāti) (18.31) of how to perform action. influenced by raja guna is motivated by Kṛṣṇa says that karma (action) needs to be desires for rewards. Activities which include understood with dedication and guidance. As mind, senses and body for the purpose of unless we understand what is our dharma, rewards is situated in raja guna and can never what is our duty towards this world we will led one to perform one’s duty perfectly. be swimming in an ocean of ignorance. One Hence, Kṛṣṇa confirmed to Arjuna that who has not received this knowledge (jñāna) everything happens at the level of determined will not be clear about what dharma mind and intellect. The verse that is referred (righteousness) is and what to here is: “yayā tu dharmakāmārthāndhṛtyā adharma(unrighteousness) is. As, a result dhārayate‘rjuna / prasaṅgena phalākānkṣī they will always be confused whether to act dhṛtiḥ sā pārtha rājasī //7.“The steadiness by or not. Confusion will creep in if we forget which one hold fast to duty, pleasure and our dharma and get swayed by egoism and wealth desiring the fruit in consequence attachment. Arjuna’s attachment to his family thereof – that, O Pārtha (Arjuna), is of the members created confusion with regards to nature of ‘passion’’. 8Again, one who is his duty as a warrior. Kṛṣṇa taught him the influenced by the mode of tamas(ignorance) way of karma (action) to remove confusion never gives up sleep, fear, grief, depression from him. Action (Karma) is performed by and arrogance (yayā svapnaṁ bhayaṁ śokaṁ the guṇas of the prakṛti i.e. sattvika, rajasik visādaṁ madameva ca (verse 18.35)). If an and tamasika. Whenever our intellect individual is determined by these qualities of (buddhi) gets confused about to act or not, we tamas cannot indulge in action. In fact the can assume that it is rajasic (passion) (18.31) duty remains incomplete and will transform tinged with selfishness. Kṛṣṇa put forwards to adharma (unrighteousness). that the level of selfish desires is so great in a man of tamasika (ignorance) (18.32) that the 7 The Bhagavadgītā; translation by buddhi (intelligent) becomes dark. Such a S.Radhakrishnan, Chapter-XVIII, verse: person behaves in a totally ignorant fashion 34, HaperColins Publication Press-1993, and confused what is right (dharma) and p.429. what is wrong (adharma). A person with such 8 Ibid 4 Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018

Svadharma and Svabhāva: The by one’s own dharma instead of the dharma Bhagavadgītā also present before us the of sense objects in two verses chapter 3.35 concept of Svadharma. The word Svadharma and chapter 18.47. The verse referred to here is made up of the prefix sva and the root word is: “Śreyán svadharmo viguṇaḥ paradharmāt dharma which means self assigned duty. In svanuṣṭhitāt/ svadharme nidhanaṁ sreyaḥ the battlefield when Arjuna was confused of paradharmo bhayāvahaḥ//9“Better is one’s whether to go to fight or retreat from the war own law though imperfectly carried out than Kṛṣna reminded him of his duty (svadharma) the law of another carried out perfectly? of righteousness. It is of two kinds. It is Better is death in (the fulfillment of) one’s ordained by Kṛṣṇa. On the bodily plane own law for to follow another’s law is Svadharma is called varṇāsrama dharma, or perilous”10.It appears that in this verse of the man’s stepping stone for spiritual Bhagavadgītā, the word dharma has been understanding. On the other hand dharma used four times. It can be stated as right relates to holding together the individuals in a action. Svadharma is our personal dharma, society. Kṛṣna in chapter 2 verse (31-33) which is applicable to our context and develop the argument why Arjuna should situation. This Svadharma can change as our fight in the battle. Dharma of war is not to context in life changes. So, Kṛṣṇa is again kill but to use force to show the right path to and again asking Arjuna to follow his yuddha (2.31) means sangrāmam or forceful svadharma and not change it. The duties born settlement. Kṛṣṇa explained to Arjuna that as of one’s nature (svabhāva) can be easily the war has arrived he have to maintain and performed with stability of mind. Kṛṣṇa restore the practice of dharma. Dharma is a emphasize that it is better to die in the faithful force in us that is applied for a forceful performance of one’s duty (svadharma) than settlement. Institutional action can be to perform (paradharma) other’s duty being performed by institutional person. Kṛṣṇa attracted by sense organs. Svadharma means explained to Arjuna that the war has come by performing the dharma of the Puruṣa not itself (labhante)(2.32) and as a Kṣatriya his being compelled by the dharma of the happiness (sukhinaḥ)(2.32) would come by indriyas. Indriyas astray us from performing participating in the war which is considered svadharma as kāma is seated in the indriyas, as an open door to heaven (svarga- manas and buddhi. It restricts one to attain dvāram:2.32). Arjuna has no reason left out the jñāna of Puruṣa and comples one to to refrain from war. The issue here is not perform (paradharma) i.e. indriyas’ and making war. Modern thinkers misunderstood prakṛti’s dharma. So, one should kill kāma and think that Kṛṣṇa incites one to war. and follow one’s own Purusa’s dharma, Similarly, this type of situation often arrives which is man’s svadharma. In verse 18.47 in in our society. So, one should find one’s role the Bhagavadgītā, the occupational duty of properly keeping in view the intentional individual is prescribed. Duties perform structure of the thought. The action will according to one’s own nature are never automatically be performed if it is found. Action can be performed properly by a sense 9 The Bhagavadgītā; translation by of duty (dharma) not adharma that is by S.Radhakrishnan, Chapter-III, verse: 35, refraining from duty. HaperColins Publication Press-1993, Kṛṣṇa in his conversation to Arjuna p.168. emphasize that one should proceed forward 10 ibid 5 Discussion of Dharma in the Bhagavadgītā ISSN: 2319-8192 affected by sinful reactions: śreyān saṃbhavāmi yuge yuge//15 “For the protection svadharma vigunaḥ paradhārmāt of the good, for the destruction of the wicked svanuṣthitāt/ svabhāvaniyataṁ karma and for the establishment of righteousness, I kurvannāpnoti kilbiṣam//11 “Better is one’s come into being from age to age”16. In verse own law though imperfectly carried out than 4.7 Kṛṣna declares his beginning with yadā the law of another carried out perfectly. One yadā (verse 4.7) which means whenever or does not incur sin when one does the duty wherever dharma or righteousness decline ordained by one’s own nature”12. Svadharma unrighteousness increases and become in this verse refer not to the dharma of person dominant at that time dharmaPuruṣa Kṛṣna by birth, but to the dharma of the person descends to incarnate and manifest Himself. occupying a role in the institution according This is the cyclic notion of dharma. With the to his nature (svabhāva). This verse makes it decline of dharma, adharma comes up. When clear that if an individual perform dharma adharma claims to be dharma problems being impeled by desire incur sin arises in the society. Institution is permanent (kurvannāpnotikilbiṣam) (18.47). but people keep changing. It is not up to us to In the Bhagavadgītā, Kṛṣna claims in 4.(7-8) create an institution but it is the time (Yuga verse to Arjuna that whenever there is Puruṣa) that makes institution. People are not predominance of irreligiosity(adharma) and important they come and go but the a disappearance of true religion He incarnate institution will continue. In a particular by his own self: yadā yadā hi dharmasya society people learn the technique of how to glānir bhavati bhārata/ abhyutthānam come up and oppress the intense people. It adharmasya tadātmānaṃsṛjāmyaham//13 goes on yuge after yuge. But, the “whenever there is a decline of righteousness intensification of thought cannot go away that and rise of unrighteousness, O Bhārata is the Institutional Person. Hence, for the (Arjuna), then I send forth (create incarnate) protection of the good Myself”14. paritrāṇāya sādhūnāṃ vināśāya (paritrāṇāyasādhūnāṁ)(4.8) and for the ca duśkṛtām/ dharmasaṃsthāpanārthāya establishment of the righteousness (dharmasaṁsthāpanārthāya) (verse 4.8) Kṛṣna that is the institutional person comes age after age (yuge yuge) (4.8). 11 The Bhagavadgītā; translation by Svadharma is determined by one’s own S.Radhakrishnan, Chapter-XVIII, verse: svabhāva: Kṛṣna reveals that there is no jiva 47, HaperColins Publication Press-1993, (na tadasti) (18.40) on earth or among the p.47. gods in the heaven (dividevesụ)(18-40) that is 12 free from the three modes born of material ibid 13The Bhagavadgītā; translation by nature (prakṛtijairmuktaṁ) (18.40). Kṛṣna in S.Radhakrishnan, Chapter-IV, verse: 7, verse 18.40 summarizes the total influence of HaperColins Publication Press-1993, the three modes of material nature all over the p.178. 15 The Bhagavadgītā; translation by 14 The Bhagavadgītā; translation by S.Radhakrishnan, Chapter-IV, verse: 8, S.Radhakrishnan, Chapter-IV, verse: 7, HaperColins Publication Press-1993, HaperColins Publication Press-1993, p.180. p.178. 16 ibid 6 Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018

Universe. Duties (svadharma) are determined with the qualities born of their nature”18 From by one’s own nature (svabhāva). The guṇas the above verse it is clear that there is no sattvik, rajas and tamas works throughout the place for caste system in the Bhagavadgītā. Universe, and not just in a certain part of it, The emphasis on svabhāva indicates that like the earth. So, individual by his own human beings are to be treated as individuals nature (svabhāva) should determine the not type. So, duty (dharma) can be performed duties to be performed. The basis of division according to the guṇas born out of nature of karmas of four varṇas is explained by (svabhāvaprabhavairguṇaiḥ) (18.41). In the Kṛṣṇa in 18. 41-44. Kṛṣṇa is of the view that Bhagavadgītā duties are divided according to the four forms of the society Brahmans, the nature not by birth. One who is born with Kṣatriyas, Vaiśyas and Śudras is designed for the nature(svabhāva) of peacefulness (śamaḥ) human evolution. He analyzed that the four (ārjavam)(18.42) honesty and also classes are not determined by birth or colour knowledge (jñānam) (18.42), wisdom (varṇa) but by characteristics. We are born (vijñānam) (18.42) can be called a Brahmin. with unique proportion of guṇas, with certain These are the natural qualities by which a level of sattva, tamas and rajas. These guṇas Brahma (18.42), self-control (damaḥ)(18.42), determine how we preserve the world, how austerity (tapaḥ) (18.42), purity we think about the world, and how we act and (śaucam)(18.42), work. Heroism (śauryam) transact in the world. The inborn nature (18.43), power (tejaḥ) (18.43), determination (svabhāva)(18.41) can be make effective by (dhṛtiḥ)(18.43), resourcefulness our duty (svadharma). People most often get (dākṣyam)(18.43), generosity attached by high level of tamas and rajas (dānam)(18.43), of leadership which brings about downfall. But, our (īśvara)(18.43)are the natural qualities of engagement to the society is needed. So, work of the Kṣatriyas. Kṛṣṇa make it to Kṛṣṇa is of the view that we first need to understand our mental makeup. Then we can 18 The Bhagavadgītā; translation by make our action productive and contribute to S.Radhakrishnan, Chapter-XVIII, verse: the well being of the society or the institution. 41, HaperColins Publication Press-1993, If we perform our duty (dharma) for the p.431. institution it will ensure a prosperous life to us. After all, institution is nothing but a manifestation of Kṛṣṇa the Institutional Person. The verse referred to here is: “brāhmaṇakṣatriyaviśāṁ śūdrāṇāñca parantapa /karmāṇi pravibhaktāni svabhāvaprabhavairguṇaih//”17 “Of Brahmins, of Kṣatriyas, and Vaiśyas as also of Śūdras, O conqueror of the foe (Arjuna), the activities are distinguished, in accordance

17 The Bhagavadgītā; translation by S.Radhakrishnan, Chapter-XVIII, verse: 41, HaperColins Publication Press-1993, p.431. 7 Discussion of Dharma in the Bhagavadgītā ISSN: 2319-8192

Arjuna that a Kṣatriya born of this nature order. It appears to be that the principle of never run away from battle (yuddhe śāśvattadharma or eternal dharma maintains cāpyapalāyanam)(18.43). Agriculture the unity of the people. . In the Bhagavadgītā (kṛsi)(18.44), tending cattle and trade the concept of dharma has been taken in the (gaurakṣyavānijyaṁ)(18.44) are the duties of sense of duty. Dharma is articulated through a Vaiśya born of his nature. Service to others karma (action) of a person. The evil society (paricaryātmakaṁ)(18.44) is the duty of a can be changed by applying the ideal of the Śūdra born of his nature. From the above dharma. After a critical observation it has points it is clear that different people are been founded that Varṇa dharma and assigned different types of duty according to Sanatanadharma has not been understood in their capacity. Individuals with different the traditional sense. It has been reinterpreted capacities are bound together in a society or a in the text the Bhagavadgītā. The Varṇa particular institution. Each individual have dharma in the Bhagavadgītā is not associated the opportunity of achieving his human with birth but the emerging social order. So, fullness according to his own effort and the division of the duty is based on the condition. So, the Bhagavadgītā does not account of one’s nature (svabhāva) not by justify the concept of cāturvaṛnyam. All men birth. An individual should perform his duty are not equal in their capacities but all men according to the principle of Śāśvatta dharma are equally necessary for society, and their to maintain the unity of the people contributions from their different stations are (lokasamgraha).The Bhagavadgītā put of equal value. The whole world is the emphasis on Svadharma rather than the manifestation of Kṛṣṇa(dharma Puruṣa). A traditional varṇāshramadharma. The man can attain perfection or attain the status Bhagavadgītā, is not justifying dharma as of Kṛṣṇa if he performs his duties according varnāshramadharma. It is reinterpreted that to his own nature in this world itself. varṇa dharma can be performed by engaging Conclusion or findings oneself in a particular work or karma (action) From the above interpretation of the in the cosmos. Duty (dharma) is divided to words of the verses regarding dharma of the each and every individual by keeping in view text the Bhagavadgītā, it can be concluded his svabhāva. One should perform his duty by that the whole Universe is the dharmakṣetra. his own dharma to attain perfection. The role In the text the Bhagavadgītā, we can observe of dharma is to hold together the individuals that the first verse itself begin with the word in a society. Dharma folds and afolds us. dharmakṣetre (field of righteousness). We Svadharma is guided by the dharma Puruṣa. arrive at the point that in the situation of war Svabhāva can be make active by svadharma. and battle one should act from his or her Svadharma is essential for the unity of the dharma or spiritual nature. As a human being institution. One can attain self-purification by it is our dharma to be righteous at all time performing his duty (dharma) that is ordained avoiding desires and inclinations. Kṛṣna is the to him. Svadharma is to be performed giving dharma Puruṣa guarding the eternal dharma the ownership to the dharmaPuruṣa i.e. śāśvattadharma. Śāśvatta dharma or the otherwise it will transform to adharma as in eternal dharma is the only existing dharma. the same manner Arjuna performed by The Bhagavadgītā, gives emphasis in surrendering himself to the dharma Puruṣa promoting social solidarity or the unity of the and attained self-purification. The people (lokasaṁgraha) for maintaining social Bhagavadgītā, is talking about dharma from

8 Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018 the spiritual and moral perspective. From a • Miller, Barbara Stoller; (1986):THE spiritual perspective when one surrender to Bhagavad Gītā: Kṛṣṇa’s Counsel in Time the Supreme Being is dharma. From the ofWar, New York, Bantam Books, Press moral perspective when one performs • Minor, Robert. N; (1986): Modern Indian righteous duty in a society is dharma. Interpreters of the Bhagavad Gītā, SUNY References Series in Religious Studies, SUNY Press • Arnold, Edwin Sir; (1885):Bhagavad Gītā • Pani, Susmit Prasad, SatpathyGeeta; (the song celestial, 1965), Y.G.,illus, (2009):Gandhi, Aurobindo and Publication, New York Heritage, Press Radhakrishnanon Bhagavad Gītā, Publisher: • Aurobindo; (2002):The Essential Gītā, Sri Kunal Books Publishers & Distributor Aurobindo Divine Life Publication and • Radhakrishnan, S; (1929): Indian Distribution Agency Philosophy: Volume 1, Oxford University • Chopra, R.R.; (1995):Gītā – the Song Press Celestial, Published by R.R. Chopra, • Radhakrishnan, S; (1957): Bhagavad Gītā NirmanVihar, Delhi, Press (Original date between 400BCE and 400CE), • Creel, Austin B. Creel; (1977): Dharma in A Source in Indian Philosophy, pp.102-163, the Hindu Ethics, Firma klm private limited, Princeton University Press Calcutta. • Radhakrishnan, S; (1993):The Bhagavad • Desai, Morarji; (1978): A View of The Gītā, Gītā, English Translation,HarperColins S. Chand,Ram Nagar, New Delhi. Publication • Gauchhwal, Balbir Singh; (1971): • Sarasvati, Madhusudana; (1998): Foundations of Indian Philosophy, Bhagavadgītā with the Annotation Gūḍhārtha W.H.Patwardhan, New Delhi Dīpikā, Translated by Swami • Gauchhwal, Balbir Singh;(1976):The Gambhirananda, Kolkata Trio Press. Conceptual Framework of Indian Philosophy, • Sharma, Arvind; (1989): New Essaysin the The Macmillan Company of Limited Bhagavad Gītā: Philosophical, • Gokhale,B.G; (1961): Indian Thought Methodological and Cultural Approaches, Through the Ages, Asian Publishing House, South Asia Books,University of Sydney, Mumbai Australia • Kar,Bijayananda, 2000,Value Perspective • Singha, Himmat Singh; (1979):Communism in Indian Philosophy,MittalPublication,New and Gītā – A Philosophico ethicalstudy, Delhi Concept Publishing Company, Delhi • Krishna, Daya; 1991, Indian Philosophy-A • Yati,NityaChaitanya; (1981):Bhagavad Counter Perspective, Oxford University Gītā,D.K.Printworld, New Delhi. Press, New York • Mascaro, Jaun; (1962):The Bhagavad Gītā, Penguin Book

9 Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, January - June, 2018 Vol. VI, No. I ISSN: 2319-8192 Replication of Consciousness: An Analytical Study

Ariba Zaidi Doctoral Research Fellow Department of Philosophy University of Delhi Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract Efforts of Alan Turing paved the way for further exploration of the possibilities of machines that can think. It has resulted in a separate domain of knowledge called artificial intelligence. Likewise, efforts to understand consciousness and its neural correlates are opening new portals for investigation. One such avenue is the possibility of artificial consciousness. This research paper is an effort to understand what consciousness is by analysing its biological contours. Having understood the biological underpinnings of consciousness, it seeks to carve out the general principles that govern the phenomenon of consciousness. Finally, it seeks to explore the possibilities of replicating the phenomenon of consciousness in artificial systems. Keywords: Consciousness, Artificial consciousness, nervous system, neural correlates of consciousness, self awareness

Introduction think of replicating it. That is true, and I concede Alan Turing (1950) gave the initial that we have still not been able to create sparks to a field that is still taking its baby steps, concrete principles that tell us why one system is artificial intelligence. Apparently, replication of conscious whereas another is not. Flipping our cognitive abilities is the goal of such an through the annals of the study concerning effort. As it happens, one of the ripple effects of consciousness, one won’t take long to point out this kind of an effort has been a new line of that a fair share of lack of consensus arose from thinking, pursuing answers to questions such as: the ambiguity that exist in the answer to the can artificial systems designed to think and learn question: what consciousness is (Seager, 2007). like us be capable of experiencing like us. It Further, if not off the mark, a fair share of seems that these ripples from the sea have debate has always been related to the question created a stirring in the silent backwaters now as whether we are able enough to know and some (Koch & Tononi, 2008; 2011; Haikonen, understand consciousness. Finally, if ever 2012; Alexander, 2003; Lewis &MacGregor, grasped properly, will humans ever be able to 2010 and others) are now asking can we replicate this phenomenon- consciousness. replicate consciousness. My effort is to address Civilization, cultural elements—art the same issue in this paper, the prospects of forms, architecture, language, religion, beliefs, replication of consciousness. faith, ethics, technology, society, liberty, Some would definitely want to point out equality—all are monumental human creations that consciousness itself is not a well understood par excellence. One would wonder what makes phenomenon (Pinker, 1997), how can you then human achieve such colossal feat that no other

10 Replication of Consciousness: An Analytical Study ISSN: 2319-8192 living creature is able to replicate. Seeking an associated with complex adaptive systems answer, one doesn’t need to go too far, for it is similar to humans that have information very apparent that human has so very uniquely processing system, which acquires information evolved to be in possession of such a unique from its external and internal environment using brain from which emanates such a unique multiple inlets and channels, assembles this consciousness that is even conscious of it being information in various specialised regions to conscious (Dawkins, 2004). Taking cue from the create vivid specialised maps of the situation, story of our evolution itself, one can find a ray integrates it in various ways, processes this of hope amid all the insurmountable odds. integrated information through various Keeping this maxim in mind, this paper seeks to specialised processors to generate subjective find some answers which might be around the experience, and finally commands various corner. Let’s start with the second question to subsystems to take possible steps according to shed away some doubts. the needs perceived by information processing Are we good enough to understand subsystem (Blumenfeld, 2009; Edelman & consciousness? Tononi, 2000; Crick & Koch, 2000; Laureys & Let’s start with a hypothetical situation. Tononi 2009). Nature always has up her sleeves some tricks to Scrutinizing the nature keenly, one surprise us. Let’s imagine a planet Pandora as it would surely appreciate the fact that although is named in the motion picture Avatar, where organisms may differ in the degree of intelligent living beings like us live although awareness, they all have some kind of awareness with a difference. Unlike us, they can only view nevertheless (Dawkins, 2004). Naturally, the things in two dimensions. As it happens, people, foregoing assertion forces us to ask one obvious not being able to perceive the third dimension, question: is there a bodily mechanism that form their understanding of three dimensional allows us to be aware. things in terms of two dimensions. When moved Starting from the prokaryotic cells, from in front of our eyes vertically, what would look which rest of us all evolved (ibid.), every like a cylinder to us will look like a series of organism has a system in place which makes it circles appearing and disappearing in front of sense its environment. A prokaryote has a their eyes. One has to say, although not evolved nucleoid, a membrane less primitive nucleus like like us to form a three dimensional structure, allowing it to sense its environment. understanding, they have some degree of Likewise, eukaryotic cells too have a structure understanding according to their two called nucleus with a defined membrane, and a dimensional world view they have. It goes plasma membrane embedded with sensors, that without saying that instead of worrying about provides it with the information requisite for what we can understand or what we cannot, we survival. However, in higher order multicellular ought to move ahead and gain whatever organisms, such as reptiles, a nervous system understanding that our intellect allows. Why not itself is there, that allows it to sense both internal then march ahead and understand what and external environment, and allows it to consciousness is, mustering all the tools we coordinate its movement to satisfy some of the have. basic physical needs; viz, hunger, safety, What is consciousness? reproduction, territorial protection etc. Whatever we have been able to In mammals and in some birds this observe regarding consciousness in humans, we nervous system is considerably more developed, can think of consciousness as a phenomenon they not only have a peripheral nervous system

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and central nervous system like reptiles, but they more sophisticated and elaborate the nervous also have an additional region in the brain that is system is, the better it is for consciousness, for a not found in reptiles and the animals evolved sophisticated physical mechanism seems to be before them. It is limbic system. This is what able to produce more of the features of allows them to generate an automated program consciousness mentioned in the aforementioned of action, called emotions, which enables them paragraph. to survive, seek mate for transferring of genes, Following the foregoing line of and perform all the functions controlled by argument, one would discover that, having the autonomous nervous system. It is the system that most sophisticated physical mechanism, human enables them to learn and store information. represents all the feature of consciousness These are the animals who are, due to their mentioned above. Let’s understand how human developed brain, self aware too. nervous system works to produce these features. Analyzing the same nervous-system in Most basic feature of consciousness: nervous humans gives us a very different picture. Apart system functioning to sense the environment from the parts of nervous system that are found As mentioned in the preceding section, in reptiles and mammal, humans have something all the conscious beings are able to sense and additional in their central nervous system called recognize the environment they inhabit. What is cerebral cortex. This is one area that allows it about our nervous system that allows us to humans to make decisions, create perceptions, achieve this feat? As it happens, being channelize emotions into action, solve problems, surrounded by the environment means living in a set long term goals, and make plans to achieve biosphere comprising lithosphere, atmosphere those. and hydrosphere. Having gained enough A picture of consciousness is emerging knowledge regarding environment, we now from the aforementioned discussions regarding know that our body is constantly bombarded the character of human consciousness. Firstly, to with various stimuli; viz. pressure, temperature, be conscious means one should be able to make sound waves, light, gravity, and sense of the immediate environment that one electromagnetism to name a few. Our body, as it inhabits. Secondly, consciousness enables one to has evolved, has receptors attached to the understand and recognize the sensed nature. terminal end of the afferent nerve cells of the Thirdly, one of the features of human like peripheral nervous system. To sense nature, our consciousness is self awareness. Fourthly, to be body has evolved to have stimuli specific aware of future, and to be aware of one’s higher receptors, which on receiving the stimulus order needs to satisfy which one plans and sets converts it into electrical sensory information goals is one of the most significant features of that could be sensed by the cerebral cortex human consciousness, and finally, one needs to region of our brain—a process known as have a physical mechanism capable of receiving transduction. Having received the information, the information from the environment, and a these afferent ascending nerve pathways relay physical mechanism that can process the the information to the interneurons situated in received information and produce the desirable the spinal cord—a part of central nervous system course of action particularly in the direction of along with the brain. Receiving the stimulus, the sustenance of life (Damasio, 2010). interneurons situated in the spinal cord send the Apart from the features of consciousness sensory information to the reticular formation— portrayed in the preceding paragraph, there is a networking area of the brain stem where all the one more picture that is emerging. It seems that ascending and descending pathways converge to

12 Replication of Consciousness: An Analytical Study ISSN: 2319-8192 get relayed further. If not stopped by the process is imperative. However it doesn’t mean that the of lateral inhibition—a process of stopping the process of sensing was by any means similar. In unimportant sensory information—the sensory case of single cellular organisms and small information gets transferred to the thalamus, organisms like cockroach it is instinctual and where very minute thalamic nuclei receive the genetic whereas in humans a sort of higher order specific sensory input and further relay it to the processing of information happens in the primary cortical receiving areas. This is the cerebral cortex, a parallel of which is not seen in place where most of the processing gets most of the less developed organisms. (Purves et initiated. However, the real processing takes al., 2004) In other words, human nervous system place in the associated cortical regions, which is able to create a perception out of the sensation are situated just adjacent to primary sensory and it receives; on the other hand, most animals motor cortical regions. Studies conducted in the don’t have a developed system like ours to form neurobiology show that associated cortical areas similar perception. However, the fact remains play the most significant role in the cognition— entrenched that most organisms have a physical an ability to attend to external stimuli or internal system in place that makes them aware of their motivation, to gauge the significance of that environment. stimuli, and to make meaningful responses. For Neural foundations of self awareness: a this purpose it gets inputs from all the primary higher degree of consciousness and secondary sensory and motor cortical The next higher degree of consciousness regions, and from hippocampus, thalamus, is self-awareness—a key ability to recognize cerebellum, amygdala, basal ganglia etc. oneself distinct from surrounding. Not many Similarly, it can relay output information to all animals are endowed with a nervous system that these components of central nervous system. makes them self aware. A common experiment Thus, it indulges in a reciprocal relationship. It conducted by behavioral scientists on animals is seems important to point out that when asensory to show them their own mirror image, seeing information is recognized by the brain, it is which their normal reaction is to defend their called sensation, and the act of giving meaning territory and attack. However, monkeys, to this sensation is called perception. Finally, elephants, some birds, and dolphins cease to having processed the information, brain instructs attack very quickly, realizing the self image in body to behave in an apt manner using the mirror. A little investigation in the descending efferent nerve pathways. (Vander et neurobiological foundation of this phenomenon al., 2001) makes things very clear. Hippocampus, a part of It could be seen that various elements of limbic system, is responsible for learning and our nervous system function as whole to make memory. Further, amygdala, also a part of some sense of the stimulus it gets from the limbic system, plays a preeminent role in the environment. However, we are not the only ones generation of emotions and the resultant who are able to do this. Even worms and feelings. Furthermore, associated sensory cockroaches are able to perform this function regions of the prefrontal lobe of cerebral cortex, with a less developed nervous system, and when and neocortex play a very important role in it comes to bacteria and other unicellular decision making. All these play a very central organisms, they don’t even have a nervous part in creation of self awareness, particularly system, but are able to perform the same feat. hippocampus. Why most of the animals don’t Judging by the foregoing, one can conclude that, have a developed sense of self can be for the sake of survival, a sense of environment understood by the study of human brain itself.

