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Section 9 Cultural aspects indigenous, minority and regional language names. In and attitudinal aspects of human life at a former point of 2012, this working group was changed to a working time.

group for the issue of geographical names as cultural Cultural heritage is the cultural legacy of past Chapter 25 Place Names and Cultural heritage (Kerfoot, 2015, Watt, 2015). Contributions to generations. This can include tangible products of Heritage in an Archipelagic Country the discussion of culture in UNGEGN are to be found in heritage such as built structures, tools and fabricated various documents resulting from the ten UNGEGN items. It can also include intangible heritage such as Conferences from 1967 to 2012 and other publications folklore, oral history, traditions, language, and Multamia RMT Lauder and Allan F Lauder including Kadmon (2000), UNGEGN (2006) and Helleland indigenous knowledge. Natural heritage, meanwhile (2006). The field of toponymy has experienced a major refers to works of nature with cultural value, with which transformation over the course of the last 20 years. A 25.1 Introduction humans interact meaningfully. Cultural heritage is a variety of new thematic concerns have been explored, product of human action or cognition which is thought

and there is now a far greater recognition that worthy of preservation for the benefit of others and of This chapter looks at the issue of the relationship toponymical research should be firmly grounded in an future generations. between toponymy and cultural heritage in the context explicit engagement with critical theories of space, The rationale behind the idea that cultural heritage has of an Asian archipelagic nation. The chapter is divided place, and landscape (Rose-Redwood et al., 2010: 458). value and is worth preserving is based in the idea that into two parts. Culture covers a wide range of phenomena. In cultural previous generations have produced ideas, knowledge, Part one describes key features of cultural heritage and anthropology two aspects of culture are distinguished. traditions, artifacts and built structures that have value The first is ways of thinking, ideas and values. The the links with toponymical studies and also provides for us as cultural achievements. Heritage helps us to second is behaviors, practices and skills (Eller, 2016: 21, geographical, historical, linguistic and cultural learn from the past by appreciating the development of Haviland et al., 2011: 27). The ‘classic’ qualities of information on insular Southeast Asia with a focus on civilization, of science, of technology and of literature . There we find a high level of diversity in terms culture are that it is learned, not innate; it is a set of norms shared by a community or group; it is a system and the arts. Heritage preservation is about of language, culture and ideology. This has affected the we use to structure the world and give meaning to it; its remembering, understanding and admiring. Three development and use of toponyms in the country. parts function together as an integrated whole; it helps reasons have been put forward for the link between Part two gives a description of a number of place names. us to adapt to the world and thrive; it is in a state of geographical names and a nation’s cultural heritage. These examples represent place names for natural constant change (Nanda and Warms, 2012). Culture can First, geographical names provide information about features, man-made features and administrative also be defined in terms of its mobility, its ability to natural and cultural conditions at the time they were features. They all can be seen to possess cultural move into new geographical or social spaces; is coined and thus represent a memory of places, and this heritage status in some way. Different types of data are produced through human cognition and action in can act as historical documentation. Second, they are specific locations. needed to properly understand their meaning. part of the local language and history. Third, they Place names are names that reflect language-users’ represent a link between communities and their 25.2 Background perception of and relation with their environment. Place environment (Helleland, 2006: 121). names are ‘cultural artifacts’ produced by complex The study of cultural heritage is highly multi-disciplinary. Cultural Heritage and Toponymy interactions between mind, culture and environment Dealing with tangible cultural heritage, such as the Interest in the relationship between cultural heritage (Taylor, 2016: 70). Most place names also have a discovery and preservation of cultural artefacts, and toponymy has grown in UNGEGN since its historical dimension. They were coined at some time in buildings and sites is the business of archaeology, establishment in 1960. In 2002, a working group was the past and reflect the geographical, cultural, cognitive history, heritage management, and heritage tourism. established to address the promotion and use of Intangible cultural heritage, such as oral traditions and

