Virtual Pop: Gender, Ethnicity, and Identity in Virtual Bands and Vocaloid Alicia Stark Cardiff University School of Music 2018 Presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Musicology TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT i DEDICATION iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv INTRODUCTION 7 EXISTING STUDIES OF VIRTUAL BANDS 9 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 13 METHODOLOGY 19 THESIS STRUCTURE 30 CHAPTER 1: ‘YOU’VE COME A LONG WAY, BABY:’ THE HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGIES OF VIRTUAL BANDS 36 CATEGORIES OF VIRTUAL BANDS 37 AN ANIMATED ANTHOLOGY – THE RISE IN POPULARITY OF ANIMATION 42 ALVIN AND THE CHIPMUNKS… 44 …AND THEIR SUCCESSORS 49 VIRTUAL BANDS FOR ALL AGES, AVAILABLE ON YOUR TV 54 VIRTUAL BANDS IN OTHER TYPES OF MEDIA 61 CREATING THE VOICE 69 REPRODUCING THE BODY 79 CONCLUSION 86 CHAPTER 2: ‘ALMOST UNREAL:’ TOWARDS A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR VIRTUAL BANDS 88 DEFINING REALITY AND VIRTUAL REALITY 89 APPLYING THEORIES OF ‘REALNESS’ TO VIRTUAL BANDS 98 UNDERSTANDING MULTIMEDIA 102 APPLYING THEORIES OF MULTIMEDIA TO VIRTUAL BANDS 110 THE VOICE IN VIRTUAL BANDS 114 AGENCY: TRANSFORMATION THROUGH TECHNOLOGY 120 CONCLUSION 133 CHAPTER 3: ‘INSIDE, OUTSIDE, UPSIDE DOWN:’ GENDER AND ETHNICITY IN VIRTUAL BANDS 135 GENDER 136 ETHNICITY 152 CASE STUDIES: DETHKLOK, JOSIE AND THE PUSSYCATS, STUDIO KILLERS 159 CONCLUSION 179 CHAPTER 4: ‘SPITTING OUT THE DEMONS:’ GORILLAZ’ CREATION STORY AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF AUTHENTICITY 181 ACADEMIC DISCOURSE ON GORILLAZ 187 MASCULINITY IN GORILLAZ 191 ETHNICITY IN GORILLAZ 200 GORILLAZ FANDOM 215 CONCLUSION 225 CHAPTER 5: ‘ALL ALONE:’ NOODLE’S ROLE WITHIN GORILLAZ 227 NOODLE’S BACKGROUND 228 NOODLE AS SONGWRITER, PRODUCER, AND LEAD GUITARIST 231 ALBARN AND HEWLETT: MODERN-DAY ORIENTALISTS? 241 NOODLE AND ORIENTALISM 243 FRAMEWORK OF ORIENTALIST THEORY 246 SIGNIFICATION AND INTENTION 252 CONCLUSION 259 CHAPTER 6: ‘TRANSIENT FUTURE:’ THE RISE OF VOCALOID 261 THE PURPOSE OF VOCALOID 262 THE ORIGINS OF VOCALOID AND VOCALOID 263 ANIME, MANGA, AND JAPANESE INFLUENCE 270 FEMALE VOCALOIDS AND IMAGE CONSTRUCTION: CREATING VIRTUAL POP PRINCESSES 283 VOCALOIDS IN PERFORMANCE: TECHNOLOGY LEADS HUMANITY 296 VOCALOID FANS: UNPRECEDENTED INTERACTION WITH CELEBRITY 304 CONCLUSION 308 CHAPTER 7: ‘PERPETUAL DEVOTION:’ VOCALOID FAN COMMUNITIES 310 FAN SURVEY RESULTS 312 CULTURAL CAPITAL 314 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS FOR FAN STUDIES 317 PSYCHOANALYSIS, FANTASY, AND THE PERFECT POP STAR 331 CONCLUSION 339 CONCLUSION 342 FUTURE DIRECTIONS 354 BIBLIOGRAPHY 359 APPENDIX A: TABLE OF VIRTUAL BANDS 377 APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW WITH JOEY DAVID (CREATOR) AND UNO (BASS PLAYER) OF MISTULA 380 APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW WITH VOCALOID PRODUCER AKI GLANCY 383 APPENDIX D: SELECTED ANSWERS FROM SURVEY POSTED TO FBGROUPA 387 Stark i Abstract Virtual bands have been present in popular culture for decades, and they have become the topic of increased scholarly interest over the past few years. Despite this new work, however, there remains a need for more in- depth critical studies into gender and ethnicity in virtual phenomena, as this approach promises to open up new areas of enquiry. Focussing on questions of gender and ethnicity, my thesis will investigate the mechanics through which identity is constructed in animated, puppet, and hologram virtual band characters. My thesis will draw on a range of empirical, theoretical, and ethnographic approaches in order to analyse how and to what extent virtual band characters are created and disseminated by those in the industry, on the one hand, and by fans, on the other. In particular, I consider this question through the concepts of agency (perceived and attributed), authorship, and authenticity, and in relation to the notion of suspension of disbelief, examining ways in which animation affords greater potential for forms of ‘layered awareness.’ Following a historical overview of virtual bands, and a critical appraisal of relevant theoretical perspectives on this topic, the thesis moves to a close reading of two case studies that reinforce and subvert gender and ethnic stereotypes commonly found in popular culture: Gorillaz and Vocaloid. These examples present different aspects of identity construction in virtual media, the former apparently led by the band’s creators, the other by its fans. Within Gorillaz, my discussion centres around the female guitarist Noodle, Stark ii who, I will argue, is a modern-day Orientalist construction. By contrast, the chapters on Vocaloid draw on fan studies techniques to show that Vocaloid’s fan base contains a large, unexpected demographic, and that part of the fans’ dedication stems from their confirmed expectations of gender and ethnic identity in the Vocaloid characters. Stark iii Dedication Dedicated to my supportive, generous family, who has helped me to achieve this goal through all my years, not just the last five. For Mom, Dad, Nathan, Tiffany, Lila, Cole, Meri, and