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At the base of the skull from where spinal cord brain that allows us to achieve this feat. Most starts its descend is the brain stem, comprising animals, not having a cerebral cortex like ours, Pons region, medulla, and reticular formation. are not able to peek into the future. They, as it This is the region associated with primitive life looks, are not even aware of the future. Here, by functions, such as, balancing, seeking food, future we don’t mean immediate future. territorial nature, aggression, instincts under Human’s ability to be aware of his/her flight or fight situations. This portion of our motivations, ability to set goals accordingly, brain is called reptile brain, for evolutionary ability to bring forth all the alternative courses biology tells us that reptiles and other animals of action that can achieve the goal, ability to that evolved before reptiles have a brain capable perceive the consequences of all these courses of of performing only these very functions. Once action, and ability to choose the best possible again evolutionary biology sheds light on the action makes him/her such a conscious being, fact that after Miocene era birds and mammals the parallel of whom is nowhere to be found, at evolved from these reptiles, thus possessing a least in the known world. Here also, by brain more developed than their ancestors. motivations what we mean is not just the Primates belonging to the same class have a well satisfaction of bodily needs, but all other higher developed limbic system in their brain. As it order needs that are a product of human being happens, most of the animals living in groups living in a society, to wit, needs of have a well developed limbic system. belongingness, self esteem, self actualization as Cooperation and expression of emotions played pointed by the famous management thinker and a very important part in their evolution as psychologist Abraham Maslow. animals living in groups. (Kaku, 2010) If we embody the highest level of Amygdala from limbic system plays a very consciousness, it’s only because we have a brain important role in the generation of emotions, and that uses a combination of brain stem or the old hippocampus plays a very significant role in brain, the limbic system or the primate brain, learning. (Damasio, 2010) In humans this region and the new brain or cerebral cortex. A is sometimes called primate brain, for it combination of these components allows us to performs the same function that a primate’s use rationality, emotions and feelings in such a brain performs. Preceding paragraphs give us the way that we become very uniquely conscious. clue why some of these animals are self-aware Now is time for the final question: can like us. these characteristics of consciousness be Neural foundation of decision making, goal replicated by any means. Let us find what could setting and planned action: the highest be done, which when done might be the turning degree of consciousness known point of human civilization itself. In the course of our evolution, we Can human consciousness be replicated? developed cerebrum and a very large cerebral Before getting into the thick of the cortex, in addition to our brain stem region and things, one needs to be clear about what one limbic system. (Damasio, 2010) This new region wants to replicate. Judging by what we have allows us to perform higher order thinking seen of the system hitherto, one cannot replicate functions, to wit, rational decision making, consciousness although one can, it seems, planning for the future, ability to perceive one’s replicate the system that produces situation in future, making goals, and choosing consciousness. Now, the million dollar question the most appropriate steps. It is a combination of is can we replicate the system that produces our reptile brain, primate brain, and the new human like consciousness.

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To know this, it is important we Sensing the environment is not difficult understand what is expected of us to achieve this as with various sensors such as cameras, feat. As has already been elucidated, to replicate vibration detectors, and receivers, any robot can consciousness we need to create a system that sense its environment. However, this is just a can not only sense its environment, but can also part of the story as it needs to recognize and recognize and understand its environment. understand the information, and on the basis of Secondly, it needs to have a memory system that information it has to react. This is a part where has enough room for self awareness. Finally, it most of the robots fail. Even most advanced needs to have an emotional system and a rational robotic equipments such US made UAVs called decision making system that can allow it to plan Drones, or robots such as pathfinder sent by and set futuristic goals, and should enable it to NASA on Mars mission are good at sensing the learn by trial and error method. environment, but when it comes to think Having discussed heretofore what the intelligently, they fall short of even a features of human consciousness are, we can cockroach’s brain. They need instructions from now take up the challenge of finding the odds of humans to act. Even ASIMO, the humanoid replicating this consciousness. The prominent robot made by Honda doesn’t fulfill this question seems to be how this feat can be criterion. Then one important question is how achieved. One of the answers lies in the nature we can make these robots that can understand itself. Already we are at a stage, where their environment the way our brain does. developments in genomics and biotechnology Logically, for this we have to feed them with allow us to tinker with the genes of some of our millions of common sense rules that human close primate relatives. Mapping there genomic learn by experience and by trial and error over a code, we can get a great deal of understanding of long period of a time (Kaku, 2010). Most of their mental evolution. Using the set procedures robots, as have been developed till now, are of biotechnology, such as, the usage of viruses mostly less intelligent than even an insect. There which have the natural tendency to get into the is no doubt regarding the fact that they compute nucleus of the eukaryotic cells, we can introduce at a rate almost equal to the speed of light. But the mutations by bringing in changes in the then they are computing, and not thinking, an act protein synthesizing DNA itself, thus modifying in which they are woefully behind a small cat. the genotype that is responsible for the As has been found mostly, these robots are very phenotype of monkey brain. Theoretically, it’s a one dimensional, capable of performing only matter of evolving a cerebral cortex like ours in few tasks. Receiving the stimulus, they act them as they already have a limbic system and according to the program which runs them. To brain stem very similar to us. However, there are be like human and to be able to perform and ethical questions involved in this effort as it understand nature, we need machines that are seeks to alter the natural course of nature itself. capable of altering their own program according For quite some time now artificial to the needs (McCarthy, 1995). intelligence is raising its arm as the most likely The next hindrance in making an candidate to achieve this feat. Let us analyze if artificial system conscious the way we are is by there is any authenticity to the claim. First of the making them self aware(ibid.)—an ability to odds to be surmounted is to create a system that recognize oneself distinct from one’s can sense its environment, recognize it and surroundings. It seems to be a difficult task but understand it. with sufficient programming it seems to be possible. It can be done in two ways. Firstly, by

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writing a program for self detection and self sensation to it. Likewise, it is also connected to preservation and secondly by creating a robot thalamus and hypothalamus. Having received with program that enables it to learn and relearn, the stimulus meant for it, amygdala supported by meaning it should be able to amend its own hippocampus relays the instructions related to programming. Well there is a third way too, that processed emotional response to thalamus and is, by getting a supercomputer to model the brain hypothalamus. Hypothalamus, receiving the of any animal that is capable of this feat. instruction, either influences endocrine secretion The final hurdle is the replication of or brings in adjustments in autonomous nervous long term goal setting and developing a sense of system. The moment autonomous nervous future. What we are talking about is an artificial system reacts to the tune set by hypothalamus system that has enough intrinsic motivation to and pituitary gland, the afferent nerve cells set long term goals for itself independent of associated with visceral system relays this anybody’s help. This is only possible if we are sensory information to the cerebral cortex, able to replicate both human rationality and where it gets registered as feelings. The key human emotions in the machines. As far as, feelings that have always influenced our action human rationality is concerned, researchers have are the feelings of pleasure and pain. As no doubts that it could be replicated sooner or behavioral scientists would say, most of the later. However, when it comes to emotions most human action is directed to feel the pleasure or researchers find it difficult to fathom how it to avoid the feel of pain. (Purves, 2004) could be replicated. For such people it is the lack Witnessing the workings of human of understanding of emotions and its character in nervous system, one can say that the only way to humans that forces them to make such claims. replicate the consciousness is by replicating the Emotion: can it be replicated? working of our brain itself. Now the question is Emotions, as Damasio (2010, 2012, can we do it. Before answering foregoing 2013) and Llinas (1998) would say, are an question one needs to ask one more question. Do automated program of action. All of our we have the technical means to peek into the emotions took millions of years to evolve into its brain and have a complete functional present state. These were program of actions understanding of our brain, for without doing it developed specifically to protect us from we, it seems, won’t be able to replicate the dangers of the external world and to help us to working mechanism of brain? reproduce. Basic purpose seems to be the Technology that can be used to map the sustenance of our genes. Moreover, every whole human brain emotion has the tendency to produce associated The initial technology that has been feelings. Some according to the situation are used to map the activities of neurons was EEG pleasurable whereas others are painful. (electroencephalogram). Placing the electrodes Neurobiology presents an array of on various regions of the head, one can record activities happening in our nervous system that the electrical signals emanating from various create emotions. As has been already mentioned regions of the brain. This is how in the in the preceding paragraphs, amygdala plays a beginning various regions of the brains crucial part in the generation of emotions and its responsible for various functions were associated feelings. Amygdala, a section in identified. The process of mapping was taken to limbic system is linked to the pre frontal lobe of the next level by fMRI (functional magnetic cerebral cortex where primary, secondary and resonance imaging). Using the magnetic field associated cortical regions send processed 20000 times more powerful than earth and radio

16 Replication of Consciousness: An Analytical Study ISSN: 2319-8192 waves, one can get the 3D images of the brain in disappointing in any manner, already they have which one can pin point the flow of thoughts. As achieved enough to believe that in time to come it is found, it can detect the motion of thoughts they will achieve this gargantuan goal of up to a resolution of 0.1 mm., and it is believed modeling the human brain itself. IBM’s blue that very soon we will be able to devise such gene computer seems to be the most likely fMRI machines which can probe to the level of machine that can achieve this monumental task. one neuron. If it becomes a reality, one will be Lawrence Livermore national laboratory in able to track the neural pattern corresponding to California is the home to IBM’s blue gene specific thoughts. (Bunge & Kahn,2009; Rees & computer, occupying about a quarter acre and Frith 2007) capable of computing at a speed of 500 trillion Recently, a new technology has come up operations per second. that has the potential to reverse engineer the Likewise, IBM’s one more super brain itself. Opt genetics, an area of study which computer, the most powerful one, Dawn is uses certain genes that can control the involved in the task of modeling the entire production of certain dyes, and the molecules human brain by a group under the leadership of that react to the light, allows researches not only IBM’s Dharmendra Modha. The group has to track the flow of thoughts at the individual already modeled a rat’s brain successfully. In neuron level, it also allows one to control animal 2009, they were able to simulate 1% of the behavior by stimulating pathways(Koch, 2012; cerebral cortex. It now seems inevitable that one Klapoetke et al., 2014). Using the technology, day the whole brain will be simulated this way, scientists have studied the brain of fruit fly, and when this happens, it might be a turning which has approximately 150,000 neurons. point in the history of human civilization (Kaku, Stimulating the pathways, scientists could map 2010). 300 neurons of the fruit fly that helps it in Even now there are some obstacles, but making decisions. (Kaku, 2010) not something that cannot be overcome. The Seeing the growth of technology, one super computer that is going to simulate human would think that the best way to replicate the brain has to be more powerful than Dawn by a human consciousness is by modeling the human factor of 1000, meaning it requires the power brain itself. Once again a question lingers. Can that can light up a whole city. Likewise to cool there be a machine that can model the working it, a whole river would be required to be of the whole brain itself? If it can, then unlike diverted. Astonishingly, human brain just uses any other robot created till now, it stands a great 20 watts of power to achieve the same feat. chance to not only replicate human Technically, it is a reality. The question is of consciousness but also better it, leaving humans time and funding (Kaku, 2010). as a relic. Another way to improve our Modeling human brain: a path to replicate understanding of the nervous system is by human consciousness modelling it. How can it be done? The process is Although modeling the human brain already underway and the answer lies in looks a colossal task as it means modeling the simulating the working of nervous system and functioning of billions of neurons and trillions of simulating all the neural pathways and synapses synapses, it seems to be very much possible in using super computers. A project is already the present scheme of technical expertise. Only underway called human blue brain project technology, at present, likely to succeed is the headed by Henry Markram (founded by him in brute force of super computers. Not 2005), using blue gene supercomputer of IBM to

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map the neural connections and activities of • Boly, M., Baars, B., Seth, A., Wilke, M., mammalian brain (Markram, 2006). They have Ingmundson, P., Laureys, S., Edelman, D., proceeded with the simulation of synapses in the Tsuchiya, N. (2013). Consciousness in humans neocortex of a rat, and by 2011 they have and non-human animals: recent advances and managed to create a cellular mesocircuit of 100 future directions. Frontiers in Psychology, 625, neocortical columns with a million cells and a doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00625 billion synapses in total. It is estimated that by • Blumenfeld, H. (2009). The neurological 2023 they will be able to create a simulation of examination of consciousness. In Laureys, S. & 100 billion cells (Markram, 2011). Tononi, G. Eds. The Neurology of Pandora’s Box consciousness: Cognitive neuroscience and If human consciousness is going to be neuropathology. New York: Elsevier Academic. simulated one day, it leaves open the Pandora’s • Bunge, S. & Kahn, I. (2009) Cognition: An Box. Machines with better efficiency will create Overview of Neuroimaging Techniques. In a breed of supremely able computers. (Kaku, Adelman, G. & Smith, B. Eds. The encyclopedia 2010) Naturally, the questions are going to be of Neuroscience, 4th ed. Elsevier Academic. raised regarding the relationship that humans are • Crick, F. & Koch, C. (2003) A framework for going to have with these machines. Further, will consciousness. Nature Neuroscience 6, 119-126. our so called status of climax society be doi: 10.1038/nn0203-119 challenged? Furthermore, was our role was to • Dehaene, S. & Changeux, J. (2011). produce these intelligent beings who in the end Experimental and theoretical approaches to hop the planets before our sun enters red giant conscious processing. Neuron, 70, 200–227 doi: phase? 10.1016/j.neuron.2011.03.018 Questions will keep on coming and the • Damasio, A., Araujo, H., Kaplan, J. (2013). answers lie in this brain of ours. There is no Cortical midline structures and denying the fact that these researches are also autobiographical-self processes: an activation- going to help in many ways too as we can gain a likelihood estimation (ALE) meta- complete understanding of our brain using the analysis. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, brain modeling research. Further, having gained 7, doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00548 expertise in genomics, robotics, nanotechnology, • Damasio, A., Carvalho, G. (2013). The nature biotechnology, we can also look to take control of feelings: Evolutionary and neurobiological of the evolution of our brain and body, creating origins. Nature reviews: Neuroscience 14 (2): genetically superior human beings in future. 143–52. doi: 10.1038/nrn3403 With the exponential growth in • Damasio, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D. technology, we will have innumerable options in (2012). Persistence of feelings and sentience future, and undoubtedly our future depends on after bilateral damage of the insula. Cerebral the future evolution of our brain and Cortex 23 (4): 833–46. doi: consciousness. 10.1093/cercor/bhs077 Bibliography • Damasio, A., Grabowski, T., Bechara, A. et • Aleksander, I. (2003). How to build a mind: al. ( 2000 ). Subcortical and cortical brain Toward machines with imagination New York, activity during the feeling of self-generated NY: Columbia University Press. emotions. Nature Neuroscience, 3 (10), 1049–56 • Block, N. (1996). How can we find the neural correlate of consciousness? Trends in Neurosciences, 19, 456–459. 18 Replication of Consciousness: An Analytical Study ISSN: 2319-8192

• Damasio, A. (2010). Self Comes to Mind: consciousness . Phil Trans R Soc Lond B 353 : Constructing the Conscious Brain. U.S.A.: 1841 – 49. Pantheon Books. • Markram, H. (2006). The Blue Brain Project. • Dawkins, R. (2004). The Ancestors’ Tale: A Nature reviews neuroscience. 7 153-60. Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life. London: • Markram, H. (2011). Simulating the Brain: Weidenfeld &Nicolson. the Next Decisive Years: at the International • Doan, T. (2009). Pentti Haikonen's Supercomputing Conference. Retrieved on architecture for conscious machines retrieved 14/09/2014 from march 20, 2015 from http://www.conscious- • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_rPH1Ab robots.com/en/conscious-machines/theories-of- uu9M&feature=results_main&playnext=1&list= consciousness/pentti-haikonens-architecture-for- PL2DAFE07272226B72 conscious-mac.html • McCarthy, J. (1995). Making Robots • Edelman, G. & Tononi, G. (2000). A universe Conscious of their Mental States. In Muggleton, of consciousness: How matter becomes S. et al. Eds. (1999). Machine intelligence 15: imagination. New York, NY: Basic Books. Intelligent agents. Oxford, Oxford University • Haikonen, P. (2012). Consciousness and Press. Robot Sentience, Singapore: World Scientific. • Metzinger T, ed. (2000) Neural Correlates of • Holland, O. (2003). Machine consciousness. Consciousness: Empirical and Conceptual New York: Imprint Academic. Questions. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. • Kaku, M. (2011). Physics of the Future: How • Pinker, S.1997. How the mind Works. New Science will Shape Human Destiny and Our York:Penguin books. Daily Lives by the Year 2100. New York: • Purves, D., Augustine , G. J., Fitzpatrick, D., Doubleday. Ch 3, 4 and 8. Hall, W.C., LaMantia, A. S., McNamara, J. O. • Klapoetke, N. Et al. 2014 Independent optical and Williams, S. M. Eds. (2004). Neuroscience. excitation of distinct neural populations. Nature 3rd ed. USA: Sinauer Associates. Methods. Vol 11(3) 338-345 • Rees, G. & Frith, C. (2007). Methodologies • Koch, C., & Tononi, G. (2008). Can for identifying the neural correlates of machines be conscious? IEEE Spectrum, 45, 54– consciousness. In Velmans, M. & Schneider, S. 59 Eds. The Blackwell Companion to • Koch, C., & Tononi, G. (2011). A test for Consciousness. 553-66. Blackwell: Oxford, UK. consciousness. Scientific American, 304 (June), • Seager, W. (2007). A Brief History of the 44–47. Philosophical Problem of Consciousness. The • Koch, C. (2014). What It Will Take for Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness. Computers to Be Conscious. MIT Technology Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Review. Retrieved on 15/2/2015 from • Vander, A. J., Sherman, J. H. and Luciano, http://www.technologyreview.com/news/531146 D. S. (2001). Human Physiology: The /what-it-will-take-for-computers-to-be- Mechanisms of Body Functions. 8th ed. New conscious/ York: McGraw-Hill. • Laureys, S., & Tononi, G. Eds. (2009). The Neurology of Consciousness. New York: Elsevier Academic. • Llinás, R., Ribary, U., Contreras, D. & Pedroarena, C. (1998). The neuronal basis for

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Status of Tribal Women: A Case Study on Barman Women of Dhanipur Village, Cachar, Assam

Dr. Ruma Deb Nath Assistant Professor Department of Sociology Assam University, Silchar, India Email: [email protected] Dr. Dipak Nath Assistant Professor, Centre for Disaster Management University, Assam, India Email: [email protected]

Abstract Status of individual members of any community, in terms of social, economical, political, and educational and health status, is directly correlated with capacity or vulnerability of the community. Social vulnerability factors are mostly responsible for generating physical vulnerability and subsequent unsustainable development. This also enhances susceptibility of the community to external threats. In this study an attempt has been made to understand the status of Barman women in Dhanipur village of , Assam. Dhanipur is a tribal dominated village; in which majority of the inhabitants belong to Barman tribe. The Barman society is patriarchal in nature, but they have double descent system. Like other communities, males of Barman community also get extra privilege and power in the society over their female counterparts. Data reveals that, males of Dhanipur village always represent as head of the family and participate in decision making of all affairs within or outside the village, even in presence of women members of the family. At the same time they have gender based ownership of property system. The community members of Dhanipur village have also belief on witchcraft practices. More surprisingly, only women are the victims of such belief. Key word: Women, Barman, Descent system, Patriarchal.

upon the personal characteristic of the status Introduction holder3. T. Parsons (1951) talked about six Generally status means the position or attributes of status, these are (i) members in a 1 kinship unit, (ii) personal qualities, (ii) rank one holds in a social group . On the other achievement ,(iv)possession, (v) authority and, hand, status refers to a person's position in a social system with distinct array of designated (vi) power. Thus status may be determined in 2 terms of norms and taboos governing people's rights and obligation . R. Linton (1936) said 4. that, primarily status is a position in a social role and behavior in a particular community So structure related to rights, duties and reciprocal the status of a person is directly related to role expectation of behavior, none of which depends that he or she performs in the social milieu. Linton also explained the correlation between

20 Status of Tribal Women: ------Cachar, Assam ISSN: 2319-8192 status and role of community members. Role is is analyzed and discussed through her role, the behavioral aspect of status and status- roles performance, rights, freedom of choice and is the phenomena of status-rights. movement in social matter, types of taboos, legal On the basis of these definitions women and political rights and economic condition. status could be determined in terms of norms The purpose of the present study is to and taboos governing their role and behavior in assess and highlight the status of Barman a particular community5 or relative prestige and women in terms of their socio–economic, socio- honor she enjoys in different aspect of her life. political, health and educational status. Such a It is obvious that, the economic position of study would be useful to understand the women belonging to any community, including progression of social to physical vulnerability tribal community, also play the vital role to and susceptibility of a community to external diversify the status of women within the same threats. community6. Methodology A large numbers of tribal population are The present study is based on empirical residing in different parts of the country and data collected from one hundred and fifteen each of them have their own ethnic identity household of Dhanipur through structured .According to 2011 census report, 8.20% of interview schedule during the period of March country's total population belongs to tribal 2012 to December 2013 along with informal communities. Generally it is believed that, caste discussion. The respondents were both male and barrier and other social bindings are not female. applicable in tribal communities and tribal The Universe of the Study women occupy high status in the society to that Dhanipur village is located in the Barak of their non- tribal counterparts. But, practically valley of south Assam. The state Assam is it is not so. Number of women belongs to broadly divided in to two river valleys viz., different tribal communities facing different type and . Barak of gender discrimination in various aspects of Valley consists of three districts namely, Cachar, 7 their life . Therefore, it is difficult to generalize and Hailakandi. Dhanipur village is the status of tribal women in India. So, to assess situated under Narshingpur development block, the status of tribal women one has to consider Sonai revenue circle, Silchar subdivision and certain aspect like (i) comparison of status of Sewrarthal Gaon Panchayat. It is near about 55 women of a particular tribe with their male kilometers far from the district headquarters counterparts and (ii) comparison of status of Silchar and connected with Silchar town by women of different tribal communities. Silchar-Bhaga-Kulichara road. The total Comparison on the status of women also household of the village is 115. The total needs to follow a benchmark. Such benchmark population of the village is 579 out of which 300 consists of certain indicators like her freedom of (51.18%) males and 279 (48.18%) female9. All choice and movement in social matters, type of the villagers of Dhanipur are Barman tribe and 8 taboos and her legal and political status . practice . Therefore, the status of women in a society may Discussion and major findings be determined based on her prestige in the Barman community society, decision making power she possesses, Hinduised Dimasa of Barak Valley is degree of rights and duties she enjoys in called Barman. The Dimasa are the oldest different spheres of life and so on. In view of the inhabitants of Assam and had its origin to above discussion, the status of Barman women Kachari tribe.10 The ancient Hindu scriptures

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like Mahabharata and others mentioned the by a woman are included within her clan but existence of this tribe in Assam. Their original matriclan is not so important for son because he habitat was somewhere in between the upper has to follow patri-clan for maintaining reaches of the Yang-Tse-Kiang and Howang- generation. At the same time there is a taboo for ho rivers in China. Lateron they migrated to both the son and daughter to marry within their Assam long before the birth of Jesus Christ11, 12 & matri-clan and patri-clan respectively. For 13.The Dimasa Kachari first established their example, a girl belonging to Rajama clan is not Capital at , presently in the state of permitted to marry a boy whose mother's clan is , where they ruled near about 450 years Rajama and vice-versa. Cross cusion marriage is and then they shifted their capital at Maibong in strictly prohibited among the Barmans. This 1536A. D. A fraction of that community also tribe is basically monogamous and they do not settled down in Khaspur of Barak valley just follow the practice of child marriage. In general, 14 & 15 before the collapse of their kingdom . The this community prefers arrange marriage rather total Barman population of Cachar district, than love marriage. according to the estimate of 2001, is around Social status 16 10,908 . Barman society is patriarchal in nature. It is believed that, after coming Generally the eldest male member performs the down to the plains of Barak valley the Dimasa role of head of the family. But, they also king Krishnachandra formally adopted consider concern of elder female member of the Hinduism as his religious faith and regarded as family in the absence of adult male for taking 17 Kshatriyas with the sure name Barman . There any major decision. are some differences between Dimasa of Barak In Dhanipur, parents play an active role in valley and Dimasas living in the hills. The selecting mates and arranging marriage for their Dimasas of hilly districts use their clan name as girls unlike many other tribes, where girls can surname but Dimasas of Barak valley use select their own mates as per their own choice. ‘Barman’ as their sure name. Hill Dimasa still Generally the girls get married between the ages follows and practices the traditional rites, ritual, group of 21-35 years and for boys between the custom etc. whereas Barman of this valley age group of 24 -35 years. Therefore the upper adopted many Hindu customs and rituals along and lower age limit for marriage of male and with their own traditional values. They consider female in the village is almost equal. But, age themselves as kastriya and male Barmans wear range of female started earlier and lasted equally sacred thread after initiation ceremony. This the age range of male. So, a tendency of late custom is now mandatory for them. Barmans are marriage prevails among the villagers. The tribe endogamous and clan exogamous group reasons behind it are (i) Taboo of clan exogamy and they have double descent system. They have and tribe endogamy, (ii) modern education; (iii) both patri-clan and matri-clans. Among the preferences given on arrange marriage. Dowry Barmans 42 patri-clan and 40 matri-clan are does not play a role in the marriage alliance found which are known as Sengphong and among the Barman. But, practices of love Jaddi or Julu respectively. Blood relationship is marriage are also not rare among the villagers. traced through both the male and female line. In Dhanipur, twenty one patri-clan and Matri-clan includes the women and her ten matri-clans are found and around 6% offspring, sister and their children. But Matri- family's women having no matri-clan (Table-1). clan does not include brothers and their children. There is a general belief among the villagers Among the Barmans, a daughter and a son born that, the descendent of witch craft practitioners

22 Status of Tribal Women: ------Cachar, Assam ISSN: 2319-8192 and the women who declared as witch have no This may be one of the reasons behind poor matri clan. Though the Barman community has socio-economic status of the women in Barman no clan hierarchy, but families having no matri- community. clan are considered inferior than those who have Political status both patri and matri-clans. The villagers are In spite of having patriarchal reluctant to maintain any type of marital and family system, Barman women enjoy the rights social relationship with them. So it is evident, to participate in decision making matters of the the Barman women of Dhanipur village are not family. Generally, heads of the families take enjoying very high social status due to major decisions on different important family patriarchal practices of patriliny, tribe matters like marriage, acquiring or selling the endogamy, clan exogamy , superstition etc. property, education of children etc. But, they Economic condition take consents of senior female members of the Economy of Dhanipur is agro family like wife or mother in all important based, around 60% villagers depends on family matters. cultivation (Table-2). They practices both Village council of Barman settled and shifting cultivation. Women of the society, known as Raji, plays significant role in village actively participate in agricultural the matters pertaining to functioning of the activities (both in settled and shifting) along community. Raji comprises Khunang as head with their male counterpart. But, male members (gaon bura); Dilek, Daulathu, Pharai, Mantri, enjoy the rights of spending money earned from Hangsebuhu and Jaljirao as assistant Khunang; agriculture. Almost all the adult women of the and other office bearers. Raji looks after all village have expertise on weaving and they developmental, cultural and social issues of the made cloths for domestic as well as commercial village. It is observed that, Raji does not have a purpose. Women have to do household duties single female member and even women do not also along with agricultural work and weaving. have the rights to attend any meeting of the Barman community has both council to share their views. patri-clan and matri-clan. Therefore, Barmans of Representation of Barman women or their active Dhanipur village have adopted gender based participation in modern political institutions like property distribution system as paternal and Gaon panchayat is very less. In case of Dhanipur maternal property. Paternal property includes village, till date none of the women contested land, house, cattle, arms, domestic animal etc. even panchayat election. Majority women of the and maternal properties are ornaments, utensils, village use to cast their votes, but this is also cloths, family looms etc. As per their tradition, largely motivated by the male folk. It clearly sons inherit paternal and daughters inherit depicts that, Barman women are also deprived maternal property. Those families do not have from their due political rights. Moreover, son, they distribute their paternal property traditional or modern power structure of among the nearest male relatives of father like Dhanipur village excludes the women from its brother, uncle and their next male generation. activities and women have to accept decisions of So, in case of ownership rights of property, these institutions. gender discrimination persists in Barman Educational status community. In most of the cases, maternal Educational status of males and properties do not fulfill the needs of female females of Dhanipur village does not depict members of a family and hence female members gender discrimination. Our direct observation become dependent on their male counterparts. also does not claim any discrimination towards

23 Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018 male children over female children of the village and they have to take help of traditional methods in the process of getting primary education. It is all the times. But, the scenario started changing evident that ratio of male-female educational little-bit after the implementation of NRHM. status at all levels, primary to post graduate, is Now the pregnant women and their guardians more or less comparable. Though, illiteracy rate use to consult with ASHA (Accredited Social among males and females of the village is not Health Activist) and take advice and medicine very low, but the percentage of educated people from them. beyond HSLC is quite low. So, their livelihood The nearest primary health opportunities are also confined mostly to centre is about 15 Km. away from the village. agriculture based activities and small business. So, people of the village, irrespective of male Health condition and female, are equally vulnerable to different Women's health condition of health hazards due to lack of proper medical any community depends on food quality, care and nutrition; excess workload, and poor nutrition, diseases, treatment, fertility, utilization living standard. of health service, custom, tradition etc. In Religion, Belief and Practices Dhanipur, rice is the staple food of the villagers Religion is one of the important both for male and women. But, their daily diet factors which help to find out the status of does not contain sufficient nutrition like milk, women. Among most of the tribal communities fish, meat fruit etc. due to financial constraints. of India, man grips the dominating position in Villagers reported that; they can afford meat performing ritual and holding leadership in occasionally, fish weekly twice or thrice. religious field. In Dhanipur also women perform Though, gender based discrimination towards subordinate role in religious ritual and sharing of food is not reported by women of the leadership. The Barmans of Dhanipur village is village, but they admitted that, in case of Hinduised, so they follow both Vedic Hindu shortage of food the axe always falls on the ritual as well as traditional tribal ritual. In both females share. Women of the village reported the cases male take the leading part to that of that, they are overburden with domestic as well their female counterparts. All the Vedic ritual is as agricultural activities. Entire day women do mainly done by the Bengali Brahmins as the not get any leisure time and remain busy with Barman of the valley does not strictly followed different kind of works like cooking, cleaning, Varna model in their society. Except Kshitriya fetching water, rearing children, looking after they do not have other three Varnas of family members, working in paddy field and Hinduism. At the same time, (village making cloth. Lack of proper nutrition and priest) and (assistant village priest) excess work load have certainly some negative perform all traditional rituals related to birth, impacts on health condition of women of the marriage, death etc. The tradition of imposing Dhanipur village. taboos on boys for three days for not to see Most of the villagers are exposed to different women during initiation ceremony is still there communicable and non-communicable diseases. in Barman community. The villagers said that, People mostly prefer to go for traditional this is necessary to get control on body and mind treatments rather than availing modern treatment of the boys, who are going to take sacred thread. facilities available in different hospitals. In this Barmans of Dhanipur have a process, males take little advantage over their strong believe on spirit, ghost, hall, heaven, female counterparts. The pregnant women of the black magic, pre birth life, witch and witchcraft. village do not get any special care at any time In case of chronic disease, epidemic, unusual

24 Status of Tribal Women: ------Cachar, Assam ISSN: 2319-8192 death of villagers, drought, poor agricultural • Linton, R. 1936. The Study of Men. New production, or any unusual things; there is a York: Appleton, Century-Croft. common belief among the villagers that; such • Parsons, T. 1951. The Social System incidences may happened due to either .London: Rutledge and Kegan Paul. witchcraft’s black magic or bed vision of witch. • Chauhan, A. 1999.''A dowry Related The villagers consider witchcraft as a kind of Crimes: Violence of Human Right'' in A. P. black magic which is harmful for mass people. Vijapur and K. Suresh (ed.) Perspective on They also believe that witchcraft is practiced by Human Right. New Delhi: Manak Publication mostly women and villagers often try to avoid Private Ltd. these women out of fear or assault these women. • Mundra. S. and Singh, M. 2012. ‘Redefining In case of any unusual incidents, if the villagers the Economic Status of Women in Developing find any women not making direct eye contact Nations: Gender Perspective’, International while talking with others or she remain behind Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, other people while walking; they declare that Volume 2, Issue 12 women as witch. But, till date in Dhanipur • Das, M. 2012. Tribal Women of Assam, village no incident of witch hunting took place. : EBH Publisher Conclusion • Chauhan, A. 1999 Tribal Women: The present study reveals that, Barman Continuity and Change. New Delhi: A. C. women of Dhanipur village are not enjoying Brothers. very high status in all fronts of their life. Other • Gaon Panchayat Office Record 2011 than education and sharing of food, gender • http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimasa-people, discrimination persists in many other facades browse on 14.2.2015 among Barman community. As a result, women • Syiemlieh, R. D. 1995. Proceedings of of the village become more vulnerable to North East India, History Association different threats. It is evident that, lack of proper • Sen, S. 2009. Tribes and Castes of Assam, healthcare facility, inadequate nutrition, Anthropology and Sociology. New Delhi: Gyan superstition, excess workload, political publishing house. discrimination towards women, and of course • Chatterjee, S. 2000. A Socio-economic lack of awareness and government initiative are History of South Assam, Jaipur (India): Print mainly responsible for poor status of women. well Publishers. Acknowledgement • Sen, G. 2003. Life in Kachari Kingdom, We express our heartfelt thanks to Miss G. D. Graphics. Bijeta Barman for her active help and • Langthasa, P. (2011) ''Dimasa Conflict cooperation in conducting this study. We are Management'' in A.D'Souza (ed.) Traditional also thankful to all the respondents of Dhanipur Methods of Conflict Resolution in Three Tribal village for providing valuable data and Societies of North East India. Guwahati: information pertaining to this study. NESRC Peace Studies Series- North East Social References Research Centre. • www.yourarticlelibrary.com/sociology/socia • Langthasa, P. (2011) Ibid l-status-the-meaning-types-essential-elements- • Sen, G. (2003) Ibid and -characteristics-of-social-tatus/8553.brows on 21/3/2018 • Merton, R. K. 1968 Social Theory and Social Structure. New York:Free Press

25 Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018

Appendix Table 1: Distribution of the villagers on the basis of Parei-clan and Matri-clan Types of Families Respondents Families having both patri-clan and matri-clan 108 Families have no matri-clan 7 Total 115

Source: Field work by the researchers during March 2012 to December 2013 Table 2: Distribution of respondents on the basis of their occupation

Respondents Grand Total and Sl. No. Types of Occupation Male Female percentage Agriculture and allied 1 74(85.04 %%) - 59(51.30%) activities Non-agricultural activities 2 like government service, 28(33.15%) 02(02.29%) 30(35.44%) shop keeping etc. 3 Home maker 26(92.85%)- 26(22.60%) Total 87 28 115(100)

Source: Field work by the researchers during March 2012 to December 2013

26 Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, January - June, 2018 Vol. VI, No. I ISSN: 2319-8192

Ramana Maharshi: A Living Embodiment of Advaita Vedanta

Dr.Syamala.K and Dr.P.I.Devaraj Assistant Professors Department of Philosophy Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit Payyanur Regional Centre, Payyanur, Kannur, Kerala Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Ramana Maharshi was one of the guiding spirit of Indian culture who revealed the Highest truths to us - He preferred to communicate through silence – He taught the ultimate doctrine of non-duality or Advaita – He was a master of non-duality and is often described as an incarnation of Advaita Vedanta – Self enquiry , according to him, is the most effective method for spiritual practice and this is the corner stone of his practical teachings – this method embraces karma and jnana margas and it leads directly to self-realization- Brahman is the Absolute and foundational to all experience - According to him, Brahman and the world are a unity and co-exist as reality and appearance – Self, according to him, is existence, consciousness and bliss - He advocated two paths of self-realization - self enquiry and also the path of surrender - Atmanusandhana helps individual in the attainment of self- realization.