25-1 endangered indigenous languages, can be studied by form of the many languages spoken today. As many as centuries, resulted in complex layers of different analyzing inscriptions or written historical sources. 719 languages have been attested in Indonesia and cultures. The result was often hybrid, recognizable but Natural heritage meanwhile is studied in geography, about two thirds of all of these share a common unique. In addition, it led to the blurring of cultural and ecology, geo-diversity and eco-tourism. Cultural heritage ancestral language and belong to the Austronesian geographic boundaries. also involves the study of law with respect to the language family, the remainder being part of the Papuan With the arrival of the Europeans in the , the establishment and enforcement of rights, and of conflict language family (Lauder and Lauder, 2015). existing shipping networks decreased in importance as studies and criminology for the illegal trading and the Portuguese and Dutch took over the trading routes, destruction of cultural heritage. The history of East and Southeast Asia shows that monopolizing the profits from the sale of spices and people were travelling by sea for exploration, for trade other products to Europe. As a result, the previously UNESCO has played an important role in the definition of and diplomacy as far back as the Greco-Roman period prosperous coastal towns become impoverished and the what cultural heritage is and how it should be preserved. when spices and other goods were shipped as far as the Indonesians lost their memory of being sea-going people The 2003 UNESCO Convention on the Safeguarding of present day Middle East. The different routes were part (Tanudirjo, 2006). From the 17th until the 20th century the Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICHC) has been seen as of the Sea Spice Route or Maritime Silk Road which the influence of the Dutch - first as trading company, a significant departure from previous conventions as the existed in parallel with the Silk Road. The early later as colonial power, increased. During their intangible aspects of cultural heritage are given Indonesians were engaged in trade and were part of the hegemony, the upper echelons of society were schooled precedence over its physical manifestations such as maritime spice trade routes that linked China, Southeast in Dutch and traces of Dutch can be found in place movable cultural property, monuments and sites (Blake, Asia, India, Africa, and the Middle East. Cosmopolitan names. During WWII, the Japanese took over the 2009: 45-46). It has also offered some protection for the settlements sprung up around the coastal areas of the country. The Japanese did not leave much of a trace endangered languages of small indigenous communities South China Sea, Sea and Strait. These linguistically. Today, global English dominates and is and their oral traditions, arts, social practices and coastal ports were the hubs of the trade networks permeating many aspects of modern life, including place traditions. All of these are part of their intangible connecting islands and continents from as early as the names. cultural heritage and relevant to toponymy (Marrie, first century. Over time, the region submitted to the 2009: 169-170). unifying force of a series of kingdoms. Since its independence in 1945, the country has a Among these kingdoms were the Hindu-Buddhist language policy that promotes a single unifying 25.3 as an Archipelagic and (600-1290 AD) which controlled the trading language, the national language Indonesian (Bahasa Multicultural Nation routes of the Malacca Strait and Java Sea and the Indonesia) but which also supports the maintenance and kingdom which was founded in Java and preservation of the regional indigenous languages. While The peopling of the archipelago, the arrival of modern lasted from the late 13th century to around 1500 and the worldwide trend for indigenous languages is the day humans, got underway 50,000 years ago. The territory extended from the southern Malay Peninsula, existential threat from globalization and modernity, descendants of these early people are today mostly to Borneo, and . leading to loss of speakers of small languages, local found in the east of the country. However, the majority The Indonesian archipelago was open to the inflows of languages in Indonesia still form part of the tapestry of of today’s population are descended from a group of new cultural influences. These were brought by the diversity that exists alongside the national language and people known as the Austronesians, whose homeland foreigners who stayed in coastal ports, and over time foreign languages. The language situation plays an was in Taiwan around 5,000 years ago (Bellwood et al., they were adopted, and spread. But they were also important part in the unique situation for place names in 2006). They possessed seafaring skills that allowed them absorbed, nurtured and transformed through contacts the country. to move from island to island and they spread with existing local cultures. This process, when seen over throughout the region. These peoples spoke an ancestral