Lacie. I love you to the moon and back. Stark iv Acknowledgements A very special thanks to my supervisor, Dr David Beard, who guided me on each step in this journey, and always made me feel that my insights were valuable and worthwhile. Thank you for seeing me through this PhD. Special thanks to my secondary supervisor, Dr Sarah Hill, for your popular music wisdom and your humour. Special thanks to Dr Rachel Cowgill, who was also integral as my first secondary supervisor. Your help in the early days was and is much appreciated. To Tom, I don’t know how I would have made it through all of this without you, especially the last year. You’ve upheld me and encouraged me continuously, and I am so grateful. I love you. To Anne, Michael, Peter, Joseph (and Amelia, Toby, and Katy), thank you for being my home away from home, and for being my family. To Matt, Patrick, Ruth, Emily, Rachelle, Chris, Hannah, Joanna, Michelle, Laura, Sajjaad, the Cardiff Music PGRs, and all my friends and colleagues, thank you for indulging me and talking about Alvin and the Chipmunks with me at length. Stark 7 Introduction When investigating various types of popular music, I have always gravitated towards studying music that I enjoy. This habit led me to the subject of this thesis; as my interests in many aspects of popular music studies grew, I failed to find much discourse on one of my favourite bands: Gorillaz. It seemed strange to me then, in 2012, that this fascinating band, with its unorthodox characters, exuberant catalogue, and unique backstory, was rarely viewed through a theoretical lens (although this situation has since changed, as will be detailed in this Introduction and elsewhere in this thesis).1 As I continued to hunt for information on Gorillaz, I noticed that virtual bands in general were underrepresented in scholarship, especially in the field of popular musicology, where I found only passing references to bands like Alvin and the Chipmunks, the Banana Splits, and a few others. Perhaps these bands were considered too childish or too insignificant to merit enquiry. But the more I considered such bands and their far-reaching (and sometimes long-lasting) impact on society, I felt that there was something important to be investigated. I wanted to understand the appeal of these bands – why fans identify with them, the mechanisms of this appeal, and the relationship 1 As will be discussed later in this Introduction, an article by John Richardson was one of the only pieces of literature available about Gorillaz at the time this project began, and it greatly influenced my work. John Richardson, ‘“The Digital Won’t Let Me Go”: Constructions of the Virtual and the Real in Gorillaz’ “Clint Eastwood”,’ Journal of Popular Music Studies, 17:1 (2005), pp. 1–29. See also John Richardson, ‘The Surrealism of Virtual Band Gorillaz: “Clint Eastwood” and “Feel Good Inc.”,’ in An Eye for Music: Popular Music and the Audiovisual Surreal (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), pp. 201–239. Stark 8 between virtuality and ‘popular culture.’2 Aspects of certain virtual bands have caused fans to embrace the characters as autonomous musicians, and in certain cases, have resulted in great commercial success. Virtual bands have become a staple in many cultures. For reasons explained later in this chapter, however, my focus will be on virtual bands in the West, primarily the United States and Western Europe. Appendix A is a randomly compiled list of 100 examples of virtual bands from America and Europe, which includes several household names. While this only serves as anecdotal evidence for the importance and widespread nature of virtual bands in the West, they have been an active presence in Western popular culture for over sixty years. It should be noted, however, that virtuality in popular music often includes connections in some way with Japan and other parts of East Asia, either through the technology that it uses, or through (mis)appropriations of artistic practices conceived within that region. This thesis is alert to this complex relationship between East and West, as discussed especially in chapters 5 through 7. 2 I use the term ‘popular culture’ above in a general sense, but it is a complex construction. Cultural theorist Stuart Hall explains that the idea is tied to consumerism and capitalism; therefore, popular culture is not a true reflection of the tastes of ‘the people.’ Taste is shaped through cultural power, which is most often wielded by those in political or financial power. However, ‘the people’ at any class level includes individuals who can certainly think for themselves. For this reason, elements of popular culture also reflect what is popular amongst the masses. The instruments of cultural power cannot wholly control ‘the people,’ just as ‘the people’ can never fully escape the influence of cultural tastemakers. Hall’s ideas inform my use of the term ‘popular culture,’ especially in relation to the formation of gender and ethnic expectations within Western popular culture. See Stuart Hall, ‘Notes on Deconstructing “the Popular”,’ in Cultural Theory and Popular Culture: A Reader, ed.