In India, philosophy is taken to mean in the accepted sense of the term as he did not ‘darshana’ which means in Sanskrit ‘seeing,’ present a logically thought-out system of vision or experience. In the philosophical principles. He emphasized that thought must sense, ‘to see’ means ‘to realize’ or to have a be eliminated as he believed that it is through ‘direct vision.’ This direct experience is the the elimination of thought that one discover source from which all Indian thought flows the deeper awareness that is behind and and it is the accepted basis of philosophy in beyond thought. He said “preoccupation with India. From this point, we can say that Indian theory, doctrine and philosophy can actually philosophy is not merely a metaphysical be harmful in so far as it distracts a man from speculation, but has its foundation in the really important work of spiritual effort, by immediate perception. In Indian thought, offering an easier alternative which is merely concepts like God, soul etc. are definitely mental, and which therefore cannot change his experienced truths. This insistence upon direct nature.” It should be noted that the experience is that which distinguishes Indian significance of Sri Ramana Maharshi lies in philosophy from Western thought which the fact that he arrived at Advaita experience insists mostly on reasoning. During rare without prior scriptural studies and practical occasions, spiritually inspired people have disciplines. appeared throughout the history of India, to Ramana Maharshi preferred to reveal the Highest Truth. Saints and gurus communicate through the power of silence and through their spiritual message have been the it was so deep and vibrant as it successfully guiding spirit of Indian culture. Sri Ramana calmed the minds of many who were seekers Maharshi was one such person. He was not after Truth. “Silence is the universal language definitely a systematic thinker or philosopher where there is no thought, but one understands

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the other. Silence is the over-speaking 1896, never heard of Brahman, samsara etc. perennial flow of language; words interrupt Later at Tiruvannamalai, when he listened to and obstruct this mute language.”1 He was of sacred books he found that these books were opinion that a teacher employing words analyzing and naming what he had felt necessarily implies the dualities of the teacher, intuitively without analyze or name. In his teachings and the taught, while Ramana’s opinion, the real purpose of philosophy is to truth, his silence, embodied the pure non-dual serve as a bridge to help the sincere seeker to essence. He did not propound any new theory. cross from belief in the superficial falsity of What he taught was the ultimate doctrine of the world appearance to its underlying truth. non-duality or Advaita in which all other But most philosophies have tended to doctrines are finally absorbed. Sri Ramana’s degenerated into dogma or doctrine. In teachings expounded the Vedic path of self- Maharshi’s view, preoccupation with any knowledge. He taught it mainly through the doctrine or philosophical ideas was actually tremendous power of spiritual silence. ‘The detrimental to the seeker of truth for two Guru is the bestower of silence who reveals reasons. Firstly, the reality or truth of the the light of self-knowledge which shines as the universe is such that it cannot he residual Reality.’ Here in this we would like to comprehended by the human mind. It can only analyze these Advaitic insights which formed be known through direct intuitive experience. the basis of his teachings. Secondly, if a person is preoccupied with Advaitic insights in Ramana’s teaching doctrines and philosophical arguments he will Ramana Maharshi did not found any be distracted from seeking the truth through new school of philosophy. He taught the direct experience. So Ramana Maharshi ageless truth of Advaita. More than an presents the seeker with a simple, undiluted expounder of Advaita, he was a living and authoritative exposition of his direct embodiment of it. He demonstrated in his life mystical insight into the nature of ultimate the truth of Advaita and showed us through his reality. life how it is possible for a sage to be in the Ramana Maharshi’s technique of Self world but not for it. He was one with Enquiry everything, free from all dualistic thoughts, so The essence of Maharshi’s teaching is he has been after described as ‘an incarnation that it is the human mind alone that is the main of Advaita.’ Literally Advaita means Non- obstacle in our realizing the truth or reality. It duality. The essence of Advaita succinctly put, must therefore be transcended if one has to it contained in the following verse ‘The arrive at the truth. He said, ‘Realization is Absolute is Real; the world is non-real; the perfection. It cannot be comprehended by the individual human being and the Absolute are mind. One must transcend the mind to be the not different.’ Ramana Maharshi was a master self, which is absolute knowledge. The present of non-duality. He did not expound a closed knowledge-of the mind- is only of limitation. system. He pointed out the total and absolute The absolute knowledge (of the self) is experiences of non-duality where there is no unlimited.’ According to him, it is the mind split between subjects and objects, where are that has ‘stolen’ or deprived us of the there no distinctions at all. When asked if his awareness of our true nature and that of the teachings were the same as Sankara’s, he world. Maharshi’s expositions of his mystic replied, “My teachings are only an expression insight into reality are closely linked to a of my own experiences and realization. Others simple practical spiritual discipline that he 2 find that it tallies with Sri Sankara’s.” Sri called ‘self-enquiry.’ The aim of self-enquiry Ramana remarked that he had never read is to discover by direct experience, that the scriptures before his ‘Great experience’ in mind is really non-existent. Self- enquiry is the

28 Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018 direct method and all other methods are individual have no hand in it.’ While Sri practiced while retaining the ego, consequently Ramana Maharshi authorized many different many doubts arise. Self-enquiry, on the other methods for spiritual practices, the one he hand leads directly to self-realization by considered as most effective and the one he removing all the obstacles that make one think himself advocated was self-enquiry. He said that self is not realized already. If practiced ‘From the substance of the mind there is no with single-minded resolve it leads one to other means more effective than self-enquiry. secure, for oneself, the same mystic insight Even though the mind subsides by other into the essential nature of the truth or absolute means, that is only apparently so, it will rise reality underlying the universe. We can say again.’ This practice was the corner stone of that Ramana Maharshi’s technique of self- his practical teachings and his restoration of enquiry is easy and practical. In this, there is this ancient technique was his greatest no struggling with the mind and there is no contribution to Indian philosophy. The path of suppression of thoughts. All it requires is for self-enquiry of Maharshi is a new integrated the seeker to keep an awareness of the source one which embraces karma marga (path of from which all thought springs. This can be action) and jnana-marga (path of practiced anytime and anywhere, while driving knowledge).His method of self-enquiry is the car, while eating, while at work etc. His different from Advaitin’s, though not in all philosophy provides us with a rational basis details but certainly in its emphasis and for freedom from fear, desires and passions. understanding. Acceptance of the principle of non-duality The self is self-effulgent which enables us to view all objects and events in the transcends darkness and light. One should not worldly life with equanimity. This doctrine of think of it with the mind. The self is the pure non-duality that all beings are, in essence, the Reality. The ego springs from ignorance. It one self, provides a rational basis for love and confuses and misleads a man to think of self in compassion towards all other beings because it the form of body, mind etc. Maharshi points to the fact that there is only the one suggested bhakti, jnana, yoga or dhyana to eternal and infinite self that is imminent in all. root out the maya or illusion. Devotion in his Acceptance of Maharshi’s mystic vision philosophy meant aspiring towards the demolishes our sense of individuality because complete surrender of one’s sense of it considers the universe and all beings therein individuality-not mere adoration of, and as manifestations of an organic, indivisible and service to, the God of one’s faith in a harmonious whole. permanent subject-object relationship. He Maharshi’s technique of self-enquiry explains that mind and ego are one and the is something different from meditation. same. The individual is nothing else than the Meditation required an object to meditate on, ego which, again, is only the mind. Waking, whereas in self-enquiry there is only the dream and sleep are mere phases of the mind, subject and no object. Meditation makes the not the self. The self is the witness of these mind one-pointed, strengthens and increases three states. The self must first realized in the the power of endurance facilitating the waking state for it is our true nature underlying attainment of perfection in the enquiry into the all the three states. Effort must be made in the self. He explains that meditation is more or waking state and the self is realized here and less mental, but the quest for the self is a direct now. It will then be understood to be the method and is superior to it. He said, ‘for the continuous self, uninterrupted by the moment you get into the quest for the self and alternatives of waking, dream and deep sleep. begin to go deeper, the real self is waiting In the fourth state, the ego merges in there is to receive you and then whatever is to consciousness. Ramana Maharshi explains the be done is done by something else and you ‘spiritual heart’ as the true seat of

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consciousness which is pure awareness or one’s highest aim in life. Hence we can say sense of being. He had found it from his own that ‘Maharshi’s philosophy if of value to us at experience to be the center of spiritual two levels. At the higher, it offers those with a awareness and then found his experience more strongly developed spiritual nature and a confirmed in some ancient text. sincere yearning for the truth, a spiritual In order to end the miseries of the philosophy and a path which leads them to world, Ramana Maharshi suggested turning direct intuitive experience of the Truth or inwards and seeking the self. He says that the Reality. At the lower, it provides guiding world and its sufferings are unreal. As long as principles and values for those who merely one thinks that the body or the objective world wish to lead a happier, more harmonious and is real, there exists suffering. But once he serene life at the mundane level of material realizes the self, there is no more pain as the existence.’ But Ramana Maharshi was of self is the Reality or Absolute and is beyond opinion that when one has realized the all the sufferings. Absolute Truth, there is no sense in talking The method of enquiry into oneself about degrees of truth or reality. that he taught goes beyond philosophy and His Concept of Reality beyond psychology, for it is not the qualities The Reality, according to Ramana of the ego that are sought but the self-standing Maharshi is not ‘He,’ a personal being nor is it resplendent without qualities. What the mind an ‘It,’ an impersonal concept. The Reality, has to do is not to suggest reply, but to remain Brahman, is a name for the experience of the quiet so that the true reply can arise. ‘To the timeless fullness of Being. He said, “Brahman Maharshi intellectual comprehension of his is pure spirit-formless, unlimited, eternal and philosophy the verbal expression of his insight without any differentiation. It is a unity. It into the nature of reality-was necessary only to never rises nor disappears. So it is permanent extent of convincing oneself that it pointed and therefore real- not transient and illusory.”3 towards the absolute truth. Thereafter, all Brahman is said to be identical with world in effort was to be directed towards gaining the the sense that the world is not apart from mystic experience of truth for oneself.’ The Brahman. The material cause (Brahman) spiritual discipline prescribed by him can be brings about an effect (the world appearance) practiced by any one, provided his or her that is not different from the cause. Brahman present set of beliefs about the world are held and the world are a unity and co-exist as merely as a tentative view rather than a rigid reality and appearance. The world is not the dogma. essential truth but merely the phenomenal truth Maharshi’s philosophy states that our of Brahman. Ramana Maharshi says, “Reality true nature is immortal, infinite and perfect. must always be real. It is not with forms and Our sense of mortality, finiteness and names, but it is That which underlies them. It imperfection is a delusion born of underlies limitations, being itself limitless. It identification with the ego or the sense of underlies unrealities, being itself unreal.”4 individuality. This delusion can be overcome Thus Ramana regarded the Absolute as that by transcending its cause-i.e., the illusory ego. which is foundational to all experience though He shows us the way whereby, we can regain it is in no sense a substance. and abide in our true nature as existence- Having defined Brahman as the cause consciousness-bliss. Such a philosophy has a of the world, Ramana Maharshi defines the greater appeal and offers greater hope and Absolute as Pure Existence, Pure purpose to mankind than any world view that Consciousness and Pure Bliss. We can see that regards our real nature as mortal, finite and he defines Reality by stating its essential imperfect. It provides us with a rational basis nature or Swarupa-laksana and by stating its for regarding the transcending of the ego as

30 Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018 accidental attributes or tatastha-laksana. But the waking dreaming and deep sleep states do he preferred swarupa lakshana definition. He not affect the self. quite often spoke of the Reality as Existence. While the self, reveals everything, it He regarded existence or ‘Sat’ as the essential itself is not revealed by anything. The self is nature of the Reality. The Reality is existence never an object to anything. The self is called and existence is Reality. According to him the knowing subject when it functions through Reality is neither ‘existent’ nor ‘non-existent’ mind. Fundamentally and primarily the self is in the ordinary sense of those terms. He said pure consciousness. The indivisible non-dual “Reality must always be real. It is not with pure consciousness appears divided, dualistic forms and names. Reality is that which is. It is in relational knowledge. Vritti jnana is a blend as it is. It transcends speech and is beyond the of the modification of mind and the reflection expressions ‘existence’, non-existence, and so of consciousness there in. It is an expression of on.”5 Ramana Maharshi made use of an pure consciousness through a mental mode analogy from the Chandogya Upanishad to corresponding to an object. One does not attain make this clear. Clay may take different forms consciousness. It has been there all along is potters hands and thus become known as persisting throughout all states of experience. pots, cups, plates etc. Really speaking, all All that is required is to give up one’s false these objects are but clay, though they are notion of what the Reality is. individually called by various names. Each is a Self is also the Bliss. Ramana particular form in which the same clay Maharshi was of opinion that “Perfect Bliss is appears. So also, the Reality appears in Brahman. Perfect peace is of the self. That different forms and is called by various names. alone exists and is consciousness. That which That which underlies all names and forms is is called happiness is only the nature of the Reality. So Ramana Maharshi held that the self.”7 According to him the self is such entire manifold universe is nothing but incomparable Bliss cannot be talked about, it Brahman. Though he himself moved about and can only be experienced. He used to point out dealt with people and things he was never that the self is Bliss and thus Bliss is natural, separated from the one Supreme Reality. unvarying and constant. Thus self is described According to Ramana Maharshi, the by Ramana Maharshi as Existence, Reality that is Pure Existence is also pure Consciousness and Bliss. In one of his hymns consciousness or pure awareness. From the to Arunachala, Ramana interpreted the three perspective of an ordinary person, there are syllables in the name A-ru-na to stand for three states of consciousness. Like Advaita Existence, Consciousness and Bliss. Vedanta, Ramana Maharshi also believes a Liberation fourth state or turiya which is pure Ramana Maharshi advocated two consciousness that underlies and permeates paths of self-realization: primarily self-enquiry these three. He said, “there is only one state, and then also the path of surrender. He that of consciousness or Awareness or remarked, ‘there are only two ways to conquer Existence. The three states of waking, dream destiny or to be independent. One is to enquire and sleep cannot be real. They simply come who undergoes this destiny and discover that and go. The Real will always exist ….. only the ego is bound by it and not the self, Existence or consciousness is the only and that the ego is non-existent. The other way reality.”6 According to him the self is beyond is to kill the ego by completely surrendering to all these state. It is the sakshi or witness. He the Lord …… True surrender is love of God likened consciousness to a movie screen where for the sake of love and for nothing else, not pictures appears and disappears. But nothing even for the sake of salvation. In other words, sticks to the screen and it remains as a screen. complete effacement of the ego is necessary to In the same way the things that happens during

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conquer destiny, whether you achieve this Due to ignorance the sense of self or effacement though self-enquiry or through the ‘I’ notion is superimposed on the not-self bhakti marga.’8 Ramana Maharshi was not and the three bodies- physical, subtle and concerned about the meaning and nature of causal. This is bondage. To know this fact self-realization. Rather he wanted to make from the guru is sravana. Manana is the people aware of the need to attain self- process of subtle enquiry, rejecting the three realization. He held that upon realization, all bodies and discovering the true self through karmas are destroyed. The liberated individual self-enquiry. To fix the mind firmly in the need not wait until his prarabdha-karma is Heart to experience the self is nidhidyasana or exhausted before freedom occurs. Whether the atmanusandhana. This, according to Ramana, physical body persists or not is of no is bhakti, yoga and dhyana. This helps in the consequence to the liberated individual. attainment of self-realization. As stated by Ramana states that the self and liberation T.M.P. Mahadevan, “the quintessence of (mukti) have same meaning. He said, ‘Mukti is Ramana’s philosophy can explained in four synonymous with the self. Jivan mukti and statements deham (the body), na-ham (not ‘I’) Videha mukti are all for the ignorant. The jnani ko’ham (who am-I), so’ham (He-I am), the is not conscious of mukti of bandha. Bondage, common factor aham of ‘I’ is the final truth.”9 liberation and orders of mukti are all said for Hence we can conclude that the tradition of ajnani in order that ignorance might be shaken Advaita has been renewed from time to time off. There is only mukti and nothing else.’ by sages and philosophers. Ramana Maharshi According to Ramana Maharshi bondage and also revealed the light of Advaita once again. liberation do not pertain to the self. • Mahadeven. T.M.P, & Saroja, G.V, Contemporary Indian Philosophy, New Delhi: References Sterling Publishers, 1985, p.223. • Mahadevan.T.M.P & Saroja. G.V, • Venkataramiah, (comp), Talks with Sri Contemporary Indian Philosophy, New Delhi: Ramana Maharshi, Ramanasramam, 1978, Sterling Publishers1985, p.227. p.103. • Osborne, Arthur, (ed.), Teachings of Sri • Day by Day with Bhagavan: a diary by Ramana Maharshi in His own words, Devaraja Mudaliar recording conversations Tiruvannamali: Sri Ramanasramam, 1993, and events in Sri Ramana’s Hall during the p.223. years 1945-1947. Thiruvannalai: Sri • Grimms, John, Ramana Maharshi: The Ramanasraman, 1977. Crown Jewel of Advaita, Madras: Indica, • Sadhu Om, Guru Vachaka Kovai, New 1995, p.138. Delhi: Sri Ramana Kendra, 1980, p.65. • Grimm, John, Ramana Maharshi: The • Mahadevn, T. M. P, & Saroja, G.V, Crown Jewel of Advaita, Madras: Indica, Contemporary Indian Philosophy, New Delhi: 1995, p.259. Sterling Publishers, 1995, p.238.

32 Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, January - June, 2018 Vol. VI, No. I ISSN: 2319-8192 Contemporary Art Progress in Manipur: An Analytical Study

Dr. Meinam Irikhomba Meetei Guest Faculty, Visual Arts Dept. Manipur University of Culture, Imphal E mail: [email protected] Dr. Partha Sarkar Assistant Professor, Mass Communication, Assam University, Silchar Email: pathasarkarsil.gmail.com

Abstract “Contemporary Art” is an ample topic of the present day art scenario. It reflects the contemporary culture and society at large and also offering educationist, researchers and students a rich resource through which is to consider current ideas and rethink the familiar. By defining the contemporary art, there is no simple or singular exact word. In the contemporary art scenario there is no specific medium of what artist had to do. The artist used to produce a dynamic combination of material, concepts and subject in an experimental process. Such type of art activities were spread and practice in across the world. At the beginning the introduction of Modern art or contemporary arts in India, artists were facing certain problems between the line of traditional and modernism at the initial period. With the establishment of progressive artist group many changes has come in the field of visual art and this changing trend has reached every corner of our country. The contemporary art progress in Manipur is also the main root and imitation of the above changing trend. This new trends of the international concept of art had also reached to the heart of Manipuri artist through the above groups of artist and art promoters. In this way, institutions as well as printed media like books, journals, Magazines and newspaper has begun to contact directly or indirectly with the Indian contemporary artists. The present paper attempts to analyses the progress and changing trend of contemporary visual art practices in Manipur. Keywords: Contemporary Arts, Visual arts, Activities.

Introduction come in the field of visual art practices in India. India is a rich culture, civilization. The When we talk about modern art or contemporary art of sculpture, painting, pottery and other man- art trend in India, it is clear that modern art is a made objects were in existence from the time west wind blowing from the Europe, extending immemorial. These rich forms of art works were roughly from the 1860s to the 1970s. Modern art mainly practiced in the form of ritualistic, daily in the west evolved out of the search for creating life and religious way in the early period. After art purely for pictorial values when the entire the introduction of the British East India conventional concept of art was rudely shaken by company in 16th century, and establishment of an the invention of the camera. The task of art institution in the metropolitan cities of producing the exact likeness of a person or an Madras, Calcutta and Bombay many changes has object was taken over by the camera which was 33 Contemporary Art Progress in Manipur: An Analytical Study ISSN: 2319-8192

done a better job of it. In so far as modernism change. His influence has been no considerable constitutes a revolution against the camera eye, artist of the 20th century who has not been against realism and transcripts painting. influenced by some aspect of his work. The Impressionism added little substantially new. The course of modern art is, therefore, inconceivable impressionists had destroyed forever an artistic without the achievement and example of believed in the objective truth of nature. The Cezanne. The cubists and post cubists all artist was understood that what we see depends experienced with seeking the pure values. The on how we see, and even more when we see; the importance of Picasso, founder of the cubist style “objective view” is in fact subject to both and his impact on modern art cannot be perception and time. Postmodern Art movement overestimated. During his lifetime, he himself was founded on the principle of experimentation encompassed almost the entire range of modern and concept, rather than pictorial representation. art in this century and has since become a That is to say, the ‘idea’ which a work represents legendary figure. Other modern movements that is considered its essential component. The followed were Dadaism, surrealism, contemporary art is more concerned with the expressionism, fauvism, the blue rider, geometric product of experiments and intellectuals, abstraction and various others which all psychology of the society, changes the contributed to the modern movement. After the technology rather than aesthetic appeal. It does Second World War the focus of art activities not mean their works are tedious. As modern or shifted to America where many of the European contemporary art advancing forward, artists are masters migrated. There the art scene was engaging, in search of sensation rather than the dominated by the OP artist, the POP artists, the pure visual images. Revaluation of the earlier and action painting, the happening the art of the funk the new idioms of art are also the main features and the minimalists or the conceptualist. The of the contemporary art movement. This paper artist worked on objective illusion with alphabets. attempt to analyzed on the progressive view of Action painters like Pollock and Kooning works contemporary art trend in Manipur and or rather paintings not only the difference concentrate on the specific issues. between the figures and setting, past and present, Objectives of the study background and foreground, all thorough by 1. To study the changing trend of contemporary blurred, but nearly every major detail in this all arts. over and yet focused field suggest a different 2. To study the art activities in Manipur. angle of vision. Pollock’s best paintings similar 3. To understand the contribution of Manipuri flash different levels of illusionistic space. His artist and organization for promoting visual work has a complete meshing of image and field, arts in the state. content and canvas, even states and movement, Historical overview on contemporary art creating a completely integrated work suggesting We live in an essentially fleeting and a whole new and fertile vision for painting space. uncontrollable world, and it is the glory of art to The conceptualist or minimalist worked in the wrestle with this concept. The greatest of all rudiments of sensory experience. The most wrestlers was Paul Cezanne, he was the point of revolutionary style of the post war the one transition. His determination to see the world attracting the most outraged responses was the objectively produced what we call the modern POP art. Its exponents used not only the imagery movement. He excluded the ambiguous surface of popular culture, such as comic strip figures, of things and penetrates to the reality that did not but also representational techniques and materials 34 Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018 drawn from advertising and other mass media. Benod Behari Mukherjee and Ramkinker Baiz American art of the post world war period is the standard of Indian art has been pushed up to a regarded remarkable more for its diversity than high level and caused the evolvement of the for the emergence of any dominant trend. modern style. Although these master artists Between the two master Pollock and Kooning worked differently, they were basically united in there stand now several pioneer painters who in the search of a new art. They were greatly the middle and late fifties initiated the directions concerned not with the sensual or the that others developed to name a few, Morris imagination, but the spirit underlying the subject. Louis, Reinhardt, Jasper Johns and Robert They are of great significance because of their Rauschenberg. These and other painters of the modern outlook in a period when their past two decades have moved beyond earlier contemporaneous artists were working under the American masters suggesting that innovative restriction of the academic and traditional traditions in art still thrive in the united states. environment. Later on, many young, energetic When we come to the Indian context, artists followed with different view towards life. Modern artists were facing certain problems With the coming of progressive artist group many between the line of traditional and modernism at changes has come in the field of visual art and the initial period. As history shows, with the this changing trend has reached every corner of coming of British they introduced several new our country. The contemporary art progress in systems bringing about a change in the social, Manipur is also the main root and imitation of the religious and educational fields. These changes above changing trend. affected the fabric of our culture and art to a great The category of “Contemporary Art” is extent. Some of the intellectuals, contemporary in not a new one. What is new is the sense that, in particular, tried to revive the traditional its very heterogeneity, much present practice environment and to affirm our faith in traditional seems to float free of historical determination, concept. Some of the Englishmen who helped conceptual definition, and critical judgment. preserve the aesthetic values of Indian art from Contemporary art history sits at a crossroads in oblivion were Havell, Percy Brown, Fergusson, the uneven organization of the subfields that Cunningham and Cousins. The new nationalist comprise the discipline of art history. Within schools under the banner of Abanindranath most university art history departments, one Tagore worked to gain insight in the country’s art group of subfields covering Western tradition. However, he along with Rabindranath developments is organized chronologically, as Tagore, Nandalal Bose and a few others help periods (i.e., from Ancient to Modern, with realize the validity of pure pictorial values. Raja Medieval and Renaissance in between). Another Ravi Verman, a self taught painter of the South group of subfields that covers non-Western Indian, popularized mythological theme with developments are identified geographically, as very realistic style of the west. Amrita Shergil, culturally discrete units even if they encompass trained in Paris, appeared in the art scene of an entire continent (i.e., African, Chinese, Latin India. She combined the western technique with American, etc.). The category of contemporary an Indian spirit which appealed younger art history, while institutionally situated as generation of painters. With the conventional coming after the Modern, following the temporal practice of exposing a picture to contemporary art axis of Western art history as the most recent happenings in the rest of the world and with period, is also the space in which the dynamic pioneer personalities like Nandala Bose, contemporary histories from around the world 35 Contemporary Art Progress in Manipur: An Analytical Study ISSN: 2319-8192

must be confronted simultaneously as a making of better art movement. However, our disjunctive yet continuous intellectual horizon, talented and enthusiastic younger artists hurriedly integral to the understanding of the present (as a acquired the knowledge and idioms of the whole). Contemporary art history, in other words, globally prevailing implication of technical skill marks a temporal bracketing and a spatial and concepts. Now, the question of unparalleled encompassing, a site of a deep tension between in the establishment of the art movements in the very different formations of knowledge and various areas; is not much necessary, but how fast traditions, thus a challenging pressure point for the progress of Art movement is being developed the field of art history in general. in a particular soil is more needed. Moreover, The emergence of contemporary art in how it has nurtured the art and culture of a region Manipur is more necessary. When we think of In India, some group of artists like the contemporary art of Manipur, we are compelled Calcutta Progressive Artist Group (1943), to look into the development of Indian Bombay Progressive Artist Group (1947), contemporary art movement, as well as the whole Bombay Group (active in 1957-62) and Delhi of the North Eastern part of the country. Here, we Silpi Chakra (1949) took the initiative in also may look into the art activities of a more practicing the new global method of the promising state in the North Eastern part of India contemporary art movement. The faculty of fine like Assam, Tripura as it has a good potential in arts, MSU, Baroda (1950) initiated educating a the field of art and culture and had a good systematic process of contemporary Art norms. relation with Manipur, in the early times. Lalit Kala Academy (1954) New Delhi, promoted Contemporary art scenario in Manipur the search of new artistic value of this kind. The The progress of contemporary art rooted new trends of the international concept of art had with the establishment of Imphal Art school reached to Manipur through the above groups of (1949). After a long gap of 10 years, i.e. in 1959 artist and art promoters. In this way, institutions the Imphal Art school was upgraded to a grant in as well as printed media like books, journals, aid college, Imphal Art College. In the history of Magazines and newspaper has begun to contact Manipur the establishment of Imphal Art College directly or indirectly with the Indian could be considered as a turning point of Visual contemporary artists. On the other hand Manipur Art movement in Manipur. From that year State Kala Academi takes a great responsibility of onwards, a good number of students started promoting young artist as well as creating a joining the college and learned art education common platform for the artist. Manipur State under the guidance of Guru Syamo Sharma. Most Kala Academy organized annual exhibition once of the students during that time were not coming in a year with a valuable award for encouraging from the guidance of their parents; they came artist. In Manipur, Imphal Art School (established only with their interest in art. Later on some of in 1949) initiated and taking chief responsibility the student went for further studies to West of art education in the early period. Accordingly, Bengal, Baroda and other states of the country. teachers and students of the college took the Some of the artists of Manipur had apprenticed important part to cheer up the art movement in with the college till the present day. The three Manipur. Some of the vanguard artists started pioneer artists H. Shyamo Sharma (1917-1979), making of modernity or contemporary type of art M.K. Priyobrata (1911-2005) and H. Syamsunder in the state. The history of art in Manipur is not Singh (1917-2006), initiated practicing the encompassing for a long time of its course in the modern trait in Manipur. In another way R.K. 36 Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018