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25.4 Place Names The methodology for a multidisciplinary study of features, building names or administrative areas toponymical cultural heritage based on various written (Damais, 1970). sources might consider the following: This section provides a number of examples of Textual evidence can often be profitably augmented or significant Indonesian place names. Examples for three 1. Identify references to old maps, manuscripts and verified by site visits to historical or archaeological sites. types of geographical names are given: Names of natural stone inscriptions, history, folk tales, myths, in the Some examples of place name studies in Indonesia are features, built features and administrative areas. All of search for new data; given here. 2. Explore descriptions of historical activities in old these can be said to represent Indonesian cultural 25.5 Geographical Names for Natural Features heritage. In the case of , this is also a heritage manuscripts and stone inscriptions and use these site recognized by UNESCO. to clarify and expand on existing descriptions; Gunung Krakatau / Mountain All of them have names that were coined at some point 3. Interpret and explain activities and affairs based on The name Krakatoa is known around the world due to in the past and which may have experienced changes the textual and archaeological data, in particular the massive volcanic eruption in 1883 (Winchester, over time. In order to study such names in a nation with attempting to throw light on the network and 2003). The island and the volcano on it are situated in a complex culture that has been built in layers from finding out how they bind together different the between Java and Sumatra. The earliest influences from different cultures and languages, the geographical and political centers into a larger mention of it is in an old Javanese manuscript Pustaka methodology must first of all consider historical sources. civilizational entity; and make connections Raja, The Book of Kings, which describes a volcanic The field of historical geography lies at the intersection between these findings and the meaning. eruption on a Mount Batuwara in 416 AD, which is of geography and history. It studies the way Written sources from the past include inscriptions on almost certainly a reference to Krakatoa. Other geographical phenomena have changed over time. A stone or other material, and manuscripts or codex. eruptions took place in 535 AD and 1620. proper understanding of historical geography is best These may contain place names and descriptions of Since 1927, a new volcano has become active and a based on a review of earlier sources Starting point them, information on where they were located and on volcanic cone has been growing. This is known as Anak usually is the physical environment, as created by activities or events that occurred there in the past. Place Krakatoa, lit. Child of Krakatoa. geology, botany and climate, influenced by social, names in manuscripts may refer to places that still exist Although there are earlier descriptions of an island in cultural, and technological factors as well as by people’s or whose location still can be traced. They may also personalities and individual choices. include places where the area has changed leaving little Their study requires careful consideration of historical, physical evidence of that place in the present, and thus geographic, political, and cultural dimensions. It is provide clues for academic work to rediscover those necessary to consider the textual sources that may be places. available. In this case, they include texts in classical There are relatively few authoritative toponymical Javanese, classical Chinese, old Portuguese and old studies in Indonesia. However, one important example Dutch, as well as texts in a number of other foreign of the study of place names in ancient Javanese languages, including English and indigenous languages inscriptions is the monumental onomastics directory of such as Sundanese, Balinese, and Malay. These need to Javanese epigraphy by the Frenchman Louis-Charles be investigated in order to identify and then describe Damais. This systematically presents in its 1025 pages and explain the different toponyms which are the object the findings of a study that took about 11 years (1955- of the study. 1966) on anthroponyms and toponyms for geographical Figure 25-1 Anak Krakatau

