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Between Caravan and Sultan: the Bayruk of Southern Morocco Studies in the History and Society of the Maghrib

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Between Caravan and Sultan: the Bayruk of Southern Morocco Studies in the History and Society of the Maghrib Between Caravan and Sultan: The Bayruk of Southern Morocco Studies in the History and Society of the Maghrib Series Editors Amira K. Bennison, University of Cambridge Léon Buskens, University of Leiden Houari Touati, École des hautes études en sciences sociales, Paris VOLUME 1 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.nl/shsm Between Caravan and Sultan: The Bayruk of Southern Morocco A Study in History and Identity By Mohamed Hassan Mohamed LEIDEN • BOSTON 2012 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Mohamed, Mohamed Hassan, 1959- Between caravan and sultan : the Bayruk of southern Morocco, a study in history and identity / by Mohamed Hassan Mohamed. p. cm. — (Studies in the history and society of the Maghrib ; v.1) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-90-04-18379-7 (hardback : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 90-04-18379-5 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Bayruk family. 2. Group identity—Morocco. 3. Morocco—Civilization. 4. Morocco—Ethnic relations. 5. Morocco—Commerce—History. 6. Caravans—Morocco—History. 7. Slave trade— Morocco—HIstory. I. Title. II. Series: Studies in the history and society of the Maghrib ; v.1. CS1749.B39 2012 305.800964—dc23 2011042138 This publication has been typeset in the multilingual “Brill” typeface. With over 5,100 characters covering Latin, IPA, Greek, and Cyrillic, this typeface is especially suitable for use in the humanities. For more information, please see www.brill.nl/brill-typeface. ISSN 1877-9808 ISBN 978 90 04 18379 7 (hardback) ISBN 978 90 04 18382 7 (e-book) Copyright 2012 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Global Oriental, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper. contents v Contents Preface and Acknowledgements. vii Note on Transliteration . ix Glossary . xi Maps . xvii Introduction: The Bayruk and the Academy . 1 Casualties of Translation . 3 Scope: Sources and Outline of Chapters. 12 I History, Identity and Textuality. 19 History: Dynasty, Caravan and Qabila . 24 Identity: Primordialist and Discursive Paradigms . 46 Textuality: Modern Tribe, Postmodern Qabila . 51 II Antique Space, Upstart Qabila. 63 Subaltern Voices: Takna Narratives . 66 Lure of Antiquity: Ethnography. 70 From Moor to Tribe: Travelogue . 83 For Caravan and Sultan: Biographies . 100 “Taught by the Pen”: Prelude to Takna? . 104 “In the Company of the Sultan”: Suturing. 125 III A Futuristc Past: Archeology of the Bayruk . 144 Colonial Ethnography, Pre-colonial History . 147 Speaking for Ancestry: The Bayruk Narrative . 151 Tuwat: Space, History and Identity. 159 Merits of Silence, Perils of Revelation . 174 Becoming Takna: Spatiality and Textuality . 201 IV Caravan of the Bayruk . 211 In the Shadow of the Caravan . 213 Caravan of the Author: Metaphors of Power . 223 Rites of “Holy Cause”: Caravan of Slaves . 238 Caravan of the Bayruk: Gum and Khunt . 256 vi contents V Spoils of War, Bounties of Trade . 278 Creatures of the Dynasty . 281 Benevolent Displacement: Ubaydallah “the Fugitive” . 286 Adjutants of Sultans: Haha Qaid, Susian Trader. 297 Avid Trader, Reluctant Warrior: Shaykh Bayruk . 304 Passage to Europe: ‘Legitimate’ Trade, Forbidden Markets . 310 End of an Era: Wealth in Politics? . 322 Conclusion: Casualties of Translation, Fetters of Textuality. 336 Bibliography . 347 Index . 357 preface and acknowledgements vii preface And Acknowledgements This book is an inquiry into the history and identity of a Moroccan family called the Bayruk. In current academic treatises, the Bayruk history is articulated in terms of their affiliation with a community called the Takna, involvement in the caravan trade and interaction with the sultans of their time. The book identifies a set of splits in scholarly conceptions of the history of the Bayruk and the Takna. The Takna are classified as tribes and routinely situated outside the Moroccan dynastic realm. Yet, the dynasty is the main point of reference for the location of the Bayruk in space and time. In the same literature the Bayruk also come across as slave traders and adjutants of the Moroccan court. Alternatively, the Bayruk were seekers of direct access to European markets and, in this instance, they become soul mates of ‘free’ traders. They defied the Alawite prohibition of trade with Europeans beyond the southernmost Moroccan port at the time, Essaouira. I attributed these splits to two contingent problems of translation and conception that