Chandrajitsana Singh, for his great inspirational most of the students of the government college of and incredible ‘Romanticism’ type of oil and Art and craft, Calcutta opted the western poster paintings are worthy to mention. They had academic style and given intensive training of produced the new idea, concepts and styles in nature study, while MSU, Baroda school relied their works. For better studying the progress of more on the creative exercises, and taught theory contemporary art practice in Manipur, it is subjects extensively. In addition, Shantiniketan observed that base in the period of time and was another place given training on both the seniority of the artist, the above artist may be academic and the creative process. Most of the categorized as the first generation; to account for artists, who had their training during the 70s, and the development of the contemporary art in the early part of the 80s, were attended degree and state. It was the time of chaos and turmoil. The diploma courses. This is the reason fact that the life of the people was apprehensive and Government College of Art and Craft, Calcutta, tormented. The socio-economic and political generated only degree and diploma classes. The situations were in the piteous state. The system was also happening at the J.J. Art School, entrenchments of costumes started, and followed Bombay. Moreover, it was hard to get admission a lot of exciting external alienation of social to M.F.A., in Santiniketan, Baroda or Rabindra behavior, storming from the mainland of India Bharati University or anywhere else in the and other societies. In the meantime, the art country. Fortunately, nowadays, M.F.A.; courses college attracted many versatile young art lovers are being opened almost in all the states and to opt the fine art course, as their leisure pursuit central university, except Manipur. This is one of or a full time vocation. The selected artists of this the cases, to look at the progress of the art period are Professor Th. Tombi Singh, L.Shamu movement in the state. Singh, Brajamani Sharma, E. Kanta Singh, L. Another generation of the artists group, Modhuchandra Singh, S. Sundaram Singh, L. who had their studies between the years 1975 to Phunindro Singh were identified. Most of the 1985, is said to be the Third generation of artists of this group were studied visual art under contemporary artists in Manipur. They are being the strict guidance of H. Shyamo Sharma, the involving the most significant part in pursuit of founder of the college who was dedicated his life both Modernity and ethos of contemporary art. to the college. These artists' group may be The artists in this category are- S. Joychandra categorized as second generation. E. Kanta Sharma, Y. Ibochouba, M.Kulachandra Singh, Shrma, the artist who came with a double Ch. Premananda Roy, R.K. Sarojkumar singh, diploma from Calcutta, in 1975 and during the W.Kependra Singh, G.Rajendro Sharma, Pranam 70’s and early 80’s, he likewise was very actively Singh, Y. Nabachandra Singh and Y. Gunindro. engaging in the field of artistic production and Out of the above artists, Y. Ibochouba Singh introduced applied Art in Manipur. L. Phunindro studied both painting and Graphic art, who is the Singh also a product of Calcutta and made a path foremost M.F.A.; in the field of graphic art. to Bombay to study sculpture for a short period. Another younger generation of artists who had His perfect western academic style of paintings studied from different art schools of the country and sculptures inspired greatly the young are Ksh. Sarat Singh (Graphic, Painter), Th. enthusiasts to study further. This group of artists Debendra Signh, Ch. Lalit Singh (painting), post had brought the art of the period from their art diploma from Shantiniketan, L. Iswarchandra schools, were the curriculums, instituted by the Singh (painting), at Imphal and Calcutta, Th. respective schools where they had learnt. In short, Lokeswori Devi (Painting and Graphic artist), 37 Contemporary Art Progress in Manipur: An Analytical Study ISSN: 2319-8192

Baroda, A. Hemanta Singh (Painter, Sculpture promotion of visual art. Apart from organizing art and M.F.A. Art History); from Kolkatta and exhibitions and workshops, it has a good studio Baroda, S.Nimai Singh and Banamali Sharma are facility for the graphic artists. Another important sculpture from B.H.U. factor of elevating the contemporary art progress As 21th century is approaching, the new Manipur is the lecture programmes, workshops technology, digitization of information, highly and exhibitions in the state. During the year about advanced communicative means of Facebook 1972 to 1995, a number of prominent artists and renovate the life styles and mind set. Whereas, art scholars from the various part of India; invited the financial improvement of the people, rapid for several programmes in the state. It has given a changes in the social order are inevitably good opportunity for the artists of Manipur to get implanted into the mind of young, energetic ideas and thoughts of the new trends of visual art, artists of this state and that embellished their and they got a surplus inspiration from the works. There is a good number of talented young celebrity Indian contemporary artists. The major artists started coming out to show their novel artists who had come to Manipur are K.K. venture in the field of contemporary art practice Hebbar, K.G. Subramayan, Rathin Maitra, in Manipur. Moreover, this second decade of the Hemanta Mishra, Paritosh Sen, R.S. Bisht, P.T. 2000A.D. can be marked for the sculptors and Reddy, B.C. Sanyal, Ram Kumar, P. Gouri graphic artists for their excellent performance in Shankar, Ratan Parimoo, Sovon Som and many their respective fields. A young sculptor, N. other artists and scholars. They generously Nandaraj Singh (M.S.U., Baroda), honuored with extended a good deal in shaping up a new vista of the National Award by the Lalit Kala Akademy; the contemporary visual world in this region. In New Delhi, 2014. Now, we have another the recent times, not all those kinds of deserving National awardees after 26th years gape. This is a programmes have been implemented in the state. sign of good gesture in the progress of visual art The state level art exhibitions and seminars are in Manipur. Another young graphic artist N. held regularly, by the Manipur State Kala Rajesh Singh, also has won a prestigious national Akademi that boosted up the spirit of the artists. level award in graphic art, conferred by All India Conclusion Fine Arts and Crafts society, New Delhi. Progress of the contemporary art in Establishment of the Manipur State Kala Manipur is not much growing fast, one of the Academi (1972), Directorate of art and culture main factors is the geographical and socio- (1980), also provides a great advantage to economic condition of the state. The art generate and promote acceptable valued artists. institutions and concerned departments take a The Manipur State Kala Academy, Art and great responsibility to encourage and promote the Culture Department take initiative of conducting artist. To observe the progress of the visual art, several programs for the visual artist. Moreover, we may look at some of the events occurred in it provides funding and confers with a good Manipur. Works done in the art workshops and amount of cash award to the outstanding artists. exhibitions held at the recent time are can also be Art Society Manipur is another premier dynamic studied. The sculpture workshop sponsored by institution works for the promotion of visual art Lalit kala Akademi, Kolkata, held at the premises practices in the state. Here, Professor Th. Tombi of Manipur State Kala Akademi (MSKA) in Singh is taking a big role in regulating the works 2014, was one of the most successful events, and programmes of the society. ‘NeoGen’ is since ever happened in Manipur. Sculptors of another young organization works for the Manipur and other artists executed large creative 38 Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018 stone works, and the workshop ended with a their native place; it is also a positive evidence of grand success exhibition. The work done in the the progress. In addition, it is necessary to look workshop, do not represent the current standard into some of the art progress of the neighboring of sculptures in Manipur, but it shows the spirits states and entire state of the country. After the and talents of the artists. Another graphic and study, we may focus Manipur artist has to be look painting workshop held in 2014, at the Imphal forward for the progress of visual art in Manipur. Art College, organized by Manipur State Kala Notes and References Academy has given a good opportunity to the • Blake, Robin. 2001. Essential Modern Art. young artists and augmented the knowledge of Parragon publication, pg-1. printmaking techniques and sense of presentation. • Beckett, Wendy, Sister and Wright, Patrica. These kinds of changing activities and facilities 2000. The story of painting, a Dorling Kindersley are the indication of development in the field of book. visual art in the state. Multimedia workshop, • Mago, Pran Nath. 2001. Contemporary Art in 2015 organized by Art Society Manipur is one of India. New Delhi, National Book trust. the productive workshops for the progress of • Read, Herbert. 1994. A concise history of visual art movement. Another Lalit Kala regional Modern Painting. Thames and Hudson painting camp 2016, provides a great chance to publication, pg-2. developed artist activities and give opportunity of • Rosenblum, Robert. 2001. Cubism & interaction among the different artist. When, we Twentieth Century Art. Harry N. Abrans, Inc. look into the academic status of the Imphal Art Publisher, New York, pg-13. College. We may note that the status of student • Singh, Bijoykumar and Sudher, Kh., H. pass out is more number in 2014 in comparison Social History of Manipur. Craft of Hinduism with the previous consecutive four years. This and state formation in Pre-Modern Manipur. will be the positive way of progressing visual art New Delhi. Sumarg publishers and Distributors. scenario in Manipur. However, without opening Pg-67. the master degree course in fine art, the progress • Sharma Chandra Lokesh. 1979. A Brief may remain slow. Furthermore, the role of art history of Indian Painting. Goel Publishing historians takes a crucial role in the progress of House. art and cultural affairs. Thus, it is required to • open it as a major subject in the art institutions, My observation and compile from the records so that we can realize how much of art forms will of Manipur State Kala Academi and Art Society have explored. Another development is that, Manipur artists of the most promising younger generations are holding exhibitions in groups, frequently; at

39 Contemporary Art Progress in Manipur: An Analytical Study ISSN: 2319-8192

SOME EVENTS PHOTOS OF VISUAL ART ACTIVITIES

(1) (2) (3)

(4)

(6)

(5) Description of Plates Plate 1. Opening ceremony of 4th Annual Exhibition of Art Society Manipur, 2012. Photo courtesy Art Society Manipur Plate 2. Opening ceremony of 7th Annual Exhibition of Art Society Manipur, 2015. Photo courtesy : Personal Collection Plate 3. A group of Graphic Artist exhibited at State Art Gallery,2015. Organized by Neo-Gen. Photo courtesy : Personal Collection Plate 4. Art Exhibition at Imphal Art College Art Gallery, 2015. Photo courtesy: Personal Collection Plate 5. Multimedia Art Workshop, 2015. Organized by Art Society Manipur. Photo credit: Mangsatabam Samson Meitei Plate 6. Lalit Kala Regional Painting Camp in collaboration with Manipur State Kala Academy, 2016. Photo courtesy: Personal collection.

40 Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, January - June, 2018 Vol. VI, No. I ISSN: 2319-8192 Self Help Groups - A Key to Women Empowerment and Poverty Alleviation: Kudumbashree Experience

Jayasree T.O. Assistant Professor in Economics Sree Narayana College, Kannur, Kerala Email: [email protected]

Abstract Empowerment is considered as one of the most recent and powerful discourse to women in development. Since women constitute one half of the world’s population and a visible majority of the poor, the programmes aiming to improve the living conditions of the poor cannot be effective unless women participate in their formulation and implementation, as contributors as well as beneficiaries. According to Swami Vivekananda, there is no chance for the welfare of the world unless the condition of women is improved. It is recognized that while the empowerment of women is a process that will not happen automatically, SHGs are suitable means for the empowerment of women. In this background the paper attempts to analyse the socio-economic profile of the women self help group members and to analyse and assess the impact of SHGs in-terms of employment, income and savings on beneficiaries in the selected wards of the study area and to identify the problems and offer suggestions for effective functioning of the SHGs to benefit women. For analyzing various objectives, the study makes use of secondary as well as primary data. The study concludes that SHG is a media for development of savings habit among the women as it enhances the equality of women, as participants, decision makers and beneficiaries in the democratic, economic, social and cultural spheres of life, though the members were facing certain constraints. Key Words: Micro Finance, Savings, SHGs, Women empowerment.

Introduction the empowerment of women is a process that Empowerment is considered as one will not happen automatically, SHGs are of the most recent and powerful discourse to suitable means for the empowerment of women in development. Women constitute women. The impact of such programme on one half of the world’s population and a socio-economic status of women was found visible majority of the poor. Programmes significant. Microfinance programmes are aiming to improve the living conditions of currently being promoted as a key strategy the poor cannot, therefore, be effective unless for simultaneously addressing both poverty women participate in their formulation and alleviation and women empowerment. implementation, as contributors as well as Women empowerment refers to increasing beneficiaries. According to Swami economic, social, political and spiritual Vivekananda, there is no chance for the strength of women. It often involves welfare of the world unless the condition of developing confidence in their capabilities. women is improved. Women in rural India Empowerment can enable women to lives in virtual isolation, unable to access participate, as equal citizens, in the even the most basic of services. But, with the economic, political and social sustainable formation of Women Self-Help Groups, development of the rural communities. It can these women are now achieving social and be said that men and women should enjoy physical mobility. It is recognized that while desirable welfare conditions and equality in 41 Self Help Groups ...... Kudumbashree Experience ISSN: 2319-8192 accessing the sources and facilities, decision examine how far the Kudumbashree unit in making process in affairs of family and at the study area have been able to empower society and control over resources. Further women economically and socially. women should realize that their problem is Review of literature not due to their inefficiencies and shortage Women’s participation plays a but it has emerged due to social system. The significant role in rural employment SHG Movement worldwide aimed at activities. The self-help would concentrate on systematically empowering marginalized all round development of the beneficiaries grass root level women by way of income and their village as a whole. The groups generation and capacity building. would undertake the responsibility of Through economic empowerment, delivering non-credit service such as literacy, one can be empowered socially, physically, health and environmental issues. The concept mentally and through all these she is sure to of Self-Help Group would mould women as be empowered politically. An SHG is a small responsible citizens of the country for economically homogeneous affinity group of achieving social and economic status the rural poor who have volunteered to (Gurumoorthy, 2000). Priya and Srivastava organize themselves into a group for (2005) reported that NGOs have inculcated eradication of poverty of the members. The the culture of savings and repayment, members of the group were coming together strengthened the groups’ capacity to to save a small amount regularly, which are undertake administrative tasks (accounting, deposited in a common fund to meet maintaining the minutes of meetings, members emergency needs and to provide correspondence and negotiations with banks) collateral free loans decided by the group. and commercial skills (business start ups, SHGs have been recognized as a useful tool marketing and reinvestments) ensuring to help the poor and work as an alternative members to remain financially sustainable mechanism to meet the urgent credit needs of and have the ability to withstand accidents, poor through thrift. SHG is a media for sickness and natural disasters etc. Sinha development of savings habit among the (2005) observed that micro-finance women. It enhances the equality of women, contributed significantly to saving and as participants, decision makers and borrowing of the poorer section of the beneficiaries in the democratic, economic, country. According to Ojha (2001) Self-Help social and cultural spheres of life. Self Help Group model of self-employment generation Group is a participatory endeavour of people seems to be a workable model. However, trying to secure three types of power- social, there will be need for utmost care in political and psychological- that would promotion of Self-Help Groups. Self-help empower them and improve their lives promotion consists of assisting individuals to (Vijaykumar, 2009). Self Help Groups form join together and set-up an organisation the basic constituent unit of micro finance promoting their individual and collective movement in India (Malapur, Rashmi. 2008). skills and opportunities to develop their own. Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) Self-help promotion aims at generating self- addresses on following three objectives as- a) sustainable growth processes within the equality between men and women to access course of which the target group makes its production sources; b) women’s participation own decision. Sivaramakrishnan (2003) has at policy and decision making and c) disclosed in his article ‘Poverty Alleviation decreasing women’s workload and increasing through Self Help Groups’ that the poverty job opportunity and income for them. In this levels have reduced from 56.44% of India’s background, the main aim of this paper is to population in 1973-74 to 37.27% in 1993-94. 42

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The IX Five Year Plan document envisages economic sphere of life. The lack of power or reducing rural poverty in the country from a disempowerment reflects in their low level of 30.55% (208 million) during 1996 to education level, less income, less control 9.64% (73 million) by 2006 and further to over their own income, less bargaining power 4.31% (35 million) by 2011. He has also in selling their own produce and labour, less mentioned that organization of the rural poor participation in any decision making body into Self Help Groups is one of the ways to and less access to production inputs and reduce the poverty. Nagayya and Koteswara resources and employment opportunity than Rao (2010) states that micro-finance refers to men. This vulnerable situation resulted in an credit provided to the poor for self- overall dependency of women on their male employment and other financial and business people through their life cycle all over the services. They review the recent trends in the world, particularly in developing countries. SHG-Bank linkage programme at National The dependency makes them as a burden of a and State level with special reference to family and lowers their value of life. Self- Andhra Pradesh in detail and certain aspects Help Groups (SHGs) particularly of the other three southern States, viz. Tamil kudumbashree are increasingly becoming Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. Singh, (2013), very important method of organizing women have shown that SHG members were able to to take action and transform their situation. contribute towards their family income and Thus, the study aims to explore the impact of also gained other benefits like skill up participation of women in Kudumbashree for gradation, better understanding, banking empowering themselves. operations, and better leadership and Objectives of the study communication skills. Reji, (2013) have The more specific objectives of the study are: found the significant differences of • To analyse the socio-economic profile of empowerment in terms of income as well as the women self help group members in number of employment days after joining Kannur District. SHG when compared with the before joining • To analyse and assess the impact of SHGs the group and that income and employment in-terms of employment, income and savings were higher in post-SHG situation. Thus, it is on beneficiaries and apparent from the review of literature that • To offer suggestions for effective SHGs are playing vital role in the progress of functioning of the SHGs in the study area. women empowerment. Methodology Statement of the problem The study was mainly based on primary data. Self-Help Groups are viable means Primary data were collected through to handle macro problems like poverty and interview schedule. For collecting primary unemployment at the grass root level. data twenty SHGs were selected randomly Women who joined these groups enable from different Panchayats. Then, from each themselves to face poverty through self SHG, five members were selected at random employment projects started at the initiative thereby constituting a sample of 100 of these Self-Help Groups. So it is necessary respondents. The collected data were to assess their role in empowering the women analysed and interpreted with the help of in our society. Women suffer from different simple statistical tools. types of powerlessness in social and Results and discussion

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Table 1: Demographic Profile of the sample respondents Number of respondents Age Group 25-35 22 36-45 42 46-55 30 above 56 6 Total 100 Religion Hindu 94 Muslim 6 Total 100 Caste OBC 72 OEC 14 General 8 Minority 6 Total 100 Marital Status Married 80 Un married 20 Total 100 Type of Family Nuclear 80 Joint 20 Total 100 Educational Below SSLC 40 Qualification SSLC 38 PLUS TWO 14 College 8 Total 100 Occupation Tailoring 20 Beedi worker 18 Coolie 35 Livestock rearing 18 Farming 9 Total 100 Source: Field survey Socio Economic Profile of SHG Members: percent and 14 from OEC. Minority The study reveals that out of 100 respondents constitute only 6 percent. It was found that selected for the study, 22 percent of the OBC caste group dominate the other class of members belong to 25-35 age group. 42 the society. The respondents in the study members belong to the age group of 36 to 45. cover Hindu and Muslim sections of the 30 percent of the members are in the age society, wherein representation of Hindu group of 46 to 55 and 6 percent belongs to (94percent), Muslims (six percent). the age category of above 56. In the group, Moreover, 80 percent of the respondents are 16 percent of the sample respondents belong married and they live in nuclear family. Only to general category belonging to the forward 20 respondents remain unmarried who strata of the society. OBC constitute 72 belong to the age group of 25-30. Among the

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Educational Groupings it was found that the middle income group and those with an entire sample members were educated. 40 average monthly income of more than percent of the members have qualification Rs.5000/- have been grouped under the high below SSLC and 38 percent qualified SSLC. income group. It was found that the high The higher secondary educated group income group (Rs.5001/- 10000) constitutes constitutes only 14 percent and the college 32 percent, the middle income group educated group constitutes 8 percent of the (Rs.1001/-to 5000) constitutes 30 percent, the total sample. Thus, the sample has been low income group (less than Rs.1000/-) greatly dominated by the educated group constitutes 38 percent. Thus, the sample has having qualifications of SSLC and above, been greatly dominated by the respondents that is 60 percent. Thus, it was interesting to belonging to the low income groups. A note that none of the members were comparison of income obtained by the Illiterates. sample respondents before and after joining Impact on Income SHGs reveals that the SHG member’s Income is the major determinant of income increased after joining the unit. the standard of living of the people. The Hence women members of the groups are respondents have been grouped under three independent to meet their personal income groups, such as the high income expenditure, and they contribute more to group, the middle income group and the low their household income. This increases the income group. Those with a monthly income willingness to participate in the SHGs’ less than Rs.1000/- have been grouped under activities. Therefore they are now the low income group, those with a monthly economically independent and contribute to income ranking between Rs.1001/- to increase their household income. Rs.5000/- have been grouped under the Table 2: Monthly income of the members before & after joining SHG Sl. No. Before joining After joining

Monthly income No of No of percentage Percentage respondent respondent 1 Below 1000 52 52 38 38 2 1000 to 5000 28 28 30 30 3 5000 to 10000 20 20 32 32 Total 100 100 50 100 Source: Sample survey

Table 2 shows the changes in monthly employment activities. Microfinance income level of the sample SHG members provides self-employment opportunities not before and after joining the SHGs. Data only to SHG members but also create reveals that monthly income of the majority employment opportunities for their family of SHG members were increased after members to be engaged in various income joining of SHGs when compared with their generating activities undertaken by SHG income before joining SHGs. members (Sarania, 2014). Self-employment Impact on Generation of Employment empowers women by providing financial The microfinance programme independence, alternative source of social through SHGs targets rural poor women to identity and exposure to power structures provide them with opportunities for self- (Baro and Sarania, 2014).

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Table 3 shows the annual able to create larger employment employment level (number of employment opportunities with the uses of microloans. days per annum) of the SHG members before and after joining the SHG. It is evident from the table that the percentage of SHG members had increased in post-SHG scenario in higher bracket of employments days per annum. This implies that SHG approach is Table 3: Changes in employment Days per annum (Before- and After-SHG situation) Before Joining SHG After Joining SHG Employment Days (p.a.) No of Respondents Percentage No. of Respondents Percentage

Below 50 68 68.0 20 20.0 50-100 30 30.0 35 35.0 100-150 1 1.0 18 18.0 150-200 0 0.0 19 19.0 Above 200 1 1.0 10 10.0 Total 100 100.0 100 100.0 Source: Field survey Impact on Savings SHGs are medium for promoting the habit of saving among the women and to enhance the equality of status of women as participant, decision makers and beneficiaries in the democratic, economic, social and cultural spheres of life Table 4: Changes in Annual Saving (Pre- and Post-SHG situation) Annual Saving Before Joining SHG After Joining SHG No. of No. of Percentage Percentage Respondents Respondents Nil 20 20.0 0 0 200-500 65 65.0 10 10.0 500-800 6 6.0 14 14.0 800-1000 7 7.0 40 40.0 1000-1500 2 2.0 31 31.0 Above 1500 0 0 5 5.0 Total 100 100.0 100 100.0 Source: Field survey

Table 4 shows the saving behaviour of the as part of the mandatory saving of the group respondents before and after joining have savings in the group account of SHG. kudumbashree. It is evident from the table Moreover, those respondents who had saving that 20 percent of the respondents did not before joining SHG are able to enhance their have any kind of saving before joining the saving amount after joining SHG. SHG. But, after joining in SHG, all members.

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Table 5: Problems faced by the sample respondents. No: of Problems respondents Percentage

Inability to catch market 30 30 Lack of family support 28 28 Difficulty in procuring raw material 16 16 Irregularity in attending meetings 26 26 Total 100 100% Source: sample survey Table 5 reveals the problems faced by the to develop their group strength by SHG members. 26 percent of the members interactions. expressed irregularity in attending meetings,  Active intervention by district 16 members face difficulty in procuring raw administration, professional bodies and materials, 30 percent found it very difficult to voluntary organisations is precondition for catch market and another 28 percent opined the successful beginning of micro enterprises lack of family support. in terms of skill training, designing products, Suggestions providing new technology and access to Based on the field survey and observation, market. the following measures are suggested to Conclusion increase women empowerment through Growth and development in SHGs. countries simply cannot be realised by  The members should be given necessary ignoring women. SHGs have been identified training and guidance for the successful as a way to alleviate poverty and women operation of the group. empowerment. And women empowerment  Business training should be provided to aims at realizing their identities, power and women. potentiality in all spheres of lives. But the  The members of the SHG should be more real empowerment is possible only when a active, enthusiastic and dynamic to mobilise woman has increased access to economic their savings by group actions. In this process resources, more confidence and self NGOs should act as a facilitator and motivation, more strength, more recognition motivator. The office bearers managing the and say in the family matters and more group should be given nominal financial involvement through participation. Although benefits, which will enable them to be more it is a gradual and consistent process, but involved in the activities of the Group. women should build their mindset for taking  The bank should advance adequate credit additional effort willingly for their overall to the SHG according to their needs. development. SHGs have the potential to  The procedure of the banks in sanctioning have an impact on women empowerment. credit to SHG should be simple and quick. The present study provides ample evidence  Marketing facilities for the sale of products to the fact that self help groups laid the seeds of SHG should be created. Periodical for social and economic empowerment of exhibitions at block-level may be organised women. After joining the self help group the where the products of SHG can be displayed. women are economically and socially  Meetings and Seminars should be empowered. SHGs have not only improved organised where the members will get a living condition of members but also helped chance to exchange their views and be able in changing much of their outlook and attitudes. The present study found that the 47

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effectiveness of SHGs on the economic • Sharma, K.C. (2007): Micro finance empowerment of women in terms of increase through Self Help Groups, Professional in income, number of employment and Banker, December 2007, 29-36. access to saving after joining the SHGs. • Singh, Y., (2013): “Effect of Self Help References Group in Economic Empowerment of Rural • Gurumoorthy T.R (2000): Self-Help Women in Himachal Pradesh”, Journal of Groups Empower Rural Women, Kurukshetra, Indian Research, 1(3), 54-61 48(5), 36. • Sivaramakrishnan, K. (2003): Poverty • Hossain, M. K., (2012): Measuring the Alleviation through Self Help Groups’, Impact of BRAC Microfinance Operations: A Cooperation, 3(5), 8-14. Case Study of a Village. International • Srinivasan, R., & Sriram, M.S. (2003): Business Research, 5(4), 112-123 Micro finance: An introduction, IIMB • Malapur, Rashmi, (2008): Empowering Management Review, 15(2,) 52-53. women through Self Help Groups and Micro • Venkatesh, M. K. (2010): Self Help credit in India, Professional Banker, 8(1), 64. Groups: A Tool to Boost up Woman • Nagayya D. & D. Koteswara Rao (2010): Empowerment. Management and labour Micro-finance and Support Organisations in studies, 35 (1), 75-83 the Southern States of India. Journal of Rural • Vijaykumar, R. (2009): Reinstating the Development, 28(3), 285-300 Self Help Group: Perspective in Micro • Ojha R.K. (2001): ‘Self-Help Groups and Finance. Economic and Political Weekly, Rural Employment’, Yojana, Vol. 45, p. 20. XLIV (15), 68-69. • Reji, (2013): “Economic Empowerment of Women through Self Help Groups in Kerala”, • International Journal of Marketing, Financial Services & Management Research, 2(3), 97-113

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Globalisation and Television in a Tribal Village of Manipur Panmei Gungapou Rongmei Ph.D. Research Scholar Department of Sociology Assam University, Silchar – 788011 Email: [email protected]

Abstract Impact of globalization through television in rural and urban as well as tribal and non-tribal areas is witnessed in all aspects of life. Villagers are attracted to modern dresses and variety of household gadgets watched on television. Television plays an important role not only in globalization of modern household consumption patterns but also in bringing new relationship among family members. The paper attempts to assess the role of television in the globalization of life in a tribal village, Oinamlong, of Manipur. The village comprising 150 households with a population of 1096 persons of the tribe is a rapidly-changing village in Manipur. The analyses are based on field data collected by administering an interview schedule to all the households in Oinamlong. Key words: Globalization, television, tribal village, social change.