25-3 the Sunda Strait with a “pointed mountain,” the earliest mention of Krakatoa by name in the western world was on a 1611 map by , who labeled the island “Pulo Carcata” (pulo is the Sundanese word for “island”). The first known appearance of the spelling Krakatau was by Wouter Schouten, who passed by “the high tree-covered island of Krakatau” in October 1658 (Winchester, 2003: 27). Krakatau could have its origins in karka or karkata or karkataka, meaning “lobster” or “crab”. also means “crab” in old Javanese. This is considered the most likely origin. The 's Global Volcanism Program cites the local name, Krakatau, as the correct name, but says that Krakatoa is often employed. While Krakatoa is more common in the English-speaking world, Krakatau tends to be favored by geologists. Figure 25-2 Model of Shipyard on Pulau Onrust/ Onrust Island Onrust Island is one of a chain of 110 islands called the Thousand Islands (Kepulauan Seribu) which stretch 45 ships owned by the Government and km north from the West Bay into the Java Sea. private sector could be repaired. Because of the Onrust Island is 3,5 km2 in size and is located 14 km from the Jakarta coast. It is important historically and eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 and the construction of a culturally because it played an important role for the new port in in Batavia, larger and better Dutch as part of their defenses of the city of Batavia equipped for ship repair and ship building, Onrust Island (now Jakarta). The got went into decline. permission in 1610 from the Prince of Jayakarta to build a naval base there. Its later Malay name Pulau Kapal After this, it was used as a quarantine station and as a (Ship Island) was given because of this function; it hospital for sufferers of tuberculosis (TB). Between 1911 Figure 25-3 Old Fort on Onrust Island appeared for the first time alongside the name Onrust and 1933, it was also used to quarantine people who (“unrest”), given by the Dutch, on a 1761 chart of planned to go to Mecca to perform their Hajj. In 1972, Batavia Bay by Gerrit de Haan. when Ali Sadikin was Governor of Jakarta, the island was 25.6 Geographical Names for Built Features After being destroyed by the British in the Napoleonic identified as a protected historical site. Indonesians continue to name the island Onrust to remind us of its Jalan Malioboro / Malioboro Street wars, the Dutch rebuilt Onrust Island as a place where cultural and historical value. Malioboro, is a street in , an area with the status of a Special Province, which is situated in central

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Java. Its special status rests on it being to this day the (Beringharjo Market) also takes its name from the temple was designed in Javanese Buddhist seat of the where the present something said by the Sultan ‘bèr ing raharja’ which architecture, which blends the Indonesian indigenous also holds the position of Provincial Governor. means ‘full of prosperity’ (penuh dengan kesejahteran). cult of ancestor worship and the Buddhist concept of There are a number of hypotheses about the origins of the name Malioboro. The first of these is that it derives from the name of John Churchill, First Duke of Marlborough (1650-1722), whose victories in Europe on behalf of the joint British/Dutch forces against the French were thus commemorated. Carey (2015) dismisses this. He points out that Malioboro is a main thoroughfare used for ceremonial processions by the royal family on special days. On such occasions, Malioboro Street is decorated with flower garlands according to the traditions of the royal house. Carey claims that Malioboro is most likely to have derived from the Sanskrit word mâlyabhârin which means ‘decorated with flower garlands’.

Another theory of the etymology of Malioboro can be found in Suratminto (2016). Mataram was an agrarian kingdom. The population were not expert in trade. The Sultan, concerned that his people should not fall behind the times, encouraged them to embrace the practice of trading. The Indonesian word ‘berdagang’ (trade) is ‘boro’ in Javanese. The Sultan gave the following instruction in Javanese to his people, ‘sira kabèh sing manggon nèng kéné maliha boro ing pasar gedhé iki kang bèr ing raharja.’ which can be translated as ‘all of you staying here, shift from farming to trading in this attaining Nirvana. The monument is both a shrine to the large market full of benefits’. In this way, the Sultan’s Figure 25-4 Malioboro Street (with the street name sign Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. use of the word ‘maliha boro’ means ‘shift from farming also in ) Borobudur has the largest and most complete ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the world. The monument was to trading’ and this word experienced a sound change to Candi Borobudur / Borobudur Temple become ‘malioboro’. The street took this name as it was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Candi Borobudur (Borobudur Temple) is a 9th-century a busy main road on either side of which were shops and The Borobudur temple was mentioned in the Mahayana Buddhist temple in Magelang, , traders. In addition, traditional markets nearby Karangtengah inscription dated 824 and Tri Tepusan Indonesia, as well as the world’s largest Buddhist Malioboro were widely known and still are in operation inscription, dated 842. The only old Javanese manuscript temple. Built during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty, to this day. The biggest of these, Pasar Beringharjo that refers to a monument called Budur as a holy

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Buddhist sanctuary is Nagarakertagama, written by Mpu Prapanca, a Buddhist scholar of the Majapahit court, in 1365 (Moens, 1951: 326-386). In the form of a poetic eulogy for the monarch , it provides an excellent description of and temples and ceremonial observances. Borobudur is Indonesia’s single most visited tourist attraction. However, Borobudur is still used for religious ceremonies. Once a year, Buddhists in Indonesia celebrate Vesak at the monument.