I traced back to the nine- teenth century. These splits are, I suggest, symptomatic of differences in the textual traditions informing academic conceptions of Maghribian his- torical experiences and modes of identification. In short, the ultimate cul- prit behind such splits and, by default, the mangled face of the Bayruk is textuality. For example, the translation of the Arabic term qabila to tribe led to the investiture of the Takna with the kind of atavisms that also entailed their insulation from ‘institutions’ like the dynasty, the sultan, and networks of trade, the caravan. The main casualty of this projection is the history of the space the Takna call home: the historic al-Sus in general and Wady Nun in particular. In the realm of conception, textuality enabled post-colonial Africanists to retain the abolitionists’ conflation of negritude with servitude, and the caravan with slave trading. Entrapment in the abolitionist template spawned the split between the presentation of the Bayruk as slave traders and autarkic tribesmen. In both cases, the Bayruk come across as a metaphor for the ‘thing’ and its opposite. I sought to recover such ‘casualties’ of translation and, hence, the shifts in the Bayruk mode of interaction with the two main agents of their history: the dynasty and caravan. viii preface and acknowledgements This book was inspired by the research I have done for my PhD disser- tation. It could not have assumed its present form without help from an inexhaustible list of creditors. Dr. Peter Bietenholz and his wife Doris have been a source of continuous support. At the University of Alberta, I would like to thank Dr. Andrew Gow and Dr. Guy Thompson of the Department of History and Classics. Gow regaled me with examples of the role of textuality in both the production of “imaginary peoples” and their simultaneous location beyond the gaze of the author or his audi- ence. Thompson shared his insights on identification in a different corner of the globe we call Africa. In Rabat, Morocco, I would like to express my gratitude to the archivists at al-khizana al-ʿama and its erudite director at the time Dr. Ahmed Toufiq. I am also indebted to Dr. Mustafa Naimi of the Institute of African Studies. In Agadir, the family of my colleague, Mohamed Nouhi, made me feel at home. I would like to thank his brother Yusuf and sister Selka. I am also indebted to Dr. Shafiq Arfaq of Ibn Zohr University. In Gulimeme, I would like to thank my gracious host for two months, Muhammad Maalʿainine, who insisted that I ‘set camp’ in the spacious zawiya of his grandfather. To all of these people, and those I have failed to mention, this is the “fruit” of your goodness. volume forword ix NOTE ON TRANSLITERATION For the transliteration of Arabic terms, I utilized the formula used in the main publication of the Faculty of Arts and Humanities, the University of Mohammed V: Hesperis Tamuda. In so far as names of dynasties and places are concerned, however, I retained the Anglicized terms current in the historiography of the Maghrib: Almoravids, Marinids, Saʿdians, Alawites, Shiites, Marrakech etc. Arabic and Berber terms and what they signify in Morocco are explained either on the spot (between brackets), or footnotes and in the glossary. ﺽ ḍ ء (ʾ (hamza ﻁ ṭ ﺂ Ā ﻅ ẓ ﺏ B ﻉ (ʿ (ayn ﺕ T ﻍ Gh ﺙ Th ﻑ F ﺝ J ﻕ Q ح ḥ ﻙ K ﺥ Kh ل L ﺩ D ﻡ M ﺫ Dh ﻥ N ﺭ R ﻫ H ﺯ Z ﻭ W ﺱ S ى Y ﺵ Sh ﺹ ṣ glossary xi GLOSsaRY ʾahl Arabic: family (of), people (of). amir Arabic: commander, leader, prince. aʿrab Arabic: derogatory variant of Arab, wayward, uncouth Arabian —singular aʿrabi. Ait Shilha: like Id, progeny of, people of. The terms are usually used as equivalents of the Arabic banu (bani), awlad and dhawi—sons of, people of. Awlad Dulaym Arabic: A Saharan, Arabic-speaking, group in the area between (today) southern Morocco and northern Mauritania. ʿasabiya Arabic: (v. ʿasaba, to bind/tie together) fealty, group-feeling, sense of being part of a collectivity: cohesion, spirit de corp. aʿyan Arabic (pl.): elite, notables. badiya Arabic: country-side, rural areas, hinterland and their human occupants, the badw—the other of hadar (urban). The term is also a referent to people who make a living by tending to livestock per se, pastoralists. Bambari Mande: Bambara (Bamana), a group in the Niger Bend— namely the historic kingdoms of Segu and Kaarta. banu Arabic: progeny of; figuratively it conveys the same meaning as awlad and dhawi— i.e. Banu Jarar, Awlad Dulaym, Dhawi Hassan etc. brabir Arabic: derogatory variant of Berber, wayward, uncouth Berber—the equivalent of aʿrab. balad Arabic: (pl. bilad) land, country, domain. bled es-Siba colonial/ethnographic neologism: land of lawlessness, anarchy and, hence, the den of (anarchical) tribes.
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