Introduction 'Globalization’ refers to integration of people contemporary social life, from the cultural to all over the world into a single world order, the criminal, the financial to the spiritual”. resulting in changes in all aspects of life, such There is a general agreement among the as, social, cultural, political, economic, scholars on the ‘interconnectedness’ environmental and technological. It involves a dimension of globalization. Sanjeevayya & worldwide multidimensional process, Kumar (2009) stated that changes in relatively new and still unfolding, which is information technology and communication, being experienced unevenly throughout the large movement of money, increased trade, etc world and in different sectors of social life. It are all part of globalization. The increase in is a complex set of human forces, involving the movement of goods, labour, and services the production, distribution/transmission, and has narrowed national barriers. This gave birth consumption of technical, economic, political, to the concept of ‘global village’. Changes and socio-cultural goods and services which brought about by globalization have not been are administratively and technologically limited only to the economy but also percolate integrated on a worldwide basis (Hedley 2005: into social and cultural life throughout the 375). Giddens (1990) defines globalization as world. Beginning around 1980 with the “the intensification of worldwide social intervention of IMF and speeded up with the relations which link distant localities in such a radical changes in economic policy around way that local happenings are shaped by 1990, India opted for an export-led and events occurring many miles away and vice foreign-capital-driven development (Lieten versa”. According to Held et al. (1999: 2), 2001:112). India’s policy of Globalization, “Globalization may be thought initially as the Privatization and Liberalization that initiated widening, deepening and speeding up of economic reforms has brought some new worldwide interconnectedness in all aspects of dimensions to the Indian economy.

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Globalisation has also entered into the tribal vary in terms of time, place and culture. The areas through market and mass media. Atal Spanish sociologist Manuel Castells says that (2006) states, ‘in the midst of the rapid ‘new information technologies are changes brought about by revolution in transforming the way we produce, consume, information technology and the growing manage, live and die’ (Castells 1989). In the globalization, enormous social transformation process of social change, mass media like is occurring in India: the waves of television and the advancement of information modernization and globalization are reaching technology played an important role in every all corners of society, breaking their insulation society. Hence, most of consumers may and opening out apertures. These have affected consider television as old and traditional mode local cultures and social structures such as of media; however, for some, like tribal influences on literature and art by enhanced villagers it may be new media till today. mass media and communication development’. Villanilam (2004) informs that in India on, Judge & Sharma (1997) inform that advanced 15th September 1959, television started telecast information technology, globalization, informative, educational and entertainment capitalist production and consumerism, and programmes, aiming to promote national the proliferation of the market economy, integration. It is one of the most popularly accelerate the process of social transformation used media till today playing a vital role in and cause rapid changes. Rai (2006) points out shaping and moulding the minds of individuals that the economic openness of globalisation in the society. Television is one of the fastest allows citizens greater access to technology means of communication after radio that and ideas through fax machines, satellite reaches even to the remote villages. The dishes, mobile telephones, internet access and influence of television in the society is very face-to-face meetings with people from other great, especially in the villages where there is countries. While writing on ‘The problem of a lack of other new media like telephone, change: A study of North-East India’, B. P. mobile phone and internet; it has acted as an Singh (1987) highlights that since 1982 important medium for socio-cultural television has rapidly emerged as an important development and means of transmitting one agent of change in the hill areas. Some of the culture to other. Reporting on the impact of changes have been violent rather than television in an Indian village, named peaceful, exploitative rather than harmonizing. Danawli, Kirk Johnson (2000) tells that For some groups, the intense social change television has broadened the villagers’ horizon and culture-shock has been more than they in the modern world, showing whole array of could comprehend. In his study on new experiences of gender, class relations, Globalization and tribal economy, P.C. Jain marriage, shift from ascription to achievement (2001) observes that globalization has proved and change in the perception of caste relations; to be destructive in some aspects of culture. television challenges the position of traditional The western culture tends to dominate over the leaders, and promotes greater receptiveness to indigenous culture. It produces a downward new values as well as openness to change: pressure for local autonomy and regional many families may not have TV in their own reforms. Local culture would always be at the homes but they watch it in others’ homes, verge of extinction. Tribal folk songs are being which brings people together and give rise to replaced by the rock and pop music of the new kinds of relationship, noticeably, among west. At local level, when globalization comes the young and children. Danawli reveals a to a village, it changes a lot - besides transitional phase in the spread of television in economic change there is a cultural change rural India. Kirk Johnson (2000: 15) also. The experiences of globalization also comments, ‘the one material commodity

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which has most dramatically influenced social the analysis were collected by administering a change in rural India has been the television structured interview schedule to all the set’. Ganguly-Scrase and J. Scrase (2009) households in the village during May-July explore the impact of mass media on Indian 2011. middle-class culture and identity contradictory The Oinamlong Village trends emerging in the light of globalization. Oinamlong is known as The consumer-oriented life promoted by Guaisangluang or Guainangluang among its economic liberalization and globalization fuel own dwellers. However, in the neighbouring the pre-existing tensions within the villages as well as officially, it is called metropolitan/provincial cultural divide in Oinamlong only. Located under Tousem sub- Bengali society. There are tensions and division in the western part of Tamenglong differences between older generation and district it shares its boundary with younger people; however, some youth remain Nungkao/Luangkao village - the birth place of more or less ambivalent to cultural change Rani Gaidinliu in the north, Kaimai village in while other youth are critical of certain the south, Barak river and Sibilong/Siguilong aspects, such as the sexualized portrayal of in the east, and Makru/Makhu river in the women in many advertisements and many west. The village has a small hills range and entertainment programmes (i.e., music several streams covered by thick and videos). Satellite and global television is evergreen forest trees like timber, bamboo and perceived as potential cultural threat yet, cane. It is 97 km from the Tamenglong town conversely, (older) Bengalis remain convinced via Khongsang village, 52 km in the east of of the inherent security of their language and the Jiribam sub-division of Imphal East district customs. There is also an ongoing tension in and173 km from Imphal - the state’s capital. terms of the control of women’s sexuality and The National Highway No. 37 passes through roles. Television is replete with images of the village. The nearest town, Jiribam, sexual permissiveness, especially in provides market to the villagers. The kachcha advertisements and music videos where roads which link different parts of the village underlies persuasiveness of gender inequality. and to the National Highway are the only They conclude that globalised media forced means connecting them with the rest of the the Bengali middle class to reconsider their country. Roads are used to visit towns and culture and its place in contemporary India. A neighbouring villages for the purpose of significant transformation of middle-class marketing/purchasing, education, seeking job, cultural identity in West Bengal is seen as the etc. influence of a consumer-oriented life The village belongs to Kabui/Rongmei promoted by economic liberalization. Thus, Naga tribe - one of the four cognate tribes’ the studies undertaken in metropolitan areas or group (Zeme, Liangmai, Rongmei and Puimei) large social structures and even in villages called Zeliangrong. They speak Rongmei reveal that the change in social life is taking dialect. The land which belongs to the place through globalization of information community as a whole is divided into the technology and communication media like families for convenience of cultivation and television in urban areas as well as villages. A settlement. The families have one or more question arises: What role does television play plots of land for agriculture. The land holding in globalization of tribal villages, especially in size gradually decreases and scatters, due to India’s North-Eastern region? The paper split of families. Other than the Rongmei places the analysis in the context of a tribal community, some Bihari shopkeepers also village, Oinamlong, of Manipur, undergoing temporarily reside in the village. Oinamlong various changes since 1990s. The data used for has 150 households with a population of 1096

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persons: 545 (49.7%) males and 551 (50.3%) collecting different types of leaves and fruits females. According to the record of the which are sold in the market to supplement Village Authority, it has 230 families. their income. Now-a-days, they have modern However, as a result of marriage and jobs, houses made of tin roof, cement floor and some of these have migrated to neighbouring brick walls. The house building material is villages and towns. Some of these are living brought from neighbouring towns such as together under the same roof with separate Jiribam of Manipur, Silchar of Assam etc. A kitchens. The villagers have patrilineal family house has several rooms like common room, consisting of parents and their children. The bedroom, kitchen etc. along with proper male members inherit father’s property. ventilation. Gradually modern household Inheritance as well as succession comes from gadgets have reached to the village. Having father to the youngest son in the family. But acquired education from other villages and the succession of headmanship of each clan or towns they have come to know about the lineage follows the principle of primogeniture. working of market. Now they deal in local The eldest son in family and the eldest man in products like vegetables, fruits and forest lineage have several functional rights and products (stone, wood, cane, etc). duties as sanctioned by the community. Christmas, New Year, Good Friday The villagers mainly depend on and Thanks-Giving are the major festivals of agriculture for livelihood. Rice is their staple the two Christian denominations; namely, food. As they live in hill areas, jhum/shifting Baptist and Roman Catholic. Gan-agai is an cultivation is predominantly practiced. important festival for the non-Christians Subsidiary occupations like weaving cloth by celebrated for 5 to 8 days every year in womenfolk and handicrafts such as bamboo December or January. According to the lunar and cane basket making are also practiced. calendar, which they follow, Ring-Ngai and Besides, some of the families are engaged in Dikap are other two major festivals for the business, fruit farming and horticulture, as non-Christian families. These families perform well. They grow paddy, vegetables and fruits rituals and pray for blessing for abundant and like orange, pineapple, papaya and banana. round-the-year crop. During the festivals most They practice both jhum and terrace of the males, females and children wear cultivation along with supplementary traditional and fashionable dresses. Non- occupations like animal rearing, weaving, Christian male folks use traditional dress like farming, carpentry, day labour, small scale Nai as lower garment and Pheilak as upper business, cotton, hunting, fishing and garment as well as fashionable long pant, collecting forest products. They take in their trousers, shoes, chapals, jacket, sweater, coat traditional weaving and produce splendid and neck tie, which generally the Christians cloths. They also work in various government wear. Both Christians and non-Christians use departments and NGOs. Liquor brewing is traditional shawls like Mareipan and Phei- also an important supplementary occupation of ngao. The female folks, the Christians and the the non-Christian villagers. Women do non-Christians use traditional dresses like household works like cleaning, cooking and Langmiu Pheisuai and Langjin Peisuai as washing along with rearing animals and lower garment. Modern shirts and T-shirts are weaving. Males are mostly engaged in used among the Christians while non- ploughing, cutting, digging, collection of Christians use Phang-Phei as well as modern forest products, etc. As soon as agricultural shirt as upper garment during the festivals. season is over, the villagers look out for They also use fashionables like pant, trousers, alternative occupations like cutting and chapals, shoes, jacket, sweater and skirt. The gathering logs, bamboo (lumbering) and traditional shawl (Mareipan) is also used

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among female folks. The children use namely, Part-I of the non-Christians and Part- traditional garment (Pheisuai), pant, trousers, II of the Christians. At present, it has four shoes, jacket, sweater, chapal, skirt and coat parts; namely, Part I, Part II, Part III and Part during the festivals. The villagers observe IV. About half of the households (48.7%) are religious ceremonies at important events of located in Part II. Both, Part I and III, have, life such as child birth, marriage and death. each, one fifth (20%) of the households One can see inter-village and inter-community whereas only 11.3% households constitute marriages. Since 1990s the villagers have Part IV. Due to the gospel message from the expanded their marriage bonding to other Christian missionaries and intra-religious villages. The staple food of the village consists marriages, most (89.3%) of the households of rice and non-vegetable items like fish, follow Christian denominations; namely, chicken, beef and pork which is supplemented Baptism (67.9%) and Roman Catholic by agricultural products like pumpkin, yam, (32.1%). Over one tenth (10.7%) of the different types of beans, bananas, pea, households follow traditional religion called potatoes, tomatoes and other green vegetables. Tingkao Raguang Chapriak (TRC). After the They like very much the food items like village was electrified in the later part of bamboo shoots and fermented beans which 1990s the villagers started to use television they consider special items. They are also very and radio. Recently they have started using fond of spicy foods. Cooking is done with fire newspapers, Dish TV and mobile phone. In wood collected from the forest without any 1993 BSNL erected tower and in 2005 cost. Rice beer, considered a nourishing drink provided mobile facility, followed by the which is popular among the non-Christians. facility provided by Airtel and Reliance in However, it is strictly prohibited among the 2009 and by Aircel and Vodafone in 2010. Christians. Now the villagers use mobile phones to Oinamlong has one Primary Health contact within and outside their village. DTH Centre (PHC) set up by the Government of connection, television and internet played an Manipur in 2006, two primary schools run by important role in attracting the villagers to a government and one private school run by new life style, fashionable dresses and Catholic missionary. Its literacy rate is 65.8%: consumer items. During leisure time the 34.4% males and 31.3% females. The villagers villagers play music and watch video and can speak Hindi, Manipuri, English and movies instead of traditional chatting and Bengali, in addition to their mother tongue. gossiping in groups. Even illiterate youth and Their knowledge of other languages comes elderly people have adopted new lingua franca through education in and exposure to towns in their speech and day-to-day interactions. and cities in different parts of the country. The Traditional Life of Oinamlong Now the villagers have understood the value Like other traditional Zeliangrong and importance of education, especially for Naga villages, the houses in Oinamlong are jobs. Therefore, the parents have started also made of bamboo-split walls and thatched sending their children for higher education in roofs, having two or three rooms attached to a the towns and cities in different parts of the kitchen. The plinth of a house is raised by country. Drinking water is collected from, dumping earth in a rectangular space. The both, supply pipe and spring. The village has houses have a few windows. The roofs are now shops dealing in goods brought from slant so as to allow the rain water to flow towns like Jiribam (bordering to Assam) and down easily. The Zeliangrong people have Imphal as well as Silchar town of Assam. been animists, simple, hospitable and With the advent of Christianity in the disciplined like any other Naga group. In the year 1942, the village split into two parts; houses domestic animals are kept inside

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(Rongmei and Kapoor 2005). Water is piped knowledge of other societies, save those through hollow bamboo sticks from streams located immediately next to their territory. In and stored in their houses. The traditional the centuries before the advent of the written household utensils like plates made of wood and printed work, long-distance travel, and and bamboo containers are used for drinking telecommunications, most societies lived in purpose. Open defecation was common. isolation. Over the centuries, human curiosity, Modern sanitary system like pacca latrine is the need for food and new resources, and not known to them. Bathing is taken in open improvements to technology allowed space near the bank of a stream. Traditionally individuals and groups to venture away from they practiced jhum cultivation, along with their territories. As they did so, as societies supplementary occupations like animal came to know and experience other peoples, rearing, weaving etc. Hunting, fishing and they touched off a critical phase of the human collection of forest products are also practiced. experience: that of mutual discovery’. Agriculture is the main occupation and rice is Gradually, medium of communication shifted their staple food. Traditionally the villagers to writing, printing, broad-casting such as spoke only local language called, Rongmei. radio, television, cinema and advance Property mainly consists of their village land. technology like computer, telephone, mobile Communication is oral. Information is and internet expanding throughout the world. disseminated among the villagers or outside Now, Oinamlong villagers have experienced villages by beating a drum and metal gong and mass media like television. Along with the the village-informer’s yelling from the highest growth of market, the villagers have procured point of the village whom they entrusted the television sets in their homes which influence task during an emergency like death, inter- their consumption of machine made goods like villages feud and internal problem. They also household’s items and fashionable dresses at a pass on or distribute a piece of meat as a faster rate. message to inform their clan or lineage The impact of Television in Oinamlong members who reside in other villages during After conversion into Christianity by a death and when the clan or relative organizes section of villagers in 1942, the youngsters of a highly prestigious merit ceremony (Kaisu- usually played guitar and learned Christian duangdungmei) such as Tarang kai (ceremony hymns specially during festivals and leisure of distinctive house built by a wooden plank times. Christian missionaries from different decorated with pictures of animal, human parts of the world visited and brought gospel beings, birds, etc.), Banru (ceremony of boon messages along with the opportunity for the related to paddy cultivation in a year) and villagers to communicate with outsiders. Matui (ceremony of boon related to wealth). Moreover, after India’s Independence roads The villagers played games and sports, sang like National Highway No. 53, now renamed songs and narrated folk tales which passed as National Highway No. 37, passing through down from one generation to other. the village, provide another connection with Traditionally interpersonal interaction the outside world. Along with increased was the villagers’ quest to survive in their education, exposure to mass media such as social environment. Mass media radio, newspapers, posts, mobile phone and communication like television was not in their television has resulted in acquiring modern traditional life. Instead, communication household items. In the last two decades of through symbols, sign, songs, dances, folk electrification and advent of tales, etc. prevailed in earlier times in the telecommunication in the village, mobile village. As Coates (2004: 64) stated, ‘for most phone facilities have arrived. It is now easy to of human existence, peoples had little

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interact with relatives, friends, etc. residing in only in their knowledge about the working of other villages. market, but also in the increased consumption However, after the arrival of television of modern items like fashionable dresses, new sets through market, most of the young boys mobile handsets, households items etc. The and girls enjoy watching television rather than TV and other electronic gadgets in the gossiping with neighbours. Hence, households are shown in the following table: significance of television is perceptible not Table 1: Electronic Gadgets in the Oinamlong Households (Percentage in Parentheses), Number = 150 Name of Household Period of Acquiring the Total Gadget Gadget by Number of Households 1991-2000 2001-2011 DTH TV --- 15 (10.0) 15 (10.0) DVD player --- 30 (20.0) 30 (20.0) Colour TV 2 (1.3) 35 (23.3) 37 (24.7) TV (Black & White) 1 (0.6) 2 (1.3) 3 (2.0) Source: Field Survey Conducted during May-July 2011.

In Oinamlong, about one fourth connectivity they watch channels like Zee (24.7%) of the households possess Colour TV, Cinema, BBC World, Star Sports, Ten Sports, followed by DVD player (20% households), Star News, ESPN etc. DTH (10% households) and black and white Television Programmes TV (2% households). It is perceived that all All the households do not have the households which possessed electronic television sets. Therefore, in neighbouring gadgets have acquired these only after 1990s houses some of the villagers watch television and increasing at a fast rate in the village. programmes such as films, serials, sports, Besides television, DVD player is now mostly visual music etc. Various TV programmes used for playing gospel’s music video and watched by the villagers are shown in the films in their own language. After DTH following table: Table 2: Types of Programmes the Villagers Prefer to Watch on TV (Percentage in Parentheses), Number = 150 Type of Programme Preferred Number of Households (%) Feature Films 150 (100) Serials 90 (60.0) Music 83 (55.3) News 36 (24.0) Sports 9 (6.0) Source: Field Survey Conducted during May-July 2011.

In all the households people watch villagers is unaware about the importance of feature films while three fifths (60.0%) watch daily news and educational channels in serials, over half (55.3%) listen music, about promoting knowledge. Due to lack of one fourth (24.0%) watch news and 6.0% education, they like entertainment programmes watch sports. A few of the literate only watch only. news and sports. A large section of the Time Spent on Television Viewing

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Globalisation and Television in a Tribal Village of Manipur ISSN: 2319-8192

The villagers watch television during is over. The following table exhibits the leisure time, specially in the evening or at distribution of daily TV viewing time among night when their work such as jhum cultivation the households in the village: Table 3: Time Spent on Daily TV Viewing in Oinamlong (Percentage in Parentheses) Time Spent on Number of Households Watching TV (%) 1-2 hours 52 (34.7) 2-3 hours 58 (38.7) More than 3 hours 40 (26.6) Total (%) 150 (100) Source: Field Survey Conducted during May-July 2011.

Due to erratic electricity, day-long hard work villagers to luxury items such as mobile and unavailability of television set in every handset, different types of utensils, etc. and household, most (38.7%) of them spend 2-3 fashionable dresses, specially among young hours a day on television viewing, one third ones, resulting in change of lifestyle. (34.7%) watch TV for 1-2 hours and over one Television has provided the villagers a fourth (26.6%) watch it for more than 3 hours. window to see beyond the village, specially The household having their own television sets the urban life. Eventually, even illiterate spend more time on television viewing. The persons also took the opportunity to update TV programme viewing not only provides about day-to-day happenings in their them entertainment but also attracts their surrounding through television which they youth towards luxury items. watch during leisure time, especially at night Conclusion when their work is over. Television has played an important In olden days the villagers role in the globalization of social and cultural communicated through certain symbols, sign, life, specially in tribal villages like songs, dances, folk tales etc. and the ways of Oinamlong. The changes prior to 1990s has entertainment and learning transmitted from been limited to personal interactions but the one generation to another. Gradually, it has consumption of luxury items was in the been replaced by television viewing of films, Oinamlong households, but since 1990s, i.e., serials, sports, etc., which enhances their after they started using television, the villagers knowledge of other languages and cultures as spend time on watching television well as attracted them towards finished programmes rather than gossiping in their machine goods such as dresses, laptop, mobile neighbourhood and with their fellow folks as handset and other household gadgets and was the practice in their traditional life. They distracted them from valuable came to know about fashionable items through traditional/customary attires like, shawl, television as well. The villagers who do not necklace, etc. The emergence of television has have television sets in their homes watch extended the villagers’ sharing of their values television in their relatives’ and neighbours’ and knowledge with each other beyond the houses. Moreover, they watch new channels village boundary. like Zee Cinema, BBC World, Star Sports, No doubt, other electronic mass media Ten Sports, Star News and ESPN after the also played an important role in the process of arrival of satellite based (DTH) television in globalization; however, television, one of the the village. These channels attracted the emerging mass media communications in

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Oinamlong, made significant changes in day- classes in India. London and New York: to-day life practices. It replaced the traditional Routledge. attires with modern one as part of a modern • Giddens, A. 1990. The consequences of lifestyle. It also imparted the ideas of modernity. Cambridge, United Kingdom: commercial activities to the villagers. As Polity Press. Ganguly-Scrase and J. Scrase (2009:152), say, • Hedley, R. A. 2005. ‘Running out of “there is no doubt that the media are control: Understanding globalization’. In S. P. significant carriers of the ideals of the ‘new’, Hier, Contemporary sociological thought: liberalized India and in so doing promote the Themes and theories. Toronto: Canadian ideology and practices of consumer modernity Scholars' Press Inc. p. 375. – the act of purchasing the goods that defines • Jain, P.C. 2001, Globalization and Tribal one’s newly acquired wealth, or else Economy, Jaipur, Rawat Publications. reinforcing one’s superior middle-class • Johnson, K. 2000. Television and social status”. The consumption of science and change in rural India. New Delhi: Sage technology is witnessed among the tribal Publications. villagers, directly or indirectly, in the form of • Judge, Paramjit S. & Sharma, Satish K. modern gargets. Television has been as an (eds.). 1997. Dimensions of social change. agency for imparting information, ideas and New Delhi: Rawat Publications. attitudes from other cultures to the tribal • Lieten, K. 2001. ‘Multinationals and villages. It also involves them in the process development: Revisiting the debate’. In F. J. of development and change by bringing the art Schuurman, Globalization and development of other cultures to them. However, due to a studies: Challenges for the 21st century. New prolonged practice of shifting agriculture most Delhi: Vistaar Publications. pp. 99-115. of the villagers have a low economic level and • Rai, Rahul. 2006. Globalisation of human are not able to buy a television set. Besides, rights. Delhi: Authors Press. there still exist some other hindrances like low • Sanjeevayya, G. & C.M. Vinaya Kumar. literacy rate and lack of working knowledge of 2009. ‘Globalization and use of mobile phones other languages. Therefore, only educated by youth as emblematic technology: A case villagers watch news which is telecast in other study of Andhra University, India. Indian languages and other villagers prefer watching Journal of Social Development, 9 (2): 257- feature films, serials and sports. Importantly, 263. due to non-availability of television • Singh, B. P. 1987. The problem of change: programmes in their own language, the A study of North-East India. Delhi: Oxford villagers are by now the consumers of fashion, University Press. entertainment and new lifestyle. • Taber, Merlin A. & Sushma Batra (eds.). References 1996. Social strains of globalization in India. • Atal, Y. 2006. Changing Indian society. New Delhi: New Concepts International Jaipur: Rawat Publications. Publishers. • Castells, M. 1989. The informational city. • Villanilam, J. V. 2004. Communication Oxford: Blackwell. and mass communication in India. New Delhi: • Coates, K. S. 2004. A global history of B. R. Publishing Corporation. indigenous people: Struggle and survival. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. • Ganguly-Scrase, Ruchira and Timothy J. Scrase. 2009. Globalisation and the middle

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Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, January - June, 2018 Vol. VI, No. I ISSN: 2319-8192 Genesis of Art Activism in Medieval Assam: A Case Study on ‘vrindavani vastra’ of a Collaborative Initiative by Srimanta Sankaradeva

Dr. Raj Kumar Mazinder Assistant Professor Department of Visual Arts Assam University, Silchar- 788011, Assam Email: [email protected]

Abstract Art activism is a broad term of activity or initiative of creating creative works. It includes aesthetic, socio-political, and technological developments that have attempted to challenge and erase the traditional boundaries and hierarchies of culture as represented by those in power. Activist art practice emerged partly out of a call for art to be connected to a wider audience, and to open up spaces where the marginalized and disenfranchised can be seen and heard. It incorporates the use of public space to address socio-political issues and to encourage community and public participation as a means of bringing about social change and aims to affect social change by engaging in active processes of representation that work to foster participation in dialogue, raise consciousness, and empower individuals and communities. Srimanta Sankaradeva (Circa 1449- 1568), a great teacher of Neo- Vaisnavite preaching, enriched in many genre of art and culture for greater benefits of social, religious and public life in medieval Assam. Such an initiative Vrindavani Vastra, cloth of Vrindavan, made before one year of Sankaradeva’s death, he engaged the weavers of Tantikuchi, near Barpeta, to weave forty- yard- long panel of tapestry depicting Krishna’s early life in Vrindavan. My objective is to bring into focus the genesis of Vrindavani Vastra and also the range of Sankardeva’s creative genius. As if definitely realizing the power of visual language than preaching literary narrative he inscribed narratives on cloth in a graphic form for the whole generations and humanity, on which Vrindavani Vastra people exclaimed that the cloth has come from the heavens and its maker is not a humane. Keywords: Art activism, Srimanta Sankaradeva, Vrindavani Vastra, Neo- Vishnavism and Medieval Assam Introduction cheerful, pleasure and habitual virtues. Traditions of art and craft have been “Assam as well as North-Eastern sphere of worked as a community participation as a India contains a blurred and shadowy whole and serve the socio-cultural and conception for most Indians. But Assam and political, historical, geographical, other parts of North-East region are unique economical, and the aesthetical phenomenon for diversity in terms of ethnicity, language, of any region. The study is mainly emphasis culture and rich heritage. It is also significant art heritage of Assam as well as special that not only North East, the environments as emphasis is given mainly to Srimanta well as the history of India are diverse, for Sankaradeva and his unique creation instance- the Jungles, the fauna and flora are Vrindavani Vastra. Art and craft is always the varied while the several races and languages creative intellect of man and this intellect has bear witness to very early settlement into this 1 been associated with human delight, sorrow, country.” 58

Genesis of art activism in medieval assam: ----- Srimanta Sankaradeva ISSN: 2319-8192

Assam is multi religious as well as • To focus on art activism in Assam parallel multi lingual. , mostly Vaishnavas to whole India and Srimanta Sankaradeve’s (worshippers of Vishnu especially in his form unique creation Vrindavani Vastra as Krishna) and Shaktas (worshippers of the • To find out prime credentials of goddess), are commonest of all. The earliest Vrindavani Vastra and essential factors Hindu faith to have had a place in Assam was behind shaping cultural exchange and Saivism, which when later heavily integrity through initiative of Srimanta encroached upon by Saktism went Sankaradeva underground and found a fertile soil among Methodology the Kacharis, who called Lord Siva by a new The Data sat includes both primary name Bathau. “Saint Sankaradeva’s and secondary sources. The primary sources ancestators Bar-Bhuyans’ (twelve ancestors are original works of the artists, various of Bhuyan family actually came to Assam) manuscripts, inscriptions, temple decoration clan had great faith on Saivism. It is said that for text and visual material of respective his father Kusumavara Kayastha Bhuyan was artists. Secondary sources are books, journal, offering worship to Lord Siva with a view to reviews, internet etc. The methodology having boon of a child from the easy –to- decides on for the study by conducting satisfy god. The child, therefore, born in interviews with the eminent scholar, October 1449 to be called Sankara or academician, has been visited the actual site Sankaravara.”2 to collect necessary data, visuals, study Later period the saint was very firmly through internet, etc. The study, interviews convinced that the message of the Purana- are basically selected to gain knowledge the message of the eksarana cult of Vishnu- about art activism in Medieval Assam. Krishna- was superb and supreme. He found An outline of medieval Assam and that the people were attracted almost readily early life of Srimanta Sankaradeva towards this new creed with aid of various The medieval has branches of art as literature, poetry, drama, begun from the arrival of Ahoms, early in the painting, weaving, sculpture etc. “Vrindavani thirteenth century and their conquest in Vastra or devotional woven silk textile on Assam.4 When Sankardeva, the poet-artist Vrindavan, such a greatest milestone of Saint and mystic, was born in the middle of the Sankaradeva’s collaborative initiative almost fifteen century of Christian era, Assam or later life, in which the word Vrindavani or Kamrupa this north–eastern part of India was Vrindavan refers to forested region near known then was politically and socially in the Mathura in north-western India, where Hindu melting pot. The old Kamrupa extended from god Krishna is believed to have lived as a Lohit division of presently 3 young cowherd early in his eventful life.” on the east to the river Karoya now in Objectives Bangladesh on the west. The valley of the • To find art activities as a manifestation of strong- current Brahmaputra, forming a sort common people and expression of religion, of central corridor, the different hills forming belief side rooms to which one could enter from that • To focus philosophical, aesthetical and corridor, constituted the old kingdom in some creative aspect of art in Assam stages of its history.5 • To study social, political and religious life Sankaradeva lost both the parents of Medieval Assam Kusumavara Kayastha Bhuyan and • To discuss life and philosophy of Srimanta Satyasandha at his early age and was left to Sankaradeva and his various activates the loving care of His father Kusuavara’s