The origins of the name Borobudur, however, are unclear. The original names of most ancient Indonesian temples are no longer known (Soekmono, 1976: 13, 2005). The name Borobudur first appears as ‘Boro Bodo’ in a manuscript map of Java by J.A. Dubois (Kaart van eiland Java, 1811. Figure 25-5 Borobudur temple fifteenth century maps in Latin. We can conclude that Manuscript, ARA, MIKO 73); this map was later engraved these place names were known at that time as far away 25.7 Geographical Names for Administrative and printed for Sir Thomas Raffles' book on Javanese history as Europe and that was also an international Features published in 1817 (Raffles, 1965) in which he likewise refers harbor during the period from the tenth to the to the ‘Ruins of Boro Bodo’. There are no older documents Kota Cirebon / Cirebon City fourteenth centuries (Ricklefs, 2001: 104). During suggesting the same name (Soekmono, 1976: 13). Cirebon is a port city located on the north coast of Java Cirebon’s golden age, in the fifteenth century, it was one Another possible etymology suggests that Borobudur is a nearly 300 km east of Jakarta. The city today has a corrupted simplified local Javanese pronunciation of Biara population of around 300,000 people who are made up Beduhur written in Sanskrit as Vihara Buddha Uhr. The term Buddha-Uhr could mean “the city of Buddhas”, while of Javanese, Sundanese and Chinese ethnolinguistic another possible term Beduhur is probably an Old Javanese groups. It is also the seat of an Islamic Sultanate that term, still surviving today in Balinese, referring to “a high goes back to the 15th century. There are in fact two place”. The morphology is constructed from the stem palaces (keraton) today. These are the Keraton dhuhur or luhur (high). This would mean that Borobudur Kasepuhan Cirebon and Keraton Kanoman Cirebon. means vihara (meeting place of monks) of the Buddha Cirebon has a long history of being a major port and located on a high place or on a hill. center for trade, shipping and the spread of in Java. We know from archaeological evidence from a sunken ship, that the name Cirebon goes back to at least the tenth century. The names Cĕrbon and Charabao appear Figure 25-6 on fourteenth century maps written in Javanese and on

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example of a Chinese exonym for Cirebon can be found coconut trees that lined the shore. Tomé Pires called it in the book Shun-fêng hsiang-sung (A good wind as a Cunda Calapa or Sunda Kalapa and wrote in 1515 that companion) which describes sea voyages between the ‘the Port of Kalapa belongs to the ’. In fifteenth and seventeenth centuries from China to Shun- 1527, Sunda Kalapa was captured by troops of the t’a (Sunda) with one going via Che-li-wen (Cirebon). and the port fell under its ruler. Sunda Kota Jakarta / The City of Jakarta Kelapa was renamed Jayakarta meaning ‘victory’ or The city of Jakarta is the country’s Special Capital Region ‘absolute wellbeing’. The city name is recorded in and is the country’s political, economic and cultural numerous documents with variation in spelling: center. It is located on the northwest coast of Java Jayakarta, Jaketra, Jakerta, and Jakarta. Island. It has, over the years, had a number of names, namely , Jayakarta and Batavia. The Netherlands recognized the economic potential of Its original name was Sunda Kalapa. The etymology of trade through Jayakarta, in particular its trade in pepper Figure 25-7 Inside the Keraton Kasepuhan Cirebon this name comes from the Malay word for coconut and other spices which they wanted to gain a monopoly ‘kelapa’. The area was a major port in the kingdom of on. In 1602, the ruler of Jayakarta, Prince Wijayakrama of the most important ports of call on the sea routes for Sunda Pajajaran where the area’s name took after the encouraged international trading activities. He gave the the spice trade and maritime Silk Road. British and the Some work has been done to determine the etymology Dutch permission and the meaning of the place name Cirebon. The name to establish a appears with variant spellings in a number of old trading station on manuscripts. There is more than one explanation of its the west bank of origins and we present some of them here. The toponym the River Cirebon village (Dukuh Cirebon) appears in the text estuary. Many Babad Tanah Sunda (1447). Also, the name appears with Chinese merchants the variant spelling Cheroboam in a Portuguese text by built houses Tomé Pires called Summa Oriental (1513–1515) (Pires around the fort. and , 1990). In the text Sejarah Cirebon, it is Jayakarta explained that the meaning of the village named developed into a Cairebonan is derived from cai/air rebon or shrimp paste busy port city. broth, possibly referring to a cooked dish consisting of small shrimp (rebon) boiled in a broth and concentrated Figure 25-8 Jakarta (air rebon yang diberi bumbu petis). The name Cirebon today 1 appears in the manuscript Carita Purwaka (1720 M) which suggests that the name evolved through a process of sound change from Carbon and then Caruban. An