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Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018 mother Khersuti. In twelve years of age Vaisnava art need to be seen in the context of Sankara went to a tol or school run by a well- the society in which that art was practiced. known Brahmin scholar, named Mahendra The neo-vaisnava movement initiated by Kandali and became a devoted scholar and Saint Sankaradeva was motivated art, could gave his days and nights to the ancient folios. reflect in institutions like naamghar, Satra or It was about this time that Sankara came to be an accommodative character in cultural called Sankaradeva at the instance of his guru productions in use of art, musical and dance Mahendra Kandali. As one mid-day when he genres.6 entered the school premises only to find Srimanta Sankaradeva’s unique Sankara sleeping there with a cobra raising its creation vrindavani vastra and its big hood to provide shade to the boy in the prime credentials hot sun. The pandit saw, as it were, the very Vrindavani Vastra or weaved textile vision of the pupil’s greatness and made the of Vrindavan brings into focus the range of rule for all pupils under him that the young Sankardeva’s creative genius. “Katha Guru Bhuyan should be addressed with a ‘deva’ Charita, a chronicle of events during the and not simply as Sankara.Sankardea set out saint’s lifetime, gives the genesis of his pilgrimage in 1481 when he was thirty- Vrindavani Vatra: During his visits to the two years of age, accompanying him Koch Behar royal court, Sankaradeva often seventeen persons including his teacher amuse prince Chilarai with descriptions of the Mahaendra Kandali and life-long friend fun-filled childhood days of the young Ramarama Vipra. This group pious people Krishna in Vrindavan. As the prince interest wandered all over northern India, seeing and enjoyment Sankaradeva thought that he temples and tirthas particularly sacred to would have the narrative inscribed on cloth in Vishnu. The pilgrims visited Puri and stayed a graphic form.” 7 there for a considerable time several years. Thus, during the year 1567 at Saint After returning back home from Sankaradeva’s age of 118 Vrindavani Vastra pilgrimage in the year 1493, he built a small has been woven at the request of Chilarai & temple in a lonely place, where could sit Naranarayana. Worth to mention ass he together with other people, discuss matter of engaged the weavers of Tantikuchi, near Sastras and hold prayer together. This became Barpeta, to weave a forty-yard-long panel of the embryo of a great institution called Satra. tapestry depicting Krishna’s early life in About this time Sankaradeva wrote and made Vrindavan. Sankardeva provided the designs his first ever play, Chihna-yatra, or ‘Drama to be woven, chose the various colours of the with paintings’. The paintings for the threads to be used, and personally supervised background were made by him on cotton- the weaving. It took about a year to complete made paper and depicted Vaikuntha, the and, deriving its name from its theme, came celestial abode of Vishnu. He rehearsed his to be known as the Vrindavani Vastra.”8 It is kinsmen and followers in the music and truly amazing to glimpse the true to life dances required in the drama and had made depictions of Krishna’s activities in him new models of instrument. He himself Vrindavan, the exuberant colors, interwoven acted in the role of Sutradhara (manager- captions, and exclaimed that the cloth has director) and of Vishnu in certain parts of the come from the heavens and its maker is not a play, which took altogether seven days to human. A little before Sankaradeva’s death complete. The attraction of this pageant drew 1568, he is said to have presented it to many a one to become Sankara’s disciple. Chilarai and Naranarayanawho were Eminent scholar Hiren Gohain’s overwhelmed with the result. How and when explanation is that aesthetic principles of 60

Genesis of art activism in medieval assam: ----- Srimanta Sankaradeva ISSN: 2319-8192 it disappeared from Koch Behar is known a debased form of Sakta tantrism to the and, with that, a valuable piece of history was monotheism of his vaishnava faith. He lost. It would be another 400 years before one achieved this not through polemics or hears of Vrindavani Vastra again. organized propaganda, not by decrying what In 1904, Francis Younghusband, a was evil but by presenting what was virtuous, British Army Officer serving in India, in an in a manner that appealed to their expedition to Tibet, collected several artifacts imagination. His religion brought in a of which few exquisitely woven ‘figured silk profound change, a purer spiritual life to tapestries’ from Tibetan monasteries. These Assamese society, and has held it together for silk tapestries were donated to museums in more than 500 years. Museums in London Britain in 1905 and for the next 85 years and Paris, who know not of his verses, marvel remained catalogued as Tibetian Silk at his creativity in a completely different Lampas’ as Tibet was their last known place sphere; children in Assam, who have not seen of origin.”9 In 1992, a British scholar would the Vrindavani Vastra, listen to his verses as a identify the ‘Tibetan Silk Lampas’ as matter of course. Such is the scope of his ‘Vrindavani Vastra’. inspired reach, unaided by colonial interests While surely the largest, the British and unhampered by small ambitions. Museum example is not thought to be the Dr. R. K. Dasgupta, the eminent oldest and is probably from the late scholar, writing on Chaitanya and the seventeenth century. The earliest such Vaishnava movement in Bengal, makes clear: ‘Vrindavani Vastra’ textile fragments are “It has now become important to know that believed to be that now in Los Angles County Sankaradeva was thirty six years old when Museum of Art and the Guimet Museum in Chaitanya was born and that Vaishnavism Paris, which are, perhaps from late sixteenth had struck deep roots in Assam when the century, although such dating is speculative great leader of the new faith in Bengal had as the chronology is predicted on the first just begun his works. Scholars acknowledge: pieces being commissioned by Sankaradeva, If any religious leader and poet has received which is uncertain. Approximately twenty much less attention than he deserves, he is fragments of the ‘Vrindavani Vastra’ type of Sankaradeva (1449-1568), the founder of textile survive today.”10 The Guimet Museum Assamese Vaishnavism and one of the finest has two Vatra in its possession, including one writers of devotional verse in Indian measuring 333X81 cm and another 167X 83 literature.”12 I would wish to conclude with cm. They are made of pure silk with double words of great Suniti Kumar Chaterji, as he layered weaving.”11 wrote, “for it is clear he stands among Conclusion Sankaracharya, Ramanujacharya, Srimanta Sankaradeva’s benevolent Ramananda, Kabir, Chaitanya, Mira Bai, 13 influence has been for the last few centuries Guru Nanak and Tulsidas. in all fields of the cultural life of people of References Assam. Sankaradeva embodied creativity, in 1. Auboyer, J., “Daily Life in Ancient India, spite of all he was a man of religion. His From approximately, 200 BC to AD 700”, literary and artistic activities are not ends in Translated from the French by Simon Waston themselves; they are consciously ardently Taylor, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers towards the sharing of his creed. His works as Pvt. Ltd. 1961, p. 3 a hymn, a verse for chanting, dramas for 2. Neog, M, ‘Sankaradeva’, National Book, dance forms, mask making, weaving, or even Trust, New Delhi, pp. 1-3 a drum for accompaniment were only to draw 3. Blurton, T. R., “Krishna in the Garden of to the word of God. He raised his people from Assam The history and context of a much- 61

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(travelled textile”, The British Museum, London, pp.12-15 4. (www.assamigov.in: 2016) 5. Ibid., Neog, p.3 6. Gohain, H,”Asamar Jatiya Jibanat Mahapuruxiya Prabhab (The Impact of Vaishnava Saints on the National Life of Assam), Lawyers Book Stall, Guwahati, 1987 7. Lekharu, U, “Katha Guru Charita”, 1944, pp. 206-213 8. Phukan, B, “Srimanta Sankaradeva Vaishnava Saint of Assam”, Kaziranga Books, Guwahati, p. 108 9. Ibid., Phukan, p… 10. Ibid., Burton, p. 11. Das, R, “Speakers’ bid to bring Vrindavani Vastra to State”, re-written by special correspondent, Assam Tribune, December 24, 2016, pp.1-4 12. Dasgupta, R. K., “Sankaradeva The Founder of Assam Vaishnavism”, in “Essays on Sankaradeva”, ed. R. K. Dev , 1996, p.1 13. Chatterjee, S. K., “The place of Assam in the History and Civilization of India”, Banikanta Kakati Memorial Lectures, Gauhati University,1954, p. 64

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Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, January - June, 2018 Vol. VI, No. I ISSN: 2319-8192 Interpreting Gandhi’s Ethics as an Ethics of Virtue

Dr. Shilpi Srivastava Assistant Professor Miranda House University of Delhi Email: [email protected]

Abstract Aristotle has defined virtue in Book 2 of Nicomachean Ethics as a dispositional characteristic concerning actions and reactions and involving choice which consists in acting in a mean relative to us, a mean that is defined by a rational principle of the sort followed by a man of practical wisdom. The five moral values of truth, non-violence, celibacy, non- stealing, and non-possessiveness, that Gandhi strongly regarded as essential elements of a good life, share many features with the account of virtue. Gandhi insisted that these values be represented not just in our actions but also at the level of thoughts and feelings and realized the role of rational deliberation. He gave much value to the means-ends relationship, saw the good of the individual as not in conflict but rather woven into the good of the society, and emphasised on the importance moral education and training of character. These are some of the concerns he shares with the virtue ethicist. In the present paper I aim at exploring the possibility of interpreting Gandhi’s moral philosophy in the line of virtue theory. In this process, I shall analyse the various similarities and points of difference of Gandhian values like truth and non-violence with an account of virtues. The main focus, however, shall be to show that how such an interpretation of Gandhi’s philosophy in general and nature of man in particular, helps in overcoming several inconsistencies that appear because of an understanding of his doctrines as offering strict rules. Key Words: Gandhi, Aristotle, Ethics, Virtue Theory, Non-violence, Character.

The recent ethical discussions have witnessed a desires and values that give an act its meaning. resurgence of virtue ethics, the ethics that is Thus the character of the moral agent becomes based on the writings of ancient Greek thinkers significant in the case of virtue based ethical like Plato and Aristotle. This revival has largely theories. been on account of dissatisfaction from the The stress on the character of the agent ethics based on norms or principles. The is also evident in the philosophy of Mahatma proponents of virtue ethics share the view that Gandhi. Gandhi also insisted, like the virtue the task of ethics is not to focus on what ethicists, that our moral values must be particular actions to perform but rather on what represented not just in our actions but also at the kind of person to become. They have stressed level of thoughts and feelings. He realized the on the need to cultivate certain character traits role of rational deliberation in choosing the that make an agent virtuous. The correct right course of action, rather than blind explanation of an act cannot be offered as adherence to some norms or rules. For him, the detached from the agent; rather, it is the agent’s means-ends relationship was important in

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Interpreting Gandhi’s Ethics as an Ethics of Virtue ISSN: 2319-8192 leading a moral life. It was not just the act that In Gandhi’s ethical thought we find a is actually performed, but the intentions as well similar account of the nature of the vows. Truth as the means that are employed, that carry moral is for Gandhi not just about speaking what is worth. Another view that is shared by the virtue right but it is reflected in our thoughts, deeds ethicists from Aristotle to the modern virtue and actions alike. He claims that “...truth is not ethicists and is also clearly evident in Gandhi’s only truthfulness in word, but truthfulness in thought is that, the good of the individual is thought also...”ii Similarly, non-violence, seen not in conflict with but rather woven into according to Gandhi, is also a multi-track the good of the society. In this paper, I shall disposition like the Aristotelian virtues. He make an attempt to develop an understanding of writes, “Your Ahimsa to be affective, must Gandhi’s ethics as an ethics of virtue. Further, I shine through your speech, your action, your would be suggesting that such an account of his general behaviour.”iii Gandhi echoed similar ethics ensures that many of his actions and sentiments regarding the value of celibacy, he decisions related to his personal, social and holds that, “Brahmacharya, like all other political life are not seen as contradictory with observances, must be observed in thought, word each other but rather as different stages in the and deed.”iv Similarly non-stealing does not process of becoming virtuous. amount to a virtue unless we also have a control Gandhi was deeply influenced by the over our minds for not having any thought about ethical teachings of several Indian schools of wanting to have something that does not belong philosophy, especially and Jainism. to us. He adopted their basic moral principles and Such remarks show that the good life or formed the eleven vows that constitute the basis a good agent for Gandhi was not defined merely of a moral life for him. Of these, truth, non- in terms of certain acts that are in accordance violence, chastity, non-stealing and non- with a specific norm or principle but rather as possessiveness are the most important. The an agent or life in accordance with the virtues nature of these vows is much similar to the like truth, non-violence, celibacy and so on. virtues as discussed by Aristotle. The virtues These virtues are understood in a broad sense were explained by Aristotle in the Nicomachean and are deeply related to the different aspects of Ethics as: our lives. They not just offer guidance towards ... if we assume that the actions that are morally permitted or that are not function of man is a kind of allowed. But, these virtues define the way of life life, namely, an activity or in Gandhian philosophy. The different aspects series of actions of the soul, of Gandhi’s notion of Ahimsa or non-violence implying a rational principle; are explained by a commentator on Gandhi, as: and if the function of a good Ahimsa is not merely the man is to perform these well negative act of refraining from and rightly; and if every doing offence, injury and harm function is performed well to others but really it represents when performed with its proper the ancient law of positive self- excellence: if all this is so, the sacrifice and constructive conclusion is that the good for suffering. Gandhi interpreted it man is an activity of the soul in as signifying utter selflessness accordance with virtue.... i and universal love. The 64

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ultimate aim of Ahimsa is even harm others’. However, if we identify them as to love the so called enemies or virtues that require practical deliberation on the opponents.... Ahimsa, as thus part of the agent and that are closely related to conceived by Gandhi, is a an assessment of the context and the situation profound social import. and are judged by the motives and intentions of Aristotle had said that the agent, then the apparent contradictions can friendship is the cohesive bond easily be resolved. A moral act is one that is our of communities. Gandhi also own act and the source of it must spring from pleaded for brotherly ethic and our own will. It not just important that one does believed that Ahimsa has, a good act but also that the intention behind that almost an obligatory and act must have been to do good.viii He uses the compelling power to bring example of helping a poor which can be peace and unity to the world. v performed either out of concern and sympathy Such an understanding of the notion for the individual or to seek social recognition. shows that Ahimsa is a complex disposition that It is only in the former case that the action concerns one’s actions as well as feelings, an would carry moral worth. Hence, for Gandhi, a agent as well as the community. While Aristotle moral or ideal life cannot be defined in terms of identified friendship as itself a virtue, for strict adherence to norms but involves Gandhi, bonds between different members of developing a disposition to act as well as feel in the community are based on the positive virtues certain ways. of truth and non-violence. These along with the The utilitarian principle of the ‘greatest other virtues, form the foundation of the moral good of the greatest number’ was also not life for Gandhi. acceptable to Gandhi as the criterion of Certain critics have pointed out to the morality. According to the utilitarian principle, fact that although Gandhi was such a strong it is morally justified to ignore the interest of believer of Ahimsa yet he was associated with few individuals, if the overall good in the the wars like the Boer War in 1899, Zulu society is maximised. Practically, it may result Rebellion in 1906 and recruitment of Indian in a further marginalisation of the less Soldiers for the war on the British side.vi privileged sections of the society. Gandhi, on Gandhi’s response was that as a subject of the the other hand, was committed to improving the British Empire it was his duty to act in standards of life and addressing the needs of the accordance with the decisions of the British. most deprived groups in the society. The According to Gandhi, peace is not to be desired concept of Sarvodaya or unto the last, which at any price and there may be situations when forms one of the most important pillars of one needs to take up an act of violence for a Gandhi’s social philosophy, is based on his larger good on the whole. According to Gandhi, commitment towards these groups. He found in “... where there is only a choice between the writings of Ruskin, an extension of the idea cowardice and violence, I would advise of our duty as human beings as discussed by violence... But I believe that non-violence is Socrates in the Apology.ix This duty involves infinitely superior to violence. ”vii These views seeking the meaning of life for oneself as well may appear contradictory to each other if we as helping others in the realization of their self. look at them in terms of a universal maxim that Gandhi did not see a conflict between defines non-violence as ‘you ought not kill or the good of the individual and that of the 65

Interpreting Gandhi’s Ethics as an Ethics of Virtue ISSN: 2319-8192 society. According to him, “Willing submission neither mere intellect, nor the gross animal body to social restraint for the sake of the well-being nor the heart or soul alone. A proper and of the whole society enriches both the harmonious combination of all the three is individual and the society of which one is a required for the making of the whole man and member.”x Gandhi stressed on the value of constitutes the true economics of education...”xiii cultivating the feelings of sympathy towards The value of a man in the society is judged not fellow human beings as a requirement for an on the basis of his actions alone but also on the ethically developed society. xi His notion of basis of the feelings, internal to the agent. This Sarvodaya is based on the idea that the good of thought also forms the background idea of most the individual is closely associated with the forms of virtue theory ever since Aristotle. good of the society, thus sharing with the virtue The idea that morality must be based ethicists their communitarian approach. The on attaining some ideal in the form of a virtuous virtues of truth and non-violence are not merely agent rather than in some principles is the basis personal virtues that are essential for an agent on which the entire field of virtue ethics rests. but these virtues are also social virtues that need This idea I have argued, is also evident in the to be cultivated for the good of the society in ethics of Gandhi. Akeel Bilgrami has argued in general. These virtues are cultivated by the his discussion of Gandhi’s philosophy that individuals and the virtuous agents thus form a although Gandhi was not the one to introduce virtuous society. the notion of exemplars in the ethical Cultivation of virtues brings the idea of discussions, the importance of his contribution education. Gandhi regarded education as the lies in the fact that: most important tool for the upliftment of the ... he first brings to our society. In the economic aspect, education based attention, is how much on vocational skills was seen by him as much theoretical possibility there is in needed by our society. According to Gandhi, that idea. It can be wielded to education of letters that provides one with make the psychology bookish knowledge did not serve much purpose surrounding our morals a more in the absence of skills. However, it is the tolerant one. If exemplars training of one’s character that is the most replace principles, then it important. He writes in the Harijan that, “... the cannot any longer be the primary aim of all education is, or should be, business of morals to put us in the moulding of the character of pupils...”xii The the position of moralising emphasis on the formation of character forms against others in forms of the foundation of all accounts of virtue, both behaviour (criticism) that have ancient and modern. The reference to one’s in them the potential to character also points out to the fact that each generate other psychological individual has different aspects in her attitudes (resent-ment, hostility) personality and development of a strong which underlie inter-personal character refers to a state of harmony between violence.xiv these different aspects. The Aristotelian The strict normativity issued in the form description of a virtuous life that comprises of of moral principles may often lead to both rational and emotional aspects is also evaluation, criticism and deceit and thereby evident from the Gandhian thought that “Man is defeating the very ideas of truth, non-violence 66

Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018 and such, which they aim to establish. On the other hand, an ethics that focuses on the viii The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, development of character and guiding our vol. IV in The Selected Works of Mahatma actions and feelings towards becoming virtuous Gandhi, Vol. III, pp. 9-11 ix Gandhi, An Autobiography in The Selected would see a failure as a stage in the process of Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol. III, p. 36 this development. Gandhi himself has often x Gandhi, Harijan, 27-5-’39, p. 144 publicly revised his views about certain issues xi Gandhi, The Selected Works of Mahatma with time. Such a revision does not reveal some Gandhi, Vol. III, pp. 23-25 xii internal lack or inconsistency in his character Gandhi, Harijan, 1-12’ 33, p. 3 xiii Gandhi, Harijan, 8-5-’37, p. 104 but rather the strength in accepting the change xiv with full conviction and commitment. Akeel Bilgrami, ‘Gandhi, the Philosopher’, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 38, No. 39 Gandhi’s own life is a true example of a (Sep. 27 - Oct. 3, 2003), p. 4163. virtuous life that fits his account. We find a xv Gandhi, Harijan, 11-2-39, p. 8 happy synthesis between his words and deeds, his thought and action and his heart and mind and it is this harmony or synthesis that provides strength and integrity to his character. He did not offer unconditional moral commands to be followed by the society but rather, presented before them a way of life which is in accordance with the virtues. He strongly believed that if we adopt the right methods we shall surely be able to reach the ideals that we are aiming at. he held that, “... if one takes care of the means, the end will take care of itself” xv and it is this thought that guided him in his personal, social as well as political decisions.

References i Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics. Trans. J.A.K. Thomson, London: Penguin Books, 1953., p 16 ii Gandhi, Introduction to An Autobiography (1966), p.11 iii Gandhi, Harijan, 6-5-1939, p. 113 iv Gandhi, From Yeravda Mandir, p. 184 v Ashu Pasricha, “The Concept of Non- Violence” in Reading Gandhi, edited by Surjit Kaur Jolly, Concept Publishing, New Delhi, 2006, p. 277 (274-287) vi Ibid. vii Gandhi, Young India 11-08- ’20, p. 3

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Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, January - June, 2018 Vol. VI, No. I ISSN: 2319-8192 Enrolment and Retention of Tribal Students at Primary and Upper Primary Stages in Tripura

Litan Das Asstt. Professor in Life Science IASE, Kunjaban, Agartala,West Tripura and Research scholar, Dept. of Education Assam University, Silchar Email: [email protected] Dr. R. K. Mahto Assistant Professor, Dept. of Education, Assam University, Silchar Email: [email protected]

Abstract Education plays a vital role in the development of human capital and is linked with an individual’s well-being and opportunities for better living (Battle and Lewis, 2002). It ensures the acquisition of knowledge and skills that enable individuals to increase their productivity and improve their quality of life. This increase in productivity also leads towards new sources of earning which enhances the economic growth of a country (Saxton, 2000).Retention or Persistence occurs when a student successfully integrates into the institution academically and socially. There are certain key factors that are critical to student’s success and retention, tiered into individual, institutional, and social levels. Programs and communities need to increase tribal students' awareness of the social and cultural knowledge necessary to enter into and finish school. The present study aims to find out present picture of enrolment and retention of tribal students at primary and upper primary stages in the state of Tripura and also intends to throw light on the underlying factors affecting their enrolment and retention in school education. Keywords: Enrolment, Retention, Socio-Economic Status, Tribal Students Access and enrolment to school education and Introduction Subsequent continuation is important area of In this era of globalization and technological focus when considering education and its revolution, education is considered as a first impact on well-being. According to the step for every human activity. It plays a vital theoretical model of persistence by Tinto role in the development of human capital and (1975), persistence occurs when a student is linked with an individual’s well-being and successfully integrates into the institution opportunities for better living (Battle and academically and socially. There are certain Lewis, 2002). It ensures the acquisition of key factors that are critical to student’s knowledge and skills that enable individuals success and retention, tiered into individual, to increase their productivity and improve institutional, and social levels. Socio- their quality of life. This increase in economic status affects school choice and productivity also leads towards new sources access directly (Hearn1991). To promote the of earning which enhances the economic integration and retention of tribal students at growth of a country (Saxton, 2000). primary and upper primary stage, educational 68

Enrolment and Retention of Tribal ------in Tripura ISSN: 2319-8192 institutions could recognize and honour the crucial point of nation’s strategy of total cultural capital of those students. At the same development of tribal communities. time, programs and communities need to Objectives of the Study increase tribal students' awareness of the • To study the status of enrolment of social and cultural knowledge necessary to Scheduled Tribe students at Primary, Upper enter into and finish school. Local and Primary and Secondary stages in Government national research identifies factors such as and Government Aided schools of Tripura. academic performance as predictors for • To find out drop-out rates of Scheduled school persistence that can play a huge part in Tribe students at Primary, Upper Primary and success and retention of tribal students. In Secondary stages in Government and addition to academic performance, student Government Aided schools of Tripura. attitudes and satisfaction also have an effect • To estimate the status of retention of on retention and were prevalent themes within Scheduled Tribe students at Primary, Upper the retention literature. Primary and Secondary stages in Government The focus of the present study is to find out and Government Aided schools of Tripura. present picture of enrolment and retention of • To suggest measures for enhancing tribal students at primary and upper primary enrolment and retention of Scheduled Tribe stages in the state of Tripura. The authors also students at Primary, Upper Primary and intend to throw light on the underlying factors Secondary stages in Government and affecting their enrolment and retention in Government Aided schools of Tripura. school education. Population Profile of Tripura Significance of Tribal Education As per details from Census 2011, Tripura has Like all human beings education is the most population of 36.74 Lakhs, it shows an important instrument for development of increase from figure of 32 Lakh in 2001 tribal people in any region. Cross sectional census. Total population of Tripura as per sociological studies reveal that even the 2011 census is 3,673,917 of which male and remotest corners of the state are inhabited by female are 1,874,376 and 1,799,541 tribal communities. A good number of public respectively. In 2001, total population was amenities are beyond the reach of such 3,199,203 in which males were 1,642,225 people. A few decades ago these people could while females were 1,556,978. The total not have even an illusion to have an access to population growth in this decade was 14.84 education. Their living standards were far per cent while in previous decade it was 15.74 below the standards of even the middle class per cent. The population of Tripura forms people. The tribal people were also 0.30 per cent of India in 2011. In 2001, the economically downtrodden. figure was 0.31 per cent. Tripura is the The tribal people of Tripura lagged behind in homeland of 19 tribal communities with education and development of living diverse ethno-cultural, socio-economic and standards because of certain external and geographical backgrounds. According to the internal constraints, cultural background of 2011 census, Scheduled Tribes constitute the tribal, their socio-economic status and approximately 31.7% of the total population level of aspiration. Proper Education is the of the state numbering 11,66,813. most appropriate instrument for removing the Literacy Status of Tripura darkness of ignorance and superstitions from Literacy rate in Tripura has seen upward trend the lives of tribal people. Since Tripura’s and is 87.22 per cent as per 2011 population accession with the Indian Union in 1949, census. Of that, male literacy stands at 91.53 education of Scheduled Tribe children was a per cent while female literacy is at 82.73 per

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Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018 cent. In 2001, literacy rate in Tripura stood at respectively. In actual numbers, total literates 73.19 per cent of which male and female were in Tripura stands at 2,804,783 of which males 81.02 percent and 64.91 per cent literate were 1,501,369 and females were 1,303,414.

Table 1: Literacy scenario of Tripura Description 2011 2001 Literacy 87.22 % 73.19 % Male Literacy 91.53 % 81.02 % Female Literacy 82.73 % 64.91 % Total Literate 2,804,783 2,022,099 Male Literate 1,501,369 1,150,707 Female Literate 1,303,414 871,392 The above census report indicates reasonable was collected from departments of School increment of literacy status of Tripura. There Education (Primary/Upper Primary and is also remarkable development in the area of Secondary), Govt. of Tripura. Stage-wise female literacy. enrolment and drop-out rates of ST students in Tripura’s Vision for Tribal Education the year 2014-2015 were collected which A wide range of programmes and strong highlighted the status of retention of these financial support have helped Tripura raise students in school education. The trend of access to education for its tribal population. Board examination results of ST students of The goals of SSA have given up most priority the years 2011-2015 were also collected from in the state which are as follows: Tripura Board of Secondary Education. Data 1) Enrolment of all children in School, were also collected from Census Cell of Education Guarantee Centre, Alternate Tripura, a branch of Census Dept., Govt. of School, 'Back to School' Camp by 2005 India. Other relevant works of different 2) Retention of all children till the Upper authors at State and National level were also Primary stage by 2010 reviewed and used as sources of secondary 3) Bridging of gender and social category data. gaps in enrolment, retention and learning Data Analysis and Interpretation 4) Ensuring that there is significant Data were analysed quantitatively. Collected enhancement in the learning achievement data were compiled and tabulated. This was levels of children at the primary and upper followed by statistical analysis in terms of primary stages total score and percentage. The tabulated data Methodology were expressed graphically and results and The authors collected data through descriptive findings were discussed with suitable survey method. Relevant information/data interpretation. Table 2: Stage-wise Enrolment of 2014-2015

Stage of Education Total SC Total ST Total Primary(I-V) 68,040 147820 3,74,462 Upper Primary(VI-VIII) 40,640 74,197 2,02,753 Secondary(IX-X) 30,674 51,119 1,46,974

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Enrolment and Retention of Tribal ------in Tripura ISSN: 2319-8192

160,000 140,000 120,000 100,000 Primary(I-V) 80,000 Upper Primary(VI-VIII) 60,000 Secondary(IX-X) 40,000 20,000 0 Total SC Total ST

Table 3: Drop-out Rate of ST students of 2014-15 (in %)

Stage of Education Boys Girls Total Primary stage (I-V) 3.69 3.56 3.62 Elementary stage (I-VIII) 3.66 3.26 3.46 Secondary stage (IX-X) 23.29 20.78 22.06

25 20

15 Primary stage (I-V) 10 Elementary stage (I-VIII) Secondary stage (IX-X) 5

0 Boys Girls Total

Table 4: Board Exam. (TBSE) result of ST students

Year Total no. of Regular Candidate Appeared Pass Percentage 2011 6988 38.52% 2012 7978 43.70% 2013 8255 43.67% 2014 8827 47.29% 2015 8379 46.75% The above tables state that a huge bulk of ST 2. The enrolment rate of ST children in the students got enrolled at primary and upper year 2014-15 was higher at all the three stages primary stages but all of them could not even as compared to Scheduled Caste (SC) complete elementary education. The pass children. percentage of ST students is not up to the 3. Drop-out rate of ST students was much mark at the Matriculation level. higher at the secondary stage as compared to Major Findings Primary and Upper Primary stages. 1. A huge bulk of Scheduled Tribe children 4. Drop-out rates of ST boys were a bit were enrolled at Primary, Upper Primary and higher than those of ST girls. Secondary stages in Tripura in the year 2014- 5. The pass percentages of ST students 15. comprising of both boys and girls in the Board examination (Matriculation) in Tripura

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remained always below 50%, from 2011- different types of incentives and scholarships. 2015, the lowest being 38.52% in 2011 and Still there are discrete incidents of drop outs the highest being 47.29% in 2014. of ST students. The reasons are manifold like Problems regarding Enrolment and poverty, unemployment, population growth, subsequent retention of Tribal Students parents’ negative attitude towards education, in Tripura socio-economic backwardness etc. To ensure The major problems regarding enrolment and bulk retention of ST students in the streamline retention of Tribal students are as follows: of formal education the govt. may take 1. Poverty initiative to minimise the occurrence of drop 2. Economic instability out. It would perhaps not be wrong 3. Unemployment problem in the family. expectation that the govt. may create new 4. More number of dependent members in avenues of professions so that the students can the family. be motivated to be educated at least to have a 5. Problem of communication in remote bright future. areas. References 6. Inadequacy in number of schools. • Acharyya, R. K. Insight into the 7. Shortage of Teachers. . Agartala: Tribal Research 8. Language problem. Institute, 1999 9. Lack of motivation in school. • Darlong, V. T. To Jhum or Not to Jhum: 10. Parental negative attitude towards Policy Perspectives on Shifting education cultivation. Guwahati: Missing Suggestions for enhancing enrolment Link, 2004. and retention of Tribal students in • Das, G . (1968) : Tribal welfare Tripura methodology , Adivasi, Vol. IX No. I. 1. Improvement of economic status of the • Elwin, V. India’s North-East Frontier in family the Nineteenth Century. London: Oxford 2. Provision of employment University Press,1959 3. Opening up of new job loci • Gokulnathana, P.P . (1979) Achievement 4. Organizing awareness programs for related motivation among Tribal parents / guardians adolescents , Bombay Himalaya 5. Provision of instruction in mother tongue Publishing house . 6. Opening up of new schools • Government of Tripura. Economic 7. Developing infrastructural and manpower Review of Tripura 2013- resources in school 2014. Agartala: Directorate of Economics 8. Flexibility in educational policy making and Statistics Planning Department, 2014. 9. Engagement of trained teachers • Government of Tripura. Economic 10. Developing communication facilities in Review of Tripura 2014- remote areas 2015. Agartala: Directorate of Economics Conclusion and Statistics Planning Department, 2015. In Tripura, the percentage of enrolment of ST • Government of Tripura. Tripura Human students is enhancing every year at primary Development Report and upper primary stage. This has been 2007, Agartala: Planning Commission of possible with the launching of different India Portal. Accessed 17 April 2011. programmes and schemes like, Sarva Siksha • Krishna, S. “Gender, Tribe and Political Abhiyan, Right to education, opening up of Participation: Control of Natural new schools, mid -day meal programme and Resources in North-Eastern India.” 72

Enrolment and Retention of Tribal ------in Tripura ISSN: 2319-8192

In Livelihood and Gender: Equity in Community Resource Management, edited by S.Krishna, 375–394. New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2004b. • Panda, B. N. (1996), “Tribal Education” , A.P.H Publishing Corp, New Delhi • Tripura Board of Secondary Education. • Yadappanavar, A.V., Tribal Education in India, Discovery Publishing House, 2003 • Census of India.

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Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, January - June, 2018 Vol. VI, No. I ISSN: 2319-8192

Social Book marking and Tagging: A New Way of Teaching Learning and Library Services

Partha Majumdar Librarian, Modi Public School, Siliguri, WB Email: [email protected]

Abstract Social book marking and tagging plays a major role in knowledge organization and information management in the field of modern libraries as well as digital classroom. This article explores the flavor of social book marking and tagging. Social book marking providing librarians as well as user better and faster access of information with more reliable and well organized manner. Article discussed the use of social book marking in library services and teaching learning in digital environment. It is also discussed some social book marking tools like delicious, Citeulike, digg etc. and its usefulness regarding the use of internet and web resources in a systematic way. Keywords: Social Book marking, Tagging, Simple tagging, Collaborative tagging, Web2.0, folksonomy. Introduction which follows a strict set of guidelines. It is Today’s modern technology and advent of basically a system for user generated content. internet has totally changed the idea of library and Social bookmarking is a method for internet users library services. The user always wants well to organize, store, manage and search for resource. arranged document as well as online service where The new genre of educational social software has they can know about the information and how, seen the development of social bookmarking tools where they can get that information easily without which lend themselves to use by libraries to wasting time. Before the advent of internet exchange, share and organize information. libraries created their own ways to store, manage, Web 2.0 and share information they found useful. But now Web 2.0 evolved into a dynamic, the growth of information resources on the internet interactive and collaborative platform because of and www has necessitated the need to more evolution in Internet and communication effective approaches for organizing information technology that facilitates exchange of information for user satisfaction. The control and maintain the and knowledge amongst users. The concept of online resources has become an important work of Library 2.0 is borrowed from that of Web 2.0. library. The web2.0 is very useful and user Web 2.0 is the label attached to new friendly technology ever invented to keep the capabilities and services offered by the second control over online knowledge by large web-based generation World Wide Web (WWW) that communities that support and facilitate facilitate online collaboration and sharing among collaboration among user. Tagging and social users. These capabilities include social bookmarking are such the system among others networking, wikis, instant messaging and social that has been popularized by web2.0. Tagging is a tagging. way of assigning unstructured keywords with Social Book marking and Tagging online content unlike library subject cataloging,

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Social Bookmarking and Tagging: ------Library services ISSN: 2319-8192

We all have our favorite websites that we How to do social Book marking and return to frequently or may find a really useful site Tagging that you wish to save for future reference. Social Social book marking is simply tagging a Book marking is the practice of saving the address web page with a web-based tool so you can easily of a website to visit in the future. It is a method for access it later. Social book marking tools help a Internet users to organize, store, manage and user to tag their item such as photograph, text, search for bookmarks of resources online with the books and websites etc. Each of the social book help of Metadata. Social book marking is the marking sites offers a little bit different services. practice of saving bookmarks to a public website First of all user should decide one site, or on a and tagging them with keywords. combination of them according to user’s In information systems, a tag is a non- requirement. Every user has to create his or her hierarchical keyword or term assigned to a piece own account on that social bookmarking site of information (such as an Internet bookmark, (Delicious (http://www.delicious.com), Citeulike digital image, or computer file). This kind of (http://www.citeulike.com), Connotea metadata helps describe an item and allows it to be (http://www.connotea.org etc.) to create social found again by browsing or searching. "Tagging," bookmarks. The methods of book marking vary is assigning a keyword or phrase that describes the from site to site, but user will most likely need to theme of a group of articles, photos, videos, or cut and paste the link you want to bookmark into other types of media files as a way to organize an "upload" forum on your profile on the site. them and access them easily later. A tag can also After uploading bookmarks to any of the sites, be used to assign a piece of content to another have to "tag" the link with some key words that user. Commonly used in blogs, site authors attach will help other users find it. User chooses a tag keyword descriptions to identify images or text which is meaningful to him. Once the tags have within their site as a categories or topic. In been assigned, they acts as index terns and they computer terminology, a tag is a keyword or term may be private or public. These sites do the assigned to a piece of information. Actually it is a verification of the bookmarks periodically. It type of Meta data which describes an item and enables user to see the related bookmarks and the help to search that item. tags they are used. These site gives the opportunity Types of Tagging to see the related bookmarks and tags they are Tagging can be divided into two types: used and each user will get their personal page to simple tagging and collaborative tagging. display bookmarks have ever created. Bookmarks • Simple tagging: in simple tagging only author are arranged in chronological order with all the can tags an item. Author describes their own tag. resources or items but nobody else tags another Features of Social Book marking resources. In many cases, like in flicker, YouTube, There are lots of social book marking sites simple tagging system includes an attachment to on the net. The key features of social book the resource as not just a reference to it. marking are as follows: • Collaborative tagging: not only the author, • User just needs to sign up and login, enter the anyone can tag the same item with their own tag in page that wishes to submit and it does the rest for their own vocabulary. As a result several users one, thus it saves the time of user. tend to post the same item. Delicious is based on • The process is very simple. After login to the collaborative tagging. account enter the URL of the webpage wish to submit the system then automatically fetches the

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Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018 required data from the said page and just need to internet which improves the popularity of your choose their submission options. link. • User can create a personal collection of • It is the technology of Web2.0 so user can bookmark and share with other user or group. interact with the website content easily and • It allows classification and indexing of instantly can update contents. bookmarks. • It is the fasted way to get one’s sites indexed by • To promote any website, event or brand on search engines. internet Social book marking sites are the best Some Social Book marking Sites way. The following are some book marking • Social bookmark only marks a reference to that sites where you can store social bookmarks and resource; respectively the link of the bookmarked tag them to others. page but does not save the resource itself. • Delicious (http://www.delicious.com) • To understand what the bookmark is about Delicious is owned by Yahoo and is a metadata are used. MUST for your social media and book marking • Allows tagging of web pages to makes search strategy. It was first released in September 2003 by easier. You can attach tags to each page that you Schachter. Delicious allows easily add sites you bookmark. like to your personal collection of links and to • The social book marking sites provide you free categorize those sites with keywords. It uses a non- server space to store your bookmarks. This space hierarchal classification system in which users can is literally unlimited. You can store as many tag each of their bookmarks with freely chosen bookmarks as you want. index terms (folksonomy). Not to mention that if Benefits of Social Book marking and enough people save your site in a bookmark, it will Tagging make their popular page and send a lot of traffic. It The benefits of social book marking and is the world’s largest social book marking site. tagging are as follows: • Digg (http://digg.com/about) • The main benefits of doing social book Digg is a news aggregator with a curated marking is promote website with small description front page, aiming to select stories specifically for and tagging to the online users. the Internet audience such as science, trending • Social Book marking offers a new way to political issues, and viral Internet issues. Digg was organize all the related web resources on a first launched in the year 2004 December 5 by particular field so it increases the chance of getting collaborators Kevin Rose, Owen Byrne, Ron particular resource. Gorodetzky, and Jay Adelson. Its current form • It helps to connect people who have the same was launched on July 31, 2012, with support for interest. sharing content to other social platforms such • Not only you can save your favorite websites as Twitter and Facebook. and tag them to your friends, but you can also look • Citeulike (http://www.citeulike.com) at what other people have found interesting CiteULike is a web service which allows enough to tag. users to save and share citations to academic • Social book marking is a great way to share papers. It has started as e free web service from articles that help to rank web site. November 2004. It mainly helps academics, • Each bookmark you do gives a back link to researchers and scientist to store, organize, share your website. These bookmarks are shared over and discover links to academic researcher papers. To discover new article and resources, automated

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Social Bookmarking and Tagging: ------Library services ISSN: 2319-8192 article recommendations, easily store references and tagging is very important and helpful for found online and share those references with teacher and learner to get their daily needed peers and find out who is reading, it is very much important website or topic easily in less time. helpful. Academic institution or training centers can own a • Mendeley (https://www.mendeley.com) social bookmarking site to network with other The term Mendeley has come from the educator around the globe who shares common name of biologist Gregor Mendel and interests. Every educational department can set up chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev. It is a desktop and a user account for each class and tag resources to web program produced by Elsevier for managing make the link available at classroom so students and sharing research papers, discovering research can access the resources from any computer which data and collaborating online. It was founded in has internet connection. Different school can November 2007 by three German PhD students collaborate with each other by sharing bookmarks from London and the first public beta version of and work on a project together. Many educators Mendeley was released in August 2008. Mendeley use Bookmarks or Favorites in their personal was one of the repositories for green Open browsers to save Web sites they use frequently in Access recommended by Peter Suber in the year class or at home. But, if you want to access saved 2012. In 2013 Elsevier publishing company web site from anywhere than on your home purchased Mendeley. computer than you have to do social book • StumbleUpon marking. Social book marking store, organize and (https://www.stumbleupon.com) manage bookmarks of web pages on the internet. Stumble Upon is an amazing blend of social Listing of relevant course materials and tags by the book marking, voting, networking, web surfing, teachers for their learners to read can be done here. search and blogging. Stumble Upon is a discovery Scuttledu K-12 Educators, Connotea Higher engine that finds and recommends web content to Education, CiteuLike Higher Education, its users. Its features allow users to discover and Edtags.org General Education etc. are some rate Web pages, photos and videos that are examples of education focused social book personalized to their tastes and interests using marking sites. peer-sourcing and social-networking principles. Social Book marking and Tagging in Best of StumbleUpon is, it can send major traffic Libraries with its user base of around 3 million users. Social tagging is a process of adding tags Social Book marking and Tagging in or keyword freely to online resources which is an Teaching and Learning important aspect of social book marking services With the development of technology and that resulted in folksonomy (Groups of tags internet the concept of teaching and learning has created by the users of a certain collection of data changed. Teaching and Learning is now more are called “folksonomy.”). Libraries can use practical, interactive and most important not tagging in variety of ways. Many library blogs boring. Students are very much aware of modern feature tags as a means of organizing information. technology and internet. Now students highly The librarians can Library tag posts in their blog, depend on internet because, it satisfied their Blogging for a Good Book to help users discover information needs in less time. Academic books that might interest them. Social institution is now providing digital classes where bookmarking simplifies the distribution of computer and projectors helps student to learn in a reference lists, bibliographies, papers, and other new way. In this environment social bookmarking resources among peers or students. Social tagging

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almost barriers free for the participation both for services in digital era. Adding social bookmark library patron and staff. While library catalogue links to the blog or web site makes it easy for and databases rely on controlled vocabularies and readers to save and share their content. Today’s traditional subject guides and pathfinders often library not just gives the traditional services, they address only broad categories, tags allow library also teaching the new technology to the user. The staff to assign worthy links multiple tags. Social teacher and the librarians both together teach these tagging can be applied in the user defined meaning technologies to the user or student. Sometimes for content, organize store information, Social Tagging is often controversial among libraries, aspects connect with other researches etc. Library because adding keywords to resources lacks staff could maintain relevant tag to their user and authority control. But libraries employing help them to get desire content. As a library del.icio.ous and other social bookmarking tools professional teach social book marking to user and can use the lack of controlled vocabulary to their tell them the importance of it. Library can advantage. These tools and techniques are useful collaborate with other libraries that have similar for many libraries in providing new services and interests to collaborate on ideas, projects, and making existing services available in new and papers, publications, presentations and Check out interesting ways. sites recommended by others with similar References interests. For reference purpose library can • http://www.citeulike.com (Accessed on 09-02- provide quick bookmarks for specific user for 17) particular purpose. As a current awareness service • http://digg.com/about (Accessed on 09-02-17) librarian can collect and share new curriculum • http://www.delicious.com (Accessed on 09- related websites when the curriculum is changing. 02-17) The librarians at the University of Pennsylvania • http://www.wikihow.com/Do-Social- are experimenting with something they call Bookmarking (Accessed on 10-02-17) PennTags. They’ve created a social book marking • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ (Accessed on site for members of their institution so that sites of 10-02-17) interest, bibliographies or links to other user- • https://www.mendeley.com (Accessed on 09- created content can be collected and shared by the 02-17) user community. Users can download a • https://www.stumbleupon.com (Accessed on specialized toolbar or use a bookmark let created 09-02-17) to facilitate adding content to PennTags. Beyond • Kannikaparameshwari G. and Chandrashekara having users tag their entries; a next step could M. (2008). Social Book marking and Tagging in allow them to tag other library content found in Library Science. In T.K. Guha, A. K. Rai, A. S. the OPAC or institutional repository. chandel and B. Saho (Eds.), Building Conclusion Participatory Library services in Digital Era It is not a matter how valuable information (PLANNER 2012), , 01-03 March 2012 (pp. it is, if no one can search or knows about it. Social 79-83). Ahmedabad: INFLIBNET Centre. book marking and tagging help to solve this • Naba Jyoti, Deka and Deka, Dipen problem by giving a platform to organize, store, (2008).Tagging and Social Book marking: Tools manage and search for book marks of resources of Library Services in Digital Era. In T.K. Guha, online. Social book marking and tagging is A. K. Rai, A. S. chandel and B. Saho (Eds.), important tools for search information and plays Building Participatory Library services in Digital important role to build participatory library

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Era (PLANNER 2012), Sikkim, 01-03 March 2012 • Thakuria, Juli.(2008). Social Bookmarking: (pp. 102-108). Ahmedabad: INFLIBNET Centre. A Useful Web 2.0 Tool. In T.K. Guha, A. K. Rai, • Shivalingaiah, D and Naik, Umesha (2011). A. S. chandel and B. Saho (Eds.), Building Social Networking Tools: Social Book marking Participatory Library services in Digital Era and Social Tagging. International CALIBER - (PLANNER 2012), Sikkim, 01-03 March 2012 (pp. 2011, Goa University, Goa, March 02-04, 84-94). Ahmedabad: INFLIBNET Centre. 2011(pp. 56-70). Ahmedabad: INFLIBNET Centre.

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Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, January - June, 2018 Vol. VI, No. I ISSN: 2319-8192

Rubber Plantation in British Cachar as Potential Industry: A Critical Study

Dr. Sahabuddin Ahmed Associate Professor and Head Department of History Karimganj College, Karimganj E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Rubber plantation in Cachar had its origin during the British rule. In the middle of the 19th century tapping of rubber and trading of rubber trees paid the attention of the colonial administrators. But though it had a good potentiality and bright future, rubber plantation did not get due attention to the foreign rulers on a regular course like tea plantation. The rubber trees were first discovered in British Cachar in 1862. On hearing the news of the existence of rubber trees, the British Govt. enquired upon the amount of production and market value of the article. Accordingly it was reported the existence of rubber trees in the Cachar forest and proposed that Govt. should lease out the rubber forest tract. But the matter remained undecided by the British Revenue Department. In this way five to ten years had passed while the Govt. still was unable to adopt any policy of management of this valuable product because of the lack of co-ordination between Revenue and Forest Department. Thus the negligence and delay from Govt. side Rubber resource made room for indiscriminate smuggling and destruction of Rubber plants in Cachar. Up to the late 19th century, the British Govt. did not feel importance of Rubber and its commercial liabilities. It is matter of sheer chance that tea industry started making a desperate stride while rubber industry in spite of having great potentiality was left alone and allowed to decay. Key-words: Rubber, plantation, vegetation, tapping, revenue, lease, discovery, policy, potentiality, decay etc.

Rubber plantation proves to be a lucrative vegetation in Cachar and in the mid business now-days. Presently, in India about nineteenth century tapping of rubber in 1215 kg Rubber is growing in average per indigenous ways prevalent and trading of hectare land annually. Now research is going raw rubber trees caught the attention of the on towards its development. In Cachar also, administrators. But even though the resource about 505.25 hectare area of land are being had a promising future and potentiality, covered by Rubber plantation. rubber plantation did not get the due Plantations are continuing in attention of the rulers. different parts of Barak Valley like Fulertal, Since the annexation of ‘Cachar’ or Joypur, Kumbha, Madhura, Amraghat, Heramba Rajya by the British, new sources Hilara and even in some parts of Karimganj of revenue began to enter into the Revenue and Haillakandi district also.1 The history map. Gradually, Tea, salt-wells, fishery, of the Rubber plantation in Cachar has had Feeryghat etc. came under the purview of its origin during the British rule. It is evident British revenue administration. As we find in from a close study of the records of British the British records there was the possibility administration that Rubber had natural of Rubber plantation and development of

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Rubber Plantation in British Cachar ...... : A Critical Study ISSN: 2319-8192 rubber industry in the valley. But they did visit to the spot. Meantime, the lease was not give so much attention to develop again put up to auction but in vain. Even if Rubber plantation on a regular course like some applications were received, the parties tea. Naturally the question arises ‘why’. The refused to agree with the terms of the object of this article is to highlight the Board.7After so many correspondences being attitude of the British and the bottlenecks in made in the administrative level, the Under the way of encouraging this natural product. Secretary to the Govt. of Bengal in a letter to The Rubber trees were first the Secretary, Board of Revenue, instructed discovered in Cachar in 1862.2 The Rubber that the question of lease of India Rubber trees were found in North and South portion plants in Cachar be left to the decision of the of the river Barak. It grows on a height from Conservator of Forest’s visit in the next 15 to 35 feet and its girth was 18 inches to 6 winter. For the interim period the Secretary feet when fit to be tapped. But the raw- instructed them not to lease to any party materials of rubber (i.e. Ficus Elastica) because temporary lease might cause which were in abundance in east Chatachura ‘indiscriminate injury’ to the trees. Rather, Range (Hailakandi) were brittle and without for the benefit of the trees, it was thought elasticity.3 It proves that, the condition of that, it would be better to sacrifice the Rubber in the north and south area of the revenue for any year.8 Valley were better in elasticity. The Again, it was proposed that these Secretary to the Govt. of Bengal on hearing valuable trees on all Govt. lands be declared the news of the existence of Rubber trees reserved trees and some restrictions to be enquired upon the amount of production and imposed on sale of raw produce. The market value of the article.4The report of the Commissioner of Dacca was also requested enquiry about the matter is best revealed in to find out best means for solution if any.9 the letter. The Commission of Dacca, Meanwhile the quantity of rubber increased reported the existence of India rubber trees in twice. But as the matter remained undecided the Cachar forests, and proposed that Govt. by the Revenue Dept., in the 31st March 1865 should lease out the right of collection. The again lease was put up to auction 10 but commissioner was ultimately authorized to without any response. In this way, 5 to 10 grant a lease for one year to the highest years had passed while the Govt. still was bidder above a sum of Rs. 18,000/- unable to adopt any policy of management of calculated at the rate of Rs. 3/- per maund on this valuable product because of the lack of an estimated annual produce of 6,000/- co-ordination between Revenue and Forest manuds of Rubber. The market value was Department. Later on, Brajo Govinda Dey, a started at about Rs. 25/- a maund.5 So, it native of Sylhet well versed in Rubber trade can be assumed that, the lease for one year submitted a petition to the Commissioner of can be granted to the highest bidder atleast at Dacca to take-lease for collection for 3 years the sum of Rs. 18,000/-.6 Again, the lease on payment of a sum of Company’s Rs. shall have to abide by certain conditions like 7000/- 11 annually. (1) The farmer should replace the destroyed Thus, the negligence and delay from trees after tapping by four hundred young Govt. side Rubber resource made room for trees every year. (2) Collection of Rubber indiscriminate smuggling and destruction of should be limited within November to April. Rubber plants in Cachar. From a report of But the condition being so stringent no lease Mac William (6th December, 1872), the D.C. came forward. It awaits finalization till Cachar, we learn that ‘Gowree Charan Dass’, conservator of forests and Commissioner’s ‘Desaruit Dass’ and ‘Jadumeah’ were

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Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018 engaged in smuggling of Rubber in Cachar. now he only thinks of saying he got his They were caught red handed on the spot at Rubber from Munipoor”.15 Under these sonaimukh.12The matter was referred to the circumstances, the D.C. suggested that to High Court and ‘Gowree Charan’ was avoid smuggling and other complicacies the sentenced to pay fine of Rs. 500/-. ‘Gowree best way will be (1) to fix transit duty on all Charan’ appealed to the court. But the Judge Rubber at the rate of Rs. 8/- per maund and rejected the appeal. On receiving an order also to the exports from Manipur & Lushai from the D.C. the stolen Rubber was sold at country (2) At the same time “Confine Rs. 993/- as and the amount was distributed ourselves to protecting small tracts only, among Nazir and the Officers present. The with a special establishment for preserving order of the D.C. to have half of the sale and planting of young trees”.16 proceeds distributed among the Nazir and In 1874, Assam came under the officers is indeed a point to note. This points Chief Commissioner’s Rule. Naturally towards a liberal outlook of the British rulers certain administrative change began. On an in various administrative affairs even if that enquiry of the Conservator of forests goes against the administrative norms. regarding the permission of tapping the Another convicted person ‘Desaruit Dass’ Rubber trees outside the Govt. reserves, the was also sentences to a fine of Rs. 500/-. On matter had been referred to the higher his appeal, the court discharged him because authority. The Governor General in Council, there was no evidence of rubber being stolen according to Forest Dept. code directed that from Govt. property. Therefore, it becomes the forest product was to be sold on cash clear that in the absence of any Regulation payments. Later on, in 1882, the Chief on this valuable property, smuggling Commissioner issued another circular for becomes a regular feature. Although from implementation in future17:- (1) “The Lease another letter written by D.C. in 1868, it can confers a right to tap trees for Rubber only be known that the collection of India Rubber within the boundaries specified, and not on Govt. Khas land was prohibited by the beyond them (2) The Lease does not confer Board of Revenue in letter No. 210, of 21st the right to tap Rubber trees growing along October 1862 and no tax to be levied on roadsides, near temples or in other public lands granted to private individuals. So, it is places or in private hands within the possible that the tax paid to have been levied boundaries specified. (3) The lease confers on export of Rubber was, in fact a bribe paid no right to foreign Rubber, and does not by smugglers to the lease of the ghat. authorize the ‘lease’ to interfere in any way As soon as the tea plantation began with private or foreign Rubber to persons in Cachar in 185613 and grantees were conveying it. (4) The lease is to be given allowed for 99 years lease for tea plantation, only for the months of December, January, some of the Managers of tea estates raised February, March and April and of these the the question what should they do with the trees are to be tapped only in the months of Rubber trees within the tea plantation area December, January, February & March, the because there was no preservation or month of April being added only to permit prohibition on trees.14 On the other hand “If the collection of the produce. (5) The roots the tea Manager begin to tap their trees when of the trees and the lowest part of the stem they have them and send Rubber into the within 3 feet from the surface of the ground market, an additional inducement will be are not to be tapped and no trees are to be given to smuggling, and a smuggler will be felled or burned, or their branches cut. (6) able to choose one of two defenses, whereas The incisions shall not be less than 2 feet

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Rubber Plantation in British Cachar ...... : A Critical Study ISSN: 2319-8192 apart, and must not exceed 1 foot in length great potentiality was left alone and allowed by 4 inches in breadth. (7) Half the amount to decay. for which the lease is sold must be deposited Notes and References st on the day of sale and other half on the 1 • Rubber Board, Silchar (information March. (8) The ‘lease’ shall be responsible collected). for all branches of the above conditions, • Hunter, W.W., A Statistical Account of whether committed by himself or by persons Assam, Vol. II, Delhi, 1879, p. 371. in his employ. (9) The lease will be liable to • C.R., Letter from J.W. Edger, offig D.C. be cancelled and the amount deposited, Cachar. forfeited in case of breach of any of the • C.R., Letter from Gustav Mann, offig conditions of the lease; and if the trees are Deputy Conservator of Forests, Assam. tapped otherwise than as permitted by the • B.R.P., No. 4579, Fort William, the 30th lease, the ‘lease’ or his agent will be liable to September, 1869. prosecution for mischief under the Indian • Hunter, W.W., op.cit. Penal Code”. • B.R.P. Letter from H.S. Beaden, offig Conclusion Secretary to the Govt. of Bengal, No. 4048, Thus here, we find a definite rule for Fort William, Dt. 23rd Nov. 1869. leasing the Rubber Mahals at Cachar rd • B.R.P. Letter No. 4049, 23 Nov. 1869. formulated. Till 1882, from the records it • Ibid. appears that there were certain limitations in • C.R. Letter No. 4579, Dt. 20th Sept. the British Policy regarding the Rubber 1869. Plantation in Cachar: (1) since its discovery, • C.R. Letter to Commissioner of Dacca the Govt. did not adopt any policy about it. Divn. Calcutta, 10th January, 1874 (Pl. Sec (2) The area of Rubber mahals was not the full text of the Letter in Annexure-I). identified specifically. May be during the th th • late 19 century the British did not feel B.R.P. No. 1486, 6 Dec. 1872, (For importance of Rubber and its commercial details Pl. Sec Annexure-II). liabilities in this land. It might be because the • Dey, R., Land Revenue Administration in communication system of the then Cachar Cachar during British Rule (1832-1900), could not encourage them to think that way, Ph.D. Thesis, G.U. 1989. for Rubber industry needed other big • Dey, R. ‘Some aspects of Forest industrial amenities which the British rulers Administration in Cachar in the British thought, were hard to obtain in this land. It is Rule’, NEIHA Proceedings, Shillong, 1992. th really a matter of sheer chance that from the • B.R.P. No. 151, 7 Feb. 1873. beginning of British administration tea • Ibid. industry started making a desperate stride • C.R., circular No. 15 from Chief while Rubber industry in spite of having Commissioner of Assam to the D.C. Cachar, 18th July 1882.

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ANNEXURE – I

To, The Commissioner of the Dacca, Division. Dt. Calcutta, the 16th January, 1874. Sir, Referring to the enclosed order passed by the Govt. of Bengal on a petition presented by me, Broja Govinda Dey, relative to carrying on trade in Rubber in the District of Cachar and Sylhet, I beg respectfully to bring to your notice that for the past 10 years the collection of this important and valuable article of commerce has been rendered impracticable by Govt. for the monopoly of the collection. As it probable the Govt., may desire to see this branch of trade developed, I am willing to take lease the right to the collection for 3 years on payment by me of an annual sum of say Rs. 7001/-, company’s Rupees, payable in such manner as may be directed. I am a native of Sylhet and a thoroughly acquainted with the Rubber trade and the districts referred to above. Soliciting your consideration to my application.

I remain, Sd/- Calcutta (Baliaghatta) Choonaputti. ANNEXURE – II

No. 1846, Dt. Cachar, the 6th December. From: O.G.R. Mac William, Esqr Offig. D.C. of Cachar. To, The Commissioner of Circuit, Dacca Dvn. Sir, I have the honour to submit copies of two decisions of the High Court in a case of smuggling India Rubber. Gowree Churan Dass and Dasaruit Dass and Jadu Meah were charged with dishonest retaining stolen property, namely, a large quantity about 17 ½ maunds of Rubber. It was scized by the collectorate Nazir, in a boat on its way From Sonaimukh where it had been put on board. Gowreen Churun was convicted and sentenced to pay a fine of Rs. 500/-, Jadu Meah was acquitted and Dasaruit absconded. Gowree Churun appealed to the High Court, and the Hon’ble Judges rejected the appeal on the ground that his acts left no doubt as to his guilty knowledge that the Rubber had been stolen from Govt. I ordered the Rubber to be sold, and the proceeds to be put into the Govt. Treasury. The amount is distributed between the Nazir and his officers who made the seizure. Sometime afterwards, Dassarut was caught and convicted and sentenced to a similar fine (Rs. 500). He has appealed and the High Court have discharged him, because there was no evidence to prove that the Rubber was Govt. Property, no evidence that it was stolen and no evidence that Dassarut had reason to believe it was stolen. In any case that happened in future, it will be next to impossible to prove that the Rubber in question is Govt. property, unless it be assumed that all the Rubber which is not protected by passes as the produce of the Lushai or Manipuri forest in Prima-feci Govt. property. I regret very much that the record of the case is still with the High Court. I will send copies of my decisions in both parts of the case when I get the papers back. I have enclosed copies of the evidence and decision in another Rubber case which I have since decided, as if the case be appealed, it might be worthwhile to defend it before the High Court. In this case 9 maunds and 35 seers were scized. I have not ordered its sale pending appeal. It is worth about Rs. 450/-.