1 This date comes from the appendix in Pelabuhan Muara Jati Cirebon.

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The Dutch were determined to dominate the trade and its many canals eventually, Jayakarta fell into the hands of the Dutch dug by the Dutch, ‘The Venice of the East’ Venetië in het Oosten’. During the Japanese occupation in WWII, the name Batavia was changed back to Jayakarta or Jakarta through a Government News Announcement of the Japanese Military Government Kang Po No. 9 Figure 25-10 Former Town Hall (Stadhuis) of December 8, 1942 (Ruchiat, 2011). Up till the present, Batavia/Jakarta Jakarta has been the name of Indonesia’s capital. Figure 25-9 Portrait of Jan Pieterszoon Coen, founder of with human perceptions, Krakatoa certainly qualifies. the city of Batavia The names of built features such as Malioboro Street and Borobudur both have complex histories involving East India company (VOC). When the Dutch Governor 25.8 Conclusion different cultures and languages, but Malioboro, a street General J. Coen (see figure 25-9) was in charge of the name in Yogyakarta, is fascinating because of the city, on 30th May 1619, he ordered the construction of a It can be seen from the few examples of toponyms given different possible hypotheses about its origin. fort and a new urban area which he first wanted to in this chapter that cultural heritage is not a monolithic name Hoorn, after his home town in the Netherlands. Names of administrative features are especially shaped concept. While Borobudur is recognized as a world The board of the VOC, called the Council of Seventeen by the periods of history that they were found in and in cultural heritage site, the natural feature Krakatoa is not. ‘De Heeren Zeventien’ which sat in Amsterdam, however the kinds of data used to understand them. However, it has made a strong impression on the minds renamed Jayakarta Batavia, after the ancestors of all the Archaeological evidence is strengthened greatly by the of all who know the story of its great eruption and the Dutch, the ancient Germanic tribe of the Batavi. In the existence of textual evidence from different countries effect on people still resonates today. In the sense that 18th century the city was described as beautiful and including travel journals and reports. cultural heritage can include landscapes that interact became known as ‘The Queen of the East’ or, because of

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This chapter has focused on cultural heritage from a française d'Extrême-Orient. Paris: École française 2nd Edition. Belmont, CA: Cengage historical, geographical perspective, and drawn its data d'Extrême-Orient. Learning/Wadsworth. from archaeological or textual sources. However, in -Eller, Jack David (2016) Cultural Anthropology: Global -Pires, Tomé, and Rodrigues, Francisco (1990) The Suma Indonesia there is another large repository of examples Forces, Local Lives. 3rd Edition. New York: Routledge. oriental of Tomé Pires [1515] and the Book of Francisco -Haviland, William A., Prins, Harald E. L., McBride, Bunny, Rodrigues. ed. Armando Cortesao. New Delhi: Asian that there was no space to mention, that of the creation and Walrath, Dana (2011) Cultural Anthropology: The Educational Services. of place names for natural features from many of the Human Challenge. Thirteenth Edition. 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