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Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, January - June, 2018 Vol. VI, No. I ISSN: 2319-8192 Glorious Journey of Modern Polo and Its Birth Place Silchar: An Overview

Dr. Ganesh Nandi Assistant Professor, Department of Visual Arts, Assam University Email ID: [email protected]

Abstract

Silchar is a historical place where World’s first modern Polo Club established by the British. Polo is a team sport played on horseback and it is one of the oldest games of the world. But the modern game of Polo is derived from Manipur, India, where the game was known as 'Sagol Kangjei', 'Kanjai-bazee', or 'Pulu'. Manipuri people played it traditionally. In 1850’s, the Britisher who came in this region for tea plantation, they discovered Polo game in the border of Cachar district (Indo-Mayanmar). The Britisher amazed to see and attracted to the game. They started the polo game in this area. They established a ‘Recreation Club’ in Silchar (Cachar) which was renowned as ‘Cachar Club’. In 1859, this club became the first polo club in the world made by the British tea owner. Although, the formation of polo club credited goes to the Major General J. F. Sherer. He was the person who firstly formed the polo club in Silchar in 1859. After that Calcutta polo club was established in 1862 which still exists. But unfortunately Cachar Club is dismantled in present day. Silchar is witnessed a glorious journey of Polo and this game has given a new identity of this area in the world map. So, colourful history of modern polo with some hidden facts has been discussed in this study. Key Words: Polo, Pony, Sagol Kangjei, Kanjai-bazee, Pulu, chukka, Cachar Club. since time immemorial has carved the natural Introduction way for a mutual interaction. Each Barak Valley is a historical place presently community has enriched its immediate and covering three districts Cachar, Karimganj remote neighbor. Although Barak Valley has and Hailakandi which is situated in the its own rich art and cultural tradition but it is Southern part of Assam state. Geography and unseen to the outer world due to its poor population of this Valley have differentiated communication and different geographical this area from other places. Wonder is the condition. In the historic prospect this area first response if and when an outsider has a great importance. Barak valley was approaches this valley from the point of view rotated under various rulers due to course of of its racial, religion, linguistic, cultural and time. Once upon a time this area was ruled ethnic diversity. In a word, Barak valley in by the Britishers also. British captured itself is a mini-India. The residents of the Cachar in 1832. Silchar is the district head valley are the Bengali Hindus and the quarter of Cachar district. Silchar witnessed Bengali Muslims, the Dimasas, the Nagas, so many historical events. One of them is the Hmars, the Manipuris, the kukis, the Polo game. Historical fact is that Silchar is Assamese speaking people, the Riang, the the birth place of modern polo game which is Nepalis and the tea garden labourers and known as ‘English Polo’ also. It is various other tribes. Their intermingling documented that in the history of world of

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Glorious Journey of Modern Polo and Its Birth Place Silchar : An Overview ISSN: 2319-8192 sports first modern Polo game was played at players are mounted on the indigenous Silchar. Manipuri pony, which stands less than Origin of Polo 13 hands (52 inches, 132 cm). There are no goal posts, and a player scores simply by Polo is a team sport played hitting the ball out of either end of the field. on horseback. The objective is to Players strike the ball with the long side of score goals against an opposing team. the mallet head, not the end. Players are not Players score by driving a small white plastic permitted to carry the ball, although blocking or wooden ball into the opposing team's goal the ball with any part of the body except the using a long-handled mallet. There are two open hand is permitted. The sticks are made teams both with 4 players. They play on of cane, and the balls are made from the a field which is 300 yards long (about 275 roots of bamboo. Players protected their legs meters) and 160 or 200 yards wide (about by attaching leather shields to their saddles 146 and 183 meters). There are goalposts and girths. (long sticks in the ground) 8 yards (7.32 In Manipur, the game was played meters) apart at each end of the field. To even by commoners who owned a pony. The score, the ball has to go between the other kings of Manipur had a royal polo ground team's goalposts, which is called a goal. The within the ramparts of their Kangla Fort. game is 4, 6 or 8 periods (units of time) of Here they played Manung Kangjei Bung 7 minutes, which are called chukkas. (literally, "Inner Polo Ground"). Public Between chukkas, players change ponies. In games were held, as they are still today, at a game there are 2 umpires on horses and the Mapan Kangjei Bung (literally "Outer a referee on the side. Polo Ground"), a polo ground just outside History tells us that old version of the Kangla. Weekly games called Hapta Polo originates from ancient Persia. In 600 Kangjei (Weekly Polo) were also played in a AD, the first polo game played between the polo ground outside the current Palace. The Turkis and Persian. Subsequently, it was oldest polo ground in the world is the Imphal scattered around the world with great cheer. Polo Ground in Manipur State. The Polo game came into India by the hands Polo and Silchar of Mughals and it was exported from Persia. Barak Valley is very famous for tea In the sixteenth century, the Mughal king cultivation. This pride is only because of Babur raised the popularity of the game. Britishers. Tea began to be cultivated as Later than the authentic proof of the game early as in 1855 around Silchar town on an did not come into existence and days after experimental basis by S G Williamson and days it loses its glory. Company. Their first tea garden came up at The modern game of Polo is derived ‘Barsangan’. Britishers came for tea from Manipur, India, where the game was plantation but they ultimately changed the known as 'Sagol Kangjei', 'Kanjai-bazee', or whole economic, cultural, social and 'Pulu'. Manipuri people played it developmental scenario of the valley. In traditionally. The origins of the game 1850’s, the Britisher who came in this region in Manipur are traced to early precursors of for tea plantation, they discovered Polo game Sagol Kangjei. This was one of three forms in the border of Cachar district (Indo- of hockey in Manipur, the other ones being Mayanmar). The game was playing by the field hockey (called Khong Kangjei) and native Manipuri people with the help of wrestling-hockey (called Mukna pony. The Britisher amazed to see and Kangjei).In Manipur, polo is traditionally attracted to the game. They started the polo played with seven players to a side. The game in this area. The British already 86

Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018 established their ability around the world dismantled, Afterwards the polo was slowly with their gallantry and authority. So, what broadened around the world and others the next, the British also joined in this game. British captured countries. Subsequently the They established a Recreation Club known British took the game to their own country as ‘Retreat Club’ in Silchar (Cachar) which and in 1872, Captain Francis Herbert was renowned as ‘Cachar Club’ later. In established the first Polo Club in England at 1859, this club became the first polo club in Clytha Park, near Abergavenny. Over the the world made by the British tea owner. By years, Polo has widely been acknowledged the clause of 6 of Indian Company act, 1882, as a global sport, with more than 80 this club got its registration in 1897 as countries worldwide where the sport is ‘Cachar Club Limited Company’. Present currently played in. In fact it was also an sites of D.S.A. ground, Police ground, Town Olympic sport from 1900 to 1936. Club, play ground of Govt. Boys Higher In Silchar, the British plays the game Secondary School and Narsing H S School very seriously and enjoined it deeply. How were used as huge polo game ground during much longer they would entertain the game the British rule. This ground was renowned among themselves? How would they as Assam Chief Commissioner Archaevel understand their gaming power? Now Arl’s name as Arl’s ground or Horse Racing question is that to whom they would show Ground. In 1853-54’s the polo was officially their strength. Fortunately, their eyes moved announced during the time of Deputy into those players to whom they had learned Commissioner Robert Stuart. Although, the the polo game- the Manipuri people. During formation of polo club credited goes to the that time the king Churachand Singh was the Major General J. F. Sherer. He was the ruler of Manipur State from 1891 to 1941. person who firstly formed the polo club in After him, the king Bodh Chandra became Silchar in 1859. Seven other founding king of Manipur from the year 1941 and members were namely, James Abernethy, ruled till 1949. In 21st Sept. 1949, the Govt. Arthur Brownlow, James Davidson, Ernst of India did agreement with Manipur and Echardt, Julius Sandeman, A. Stuart and W. Manipur became part of Indian Territory Walker. They indulged in weekly games permanently. It was implemented in the year with the locals, played in the traditional open 15th Oct., 1949. The British got both the spaces with small ponies. The first rules were kings of Manipur and they were being formulated in 1863. In most part of the Barak invited by the British to play modern polo Valley various polo club was established game. The king Churachand Singh of such as Chargola Polo Club, Chatla Valley Manipur disembarked in Silchar with his Polo Club, Happy Valley Polo Club massive players and they resided in Shibari (Kumbirgram), Longai Valley Polo Club, Road Tarapur, at Silchar, presently known as Manacherra Polo Club, North-Cachar Polo Manipuri village (basti). It assumes that this Club (Dolu), Barnarpur Polo club etc. Manipuri village is around more than although, there is no particular information hundred years old to till date and hundreds of regarding the date when these clubs were Manipuri family resides there. Naturally, formed. The game expanded to other parts of whenever the king of Manipur came into the country after this, most notably to Barak valley to play polo, they generally Kolkata and parts of erstwhile East Bengal. stayed with their community people. In 1962, in Kolkata also one Polo Club was The story was 90-95 years old. It is established which is still now existing but the heard that the Manipuri players tried hard to scenery of Polo Club of Silchar entirely beat the British players in Silchar Horse vanished. Old Cachar Club building is also Race Ground. The Manipur villager’s crowd 87

Glorious Journey of Modern Polo and Its Birth Place Silchar : An Overview ISSN: 2319-8192 proved that how their anxiety came into forth came from Manipur to play two exhibition to watch the game which was hardly one or matches who were divided in two teams. two kilometer far from the area. The young Name of the teams are Marjing and brigade was extremely excited to enjoy the Thangjing. Players of the two teams game. Who has won the match; it is still a participated in the match from Manipur are question mark. According to the villagers, Haobam Ratan, N. Jel Singh, Laishram the size and shape of the British horses were Thomson, Akoijam Akham, Sinam Samrjit, much bigger, stronger and energetic than Tensubam Roshan, Laishram Mocha, N. Manipuri king’s horses. After finish the Probin Kumar, Salam Abungcha, game, the king returned to the village, Nameirekpam Philip, K. Samananda, Okram Manipuri Basti where the evening ceremony Rozer, H. Muhindra, Aheibam Sashikanta, L. awaited for them. Native people perform Rojit, P. Kamaljit, Sinam Bimol Singh and religious programs, different types of dramas Thoudam Kaoba Singh. In the presence of with great ecstasy. But the enjoyment was thousands of cheerful audience in the present not stop there only, the king also brought India Club field two matches were played. some traditional musicians of Manipur which First match was following the rule of was amazed part to the villagers. The entire traditional Manipuri polo game where both performance performs in Radha-Govinda the teams had 7 players each. In this match temple of Manipuri Basti where king team Marjing beats team Thangjing by 14-10 Churachand stayed. There are no other goals. That game was very much speedy and extreme documents to show that how many audience enjoyed a lot. Second match was days they have enjoyed the game but the following purely modern polo rule and each game plays often. Only the Radha-Govinda team consisted with 4 players. Marjing beats temple still survives but the condition of this Thangjing by 5-4 goals in this match. Next temple is very pathetic. This is the only silent day one exhibition match was played by both witness architecture tells us that incident of the teams in Lala, also. the past of Silchar. These were mainly exhibition matches but After independence, when British they left a great impression to the sports returned back to their home, polo game has lovers of Barak Valley. Because once first gradually lost its glory and popularity at modern Polo was played at Silchar and with Silchar. Even in the present day this the idea to revive this game in this region historical game practice is totally stopped in effort was taken in the current days. In 19th his birthplace. Only in 1979, one exhibition November 2017 only in part of the three Polo match was held at Silchar. But most day’s mega event Namami Barak Festival remarkable incident was occurred in 2006, organized by Assam Government one polo when an effort was taken to refresh the match was held in the Silchar Narsing memory of polo for the Silchar people. School and Government Boys play Ground. Energetic youth H. Babu Singha took an It was also an exhibition match. Again H initiative for a Polo Exhibition Match with Babu Singha and Apratim Nag, Faculty of the help of All Manipur Polo Association, Silchar G C College took the initiation and Imphal in 9th February 2006. One match crossing over so many difficulties they organizing committee was formed with the arranged the match. All Manipur Polo Advocate Champak Dutta as president and Association came with polo players. Two Advocate H. Babu Singha as General teams created from these players as Team Secretary. Union Heavy Industries Minister Barak and Team Sanghai with four players at that time Santosh Mohan Dev was Chief each. In the match Barak defeated Sanghai Patron of the committee. Total 18 players by 6-4 goals. Although there was so many 88

Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018 mismanagement due to shortage of time and • Das, Partha Pratim, Silchare Polo, Dainik poor attention of administration and there Samayik Prasanga, Silchar, 2013 were numbers attractive events in the • Choudhury, Amitabh, Sthalbandi Silchar, Namami Barak Festival but still this polo Dainik Samayik Prasanga, 2013 exhibition match was in people’s prime • Mishra, Aniket, From Sagol Kangjei to discussion. But after that till date no such Polo - Recording the evolution of the game positive attempt has been taken for the in Manipur, Sportskeeda, 2013 promotion of Polo. • Choudhury, Jyotilal, Glimpses of British Conclusion Raj in Barak Valley, Srijan Graphics and Due to the lack of people’s courage, Publishing House, Silchar, 2015 consciousness and patronization from the • Das, Atin, Cachare Kokhono, Prasangik sports World and Government Polo has lost Printers and Publishers, Silchar, 1989 its entity at Silchar. It can be said that • Chattopadhyay, Dr Suhas, Jharher Mukhe unfortunately this game is dead now in its Cacharer Rastratarani, Century Literature, birth place. Polo is now alive only in the Silchar, 2010 Silchar people’s heart with historic pride and Personal Interviews honour because it has given this marginal  Niva Sharma, Retired teacher, Tarapur area a new identity and dignity to the world Silchar map.  Ibongoton Sharma, Caretaker of Tarapur References Old Radha Govinda Temple • Kairi, Sanat Kumar, Cacharer Nana  H. Babu Singha, Secretary, Polo Itihas, Silchar, 2013 Organizing Committee, 2006 • Das, Dr. Ramakanta, Barak Upatyakar Sthan Nam, Silchar, 2009

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Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, January - June, 2018 Vol. VI, No. I ISSN: 2319-8192

Recapitulating the Days of Tebhaga Movement in Cachar: A Phase of Unbeaten Struggle

Jhuma Banerjee Research Scholar Department of History Assam University, Silchar

Abstract Outbreak of resistance or protests has been an integral part of the colonial period in India. Such protests used to give an outward expression to the dissatisfaction of the common masses towards colonial policies. In certain instances these protests were even adopted as a way of fight against the exploitation of the indigenous privileged class of people in the society. Peasants’ movement was one of the various forms of resistance movement that was witnessed during colonial period. Almost the entire nation had been an eye-witness to various peasants outburst and out of all those the Tebhaga Movement of 1946 was one of the most massive forms of peasants’ outburst. Although it had started from the province of Bengal but its strong repercussion was felt within the district of Cachar in a very special way. Here is a paper presented on the Tebhaga Movement of Cachar throwing light on the background of the outburst and the way in which communist leaders of the district got associated with the movement. Key Words : Tebhaga Movement , Peasant , Zamindar , Communist approach

Introduction stage ready for an open challenge between The Tebhaga Movement of 1946 has the cultivators and the landed aristocrats been regarded as one of the most massive (zamindars and landlords). And with the forms of peasants’ unrest during colonial outbreak of the movement in Bengal, a solid period. The prime demand of voice was given to the demands of the the Tebhaga (sharing by thirds) movement suffering cultivators within the district of was to reduce the landlord share to one third. Cachar as well. Although the movement had sparked off from It will not be out of place to mention the province of Bengal, but a very strong that although the Tebhaga Movement in repercussion of the movement was felt within Cachar had been regarded as a repercussion certain districts in Assam as well. This of the Bengal’s Tebhaga Movement but in movement had for the first time given voice spite of having a lot of similarities between to the rightful demands of the cultivators who the situation that prevailed in the province of had been the worst victims of inhuman Bengal with the district of Cachar, a sort of exploitation done by the landed class of individual identity was maintained in the later people or the zamindars. The scenario within case rather than just being carried away in the the district of Cachar was quite similar to that flow of Bengal’s Tebhaga Movement. of the happenings within the province of The Tebhaga upsurge within the Bengal and that had ultimately created a district of Cachar might have been successful strong ground for the outbreak of the to a certain extent only but it cannot be peasants’ unrest in the long run. This will not denied that till the time the spirit of the be an exaggerated statement to mention that movement was at the peak, the aspirations of the beginning of 1946 had already set the the toiling cultivators had been fulfilled in a 90

Recapitulating the Days of Tebhaga Movement in Cachar: ----- Struggle ISSN: 2319-8192 great way during that crucial phase. To a sources that throw special light on the course great extent the suppressed voices of the poor of the Tebhaga Movement in the district of cultivators got an outward expression through Cachar during the early part of 1946. the Tebhaga upsurge only. And how can Plight of Cultivators in Cachar someone forget that ultimately the movement The plight or the grievances of the brought into limelight some of the very cultivating class of the people was the main prominent communist leaders of the district factor that had culminated into the outbreak who had made their names immortal with of the Tebhaga Movement in the long run. their contribution during the phase of the Although there has been always a movement. misconception that the colonial policies were Objectives of the Study mainly responsible for their plight, whereas it The Tebhaga Movement of 1946 cannot be denied that there was yet another within the district of Cachar has been class of people who was equally responsible regarded as one of the most massive forms of for the severe exploitation of the cultivators peasants’ unrest that was marked with the and they were none other than the landlords participation of masses from every or the landed aristocrats who proved to be community to raise voice against the more inhuman in comparison to the colonial exploitation of the land lords particularly. exploiters. And this movement was targeted This paper presentation on the Tebhaga against the landed aristocrats only. The Movement in Cachar helps in attaining the district of Cachar had been a witness to those following objectives: inhuman torture and the silent sufferings of the cultivators since a long time. In the initial  A highlight on the real condition of the stages the cultivators did not get the courage cultivating class of people within the districts to openly throw a challenge to the landlords has been made along with the pattern of as there was no proper leadership among exploitation done by the landed class of them and they did not get the courage to people towards the poor cultivators. speak against such sort of exploitation.  Emphasis has been laid on the nature of Within the district more than ninety percent the Tebhaga Movement in Cachar that had of the total population depended on practically broken all barriers of Caste and agriculture as their livelihood in most of the Creed and made it a movement of masses rural areas. And practically the fertility of the belonging from every community. soil was so much that the prospects in agriculture seemed to be very bright. But the  This paper also makes a highlight on the most unfortunate part of the story was that grievances of the ex-tea garden labourers as land (agricultural plot) was concentrated in well who had equally given their support to the hands of few people. And for the others the cause of the poor cultivators during the who worked as cultivators they mostly had outbreak of the Tebhaga Movement in the status of landless cultivators. The Cachar. situation used to take a worse turn in the  And finally it has been able to re-explore name of sharing the total agriculture produce the contributions of certain prominent between the land lords and the poor communist leaders of the district who had cultivators. Basically half of the total produce been actively involved with the Tebhaga was demanded by the landlords and Movement. cultivators were subjected to extreme torture Methodology if they refused to give the requisite share of The study has been based on produce to the landlords. Specifically talking about the district of Cachar there was a secondary as well as some selected primary system that prevailed in most of the rural 91

Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018 belts and that system was termed as the ‘bhit great extent paved the way for a strong system’ according to which the landlords struggle by the tea labourers as well. willingly distributed their agricultural plots to Some Findings on Tebhaga Phase in the landless cultivators for cultivation. At that Cachar: Breaking the Barrier of Caste time any demand for revenue was not made and Class but once the cultivation took place then the The Tebhaga outburst within the landlords forcibly took their share from the district of Cachar had marked the beginning agricultural plot. It was yet another form of of a new era in which the mutual differences exploitation done by the landlords. Any sort on the basis of Caste, Class and a particular of difference of opinion between the community had got diluted totally. While cultivators and the landlords resulted in turning over the pages of history one may evictions. In the name of being the owner of find that exploitation of the landed aristocrats the land, the landlords did not miss out even a did not only victimise a certain section of single opportunity of exploiting the people in the society , but at the very same cultivators. The cultivators who were being time almost all poor cultivators belonging to victimized did not belong to any one the different communities other than the particular community. The Manipuri, Bengali Bengali ones were equally made the soft as well as the Muslim cultivators were targets of that exploitation. So, naturally the equally subjected to exploitation. So one the participation of masses from different movement broke out, it witnessed the community was inevitable during the phase participation of people from every of the struggle. Within certain areas of community to support the cause of the Cachar district, the poor cultivators belonging peasants. Another unique aspect of the to the Manipuri community had been found movement was that it had even marked the to be directly involved in the movement. participation of the tea garden labourers Particularly the scattered Manipuri villages in along with the peasants. The garden labourers the nearby areas of Lokhipur, Pailapool, had been mainly the victims of exploitation Kamranga had witnessed maximum done by the colonial planters but in spite of participation of the cultivators belonging to that they had given their unconditional the Manipuri Community. Another support to the Tebhaga Movement. The remarkable feature of the Tebhaga phase in involvement of the ex-tea garden labourers Cachar was that it had marked the with the movement could have been due to participation of the people belonging from the participation of the Communist leaders in the Bishnupriya Manipuri community for the the later phase. Some of the very prominent very first time. Communist leaders of the district had been In the beginning of 1946 when a already associated with the task of the clarion call was given for the starting of a emancipation of tea garden labourer in the massive kind of peasants outburst within the district of Cachar. And once they directly district of Cachar under the dynamic joined the course of the movement, leadership of Hijam Irabot Singh, it was automatically the issue of the garden never expected that even the Bishnupriya labourers also got collaborated with the cause Manipuri community of people would of the suffering peasants. Although this was a support the cause of the poor cultivators and blessing in disguise as that had given extra would take part in the Tebhaga Upsurge. But strength to the voice of the cultivators of the personal visit of Hijam Irabot Singh to Cachar. So, genuinely a movement that Patherkandi in in the early started with the cause of supporting the part of 1946 gave a golden opportunity to rightful demands of the cultivators also to a mobilise the masses of that community in a very special way so as to ascertain their full 92

Recapitulating the Days of Tebhaga Movement in Cachar: ----- Struggle ISSN: 2319-8192 cooperation during the phase of the Achintya Bhattacharjee had been in the movement. The age old unseen barrier that forefront to work for the emancipation of the had existed between the so called Manipuri toiling masses. The only difference that was and the Bishnupriya Manipuri community felt in 1946 was that they had collaborated was dissolved totally. Hijam Irabot Singh, the their ideologies and thoughts with the dynamic leader who had started the work of technique of struggle that was innovated by mobilising had actually started his journey to Hijam Irabot within the district. Very well Silchar from Patherkandi after spending a known communist leader of Cachar district few days at the residence of one Irendra Jiban Banerjee had already been associated Singha who was a close associate of Hijam with the task of emancipating the condition Irabot. of the tea-garden labourers in the scattered tea gardens of Baladhan Tea Estate and Those few days were the most crucial Dwijendralal Sengupta was busy with the phase as that was utilised for convincing the task of giving his full support to Jiban people of the Bishnupriya Manipuri Banerjee in carrying out their tasks. They had community to support the cause of the never given a thought that they would Tebhaga Upsurge. With that the intensity of involve themselves with the Tebhaga upsurge the movement increased to a great extent and that was mainly targeted against the landed that was yet a very important factor that kept aristocrats. But once Irabot Singh started the spirit of the movement at the peak. mobilising the cultivating class of people in Meanwhile the involvement of the tea garden the district, he started associating himself labourers had enabled to ensure the with the senior most communist leaders of participation of the people belonging to the Cachar so as to make a proper blue-print for Hindi-speaking community in the movement. future course of events. Although the Tebhaga Upsurge was directed Moreover, when communism had against the exploitations of the landed class adopted the path of working for the common of people only but somewhere with the masses and eliminate their grievances, they breaking off all sorts of Caste and class could have easily taken up the cause of the barrier the issue was even diverted towards suffering peasants as well. And the Tebhaga the exploitation done by the colonial Upsurge in Cachar ultimately marked the administrators also. This unique feature of collaboration of communistic thoughts with the Tebhaga Upsurge within the district of Hijam Irabot’s technique of struggle. Perhaps Cachar had made it to move towards a this collaboration was a greater factor that different track rather than just following the enabled to bring cultivators from the remotest flow of Tebhaga Movement of Bengal. part of the district and convinced them to take Communist Approach and Tebhaga part in the Tebhaga Movement. Movement in Cachar During this crucial phase many of the The Tebhaga Movement within the remotest villages within the district of Cachar district of Cachar was very closely associated were sub-divided into various belts and the with communist thoughts and ideologies. The task was distributed to the senior communist involvement of communist leaders with this leaders to choose each belt under their peasants upsurge had given a new dimension leadership so as to take forward the task of to the movement. The communist approach mobilisation of the peasants. And without had in a way acted as a catalysing factor that any doubts it can be stated that the hard task greatly intensified the spirit of the movement. of the communist leaders bore fruitful results Particularly talking about the district in and ultimately paved way for a very strong Cachar, the prominent communist leaders peasants unrest within the district of Cachar. like Dwijendralal Sengupta, Jiban Banerjee, Although the most pathetic part of the story is 93

Intellection: A Bi-annual Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. VI, No. I January - June, 2018 that many of the prominent names of senior  Amalendu Guha, ‘Planter Raj to Swaraj’, most communist leaders of the district have New Delhi, 1977. been lost in the darkness of the past in spite  Chanchal Kumar Sharma, ‘Srihotto of contributing in a very dominant way Biplobbad O Communist Andoloner during the Tebhaga phase. Sritiktha’, Calcutta, 1984. Conclusion  L. Chandramani, ‘Manipur Itihaas’, While summing up the overall Imphal, 1970. conclusion from the findings on the Tebhaga  D.N. Dhanagare, ‘Peasants Movement in phase in Cachar district it has to be stated that India (1920-1950)’, Calcutta, 1983. even though the movement had been able to  M.K. Dasgupta, ‘Je Poth Diye Elam’, keep up its spirit for a limited span of time Silchar, 1994. but even within that restricted period the  Giriban Ranjan Biswas, ‘Peasants movement had engulfed the entire district of Movements in North-East India (1946-50)’, Cachar. Participation of the masses Silchar, 2006. particularly the peasants from each and every  A.C. Bhuyan, ‘Political History of community along with the support of the ex- Assam’, Govt. of Assam, 1980. tea garden labourers had greatly intensified the movement. This was for the very first time that an open challenge was thrown to the landed aristocrats who had been unduly taking the advantage of the silence of the cultivating class of people since a long time. And with the involvement of the prominent communist leaders of the district, the Tebhaga Movement paved way for bringing revolutionary changes in the condition of the suffering cultivators. Even though many people do have the notion that the Tebhaga Upsurge of Cachar district was just a repercussion of the Tebhaga Movement of Bengal but nobody can deny this fact that the Tebhaga unrest within the district of Cachar had to some extent maintained its individual identity and this will not be an exaggerated statement to mention that the charismatic leadership of Hijam Irabot Singh with his very strong bonding with the local communist leaders and the unique way of mobilisation of the masses had made the Tebhaga unrest as one of the most massive forms of peasants unrest in the district of Cachar. References  Chanchal Kumar Sharma, ‘Surma Upottokar Krishok O Shromik Andoloner Itihaas’, Calcutta, 1991.  Irom Mangi, ‘Jananeta Mijam Irabot’, Imphal, 2003. 94

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It is for information of all interested researchers that the 12th issue (July – December, 2018) of bi-annual interdisciplinary research journal viz. Intellection (ISSN: 2319-8192) of Barak Education Society will be published tentatively in the month of August, 2018. Therefore, we would like to invite all academicians from various disciplines to contribute research papers for the ensuing issue of Intellection.

It may kindly be noted that the following guidelines are required to be adhered to for this purpose.

1. Research article must be original and unpublished which is to be certified by the author. 2. The title of the article should be appropriate for its contents. The article should be written with proper methodology. 3. There should be keywords, introduction, objective, data analysis, and findings. There must be references furnished as per system of research paper writing. 4. The article should be in 7 to 8 pages printed in A4 size paper and text should be in font size of 12 in Times New Roman with 1.5 spaces on one side with 3 cm margin. 5. The research article must have an abstract of not more than 200 words. 6. The author should take sufficient care in avoiding for spelling and other grammatical mistakes. 7. The author(s) should send the article through e-mail as attachment file. In addition to hard copy may also be required to be sent. 8. A short note about the author should accompany the article which must contain full name, postal and email address, phone Number, academic accomplishment and positions held if any. 9. Maximum two articles in Bengali may be published in this issue on any topic relating to Bengali language and /or literature 10. Article accepted after proper review will be published as per decision of the publication committee. The identity of the reviewer(s) cannot be disclosed. 11. The Editorial Board have every right to reject any research article on reasonable ground.

For further information one may request through email id given below. The last date for submission of full paper to the Editor / Managing Editor is the 15th June, 2018. Dr. A. H. Chaudhury Dr. Baharul Islam Laskar Managing Editor, Editor, Intellection Phone No. 9435370812 Phone No.9435988843 Email id: [email protected] Email id: [email protected]

Published by Central Executive Committee, Barak Education Society, (Regn. No. RS/CA/243/54 of 1997-98), Hailakandi Road, P.O. Meherpur, Silchar- 788015, Assam, India.