Subject Index

Note: Page numbers in italics denote figures, when outside page ranges.

aircraft, strikes, 205–206 Calne, Wiltshire, historical , 28–30 ball lightning, 222–223 capping inversion, 41–42 Ashley, Northamptonshire, historical tornado, 26–27 case studies ‘atmospherics’ (sferics), 109, 136–137 cold front of 29 November 2011, 48–51 English Midlands supercells of 28 June 2012, 51–52 ball lightning, 138, 209–230 non-supercell storms, 48–55 aircraft, lightning strikes, 222–223 supercell convection/storms, 48–57 ambiguity, 210–212 West Cornwall supercell of 16 December 2012, 52–55, 56, 57 Arago, François, 217–219 cells, 57 see also storm cells; supercell convection/storms Cambridge University, 226 convection morphology classification criteria, 46–48 churches, associated with, 215–216 Clausius–Clapeyron relation, dynamic rainfall, 261 defining, 209–210 climatology early beliefs, 212–213 snowfall, 284 early reports, 213–228 tornadoes, 43 earthquake ball lightning, 229 clusters, convection morphology classification criteria, 46–48 as electromagnetic radiation, 224–245 conferences, Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO), 8–11 energy, 224 convective (or potential) instability, 266 Faraday, Michael, 218 convective discussion, forecasting, 241 fireballs, 211–212 convective rainfalls, severe, 269–270 Harris, Sir William Snow, 218–219 Cowick, East Riding of Yorkshire, historical tornado, 23–25 houses, within, 216–217, 228–229 Craigbrack, Northern Ireland tornado 2011, 93, 94 Howard, Luke, 217 Curriglass, County Cork, historical tornado, 27–28 ionised jet-stream hypothesis, 224 meteorites, 211–212 databases Meteorological Office ‘Ball Lightning Enquiry’, 220 hail/hailstorms, 155 meteors, 211–212 lightning, 206 micrometeorites of antimatter, 223 National Lightning Incidents Database, 206 Ministry of Defence, 227–228 tornadoes, 62–63 nuclear hypotheses, 221 TORRO databases, 62–63, 155, 206 optical illusion, 223 death tolls over land, 213–214 lightning, 137, 198–206 over rivers, 214–215 tornadoes, 89 over sea, 214–215 decadal totals, tornadoes, 19, 20 plasma hypotheses, 222 depressions, Heavy Snowfall Events (HSEs), 293–296 precursor to cloud-to-ground lightning, 217 dynamic rainfall, 261–264 quantum-mechanical hypotheses, 221 embedded convective cells, 264–269 reviews, 225 hybrid rainfall, 264–269 Royal Society, 227 COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL Schonland, Sir Basil, 222 earliest tornado, 77–79 TORRO Ball Lightning Division, 226–227, 228–230 earthquake ball lightning, 229 UK media, 230 Elevated Mixed Layer (EML), 41–42 Beaufort scale, 2–3 embedded convective cells, hybrid rainfall, 264–269 Birmingham tornado of 14 June 1931, 9, 10 EML see Elevated Mixed Layer Birmingham tornado of 28 July 2005, 8, 9 ‘ensemble’ models, forecasting, 246 Bluntisham, Cambridgeshire, historical tornado, 27 ESTOFEX see European Storm Forecast Experiment broken lines, convection morphology classification etymology of the word tornado, 17–18 criteria, 46–48 European Storm Forecast Experiment (ESTOFEX), 239

Extreme Weather: Forty Years of the Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO), First Edition. Edited by Robert K. Doe. © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/doe/extremeweather

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field sketching, tornado event site investigations, 93 1997 Saturday, 17 May: the Severe Storms of FA Cup fireballs, ball lightning, 211–212 Final, 189–191 flooding, 247 see also rainfall 2012 June 28: the Destructive English Midlands Hailstorm, 191 1st–10th centuries, 248–249 characteristics, 161–164 11th century, 249–250 comparison with the incidence of , 159–160, 162 12th century, 250–251 comparisons with Continental Europe, 159, 161, 163 13th century, 251–259 database, 155 2007, summer, 264–266, 267 distribution, 157–159, 160–161, 164, 165, 167–168 Boscastle, Cornwall, UK, 16 August 2004, 272–274 diurnal analysis, 168 convective rainfalls, severe, 269–270 frequency, 157–159 dynamic rainfall, 261–264 frequency: point frequencies, 161 Gwynedd, North Wales, UK, 5 July 2001, 270–272 geographical distribution, 157–159, 160–161, 164, 165 historical flooding, 247–259 giant hail, supercell convection/storms, 47–48 Holmfirth, Yorkshire, UK, 29 May 1944, 274–278 hail swathes, 161–164, 166, 167 Ottery St. Mary, Devon, UK, 30 October 2008, 278–280 hailstone size and damage, 156–157 West Country of 4 August 1938, 121–122 hailstone size distribution, 38 forecasting, 237–246 hailstorm research, T-Scale, 3 2012 June 28, severe weather, 241–245 hour-of-day distribution, 167–168 convective discussion, 241 intensity scale, 155–156 ‘ensemble’ models, 246 kinetic energy, 156 European Storm Forecast Experiment (ESTOFEX), 239 point frequencies, 161 ingredients-based approach, 240–241 seasonal occurrence, 159–160 modern, 238 severe, 169–191 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Radio All storms of H2 intensity or more, 160–161, 164 Hazards, 239 storms of H5 intensity or more, 159, 161, 163–164, particularly dangerous situation (PDS), 238 165, 167, 168 public response, 246 summary of TORRO’S overall findings, 168–169 severe storms, 238–239 TORRO database, 155 severe weather, 28 June 2012, 241–245 TORRO International Hailstorm Intensity (H) Scale, 155–156 techniques, 239 Heavy Snow Days (HSDs), 289–292, 296–298 thunderstorms, 145–146 identification criteria, 283 Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO), 239, 241–245 Heavy Snowfall Events (HSEs), 285–292, 293–298 tornadoes, 237–238, 246 historical flooding, 247–259 types, 241 historical tornadoes, 17–30 fronts analysis of historical tornadoes, 19–21 geographical variations, 296–297 Ashley, Northamptonshire, 26–27 Heavy Snow Days (HSDs), 296–297 Bluntisham, Cambridgeshire, 27 Lamb Weather Types (LWTs), 297 Calne, Wiltshire, 28–30 funnel clouds, 6, 19, 79–80 see also tornadoes Cowick, East Riding of Yorkshire, 23–25 funnel lightning, tornado event site investigations, 101 Curriglass, County Cork, 27–28 reports, 21–30 global warming, 280 Rosdalla, County Westmeath, 21–22, 79 Sneinton, Nottinghamshire, 25–26 hail/hailstorms, 155–192 Wellesbourne, Warwickshire, 22–23 1687: the Alvanley storm, 169 HSDs see Heavy Snow Days 1697: remarkable late spring storms, 169 HSEs see Heavy Snowfall Events 1763 August 19: the Great Kent Storm, 169 hybrid rainfall, 264–269 1800 to date: multiple hail events, 182, 183 1912 August 25–26, 269 1808 July 15: the Great Somerset Hailstorm, 169–170 1917 June 28–29, 268 1818 July 24: Stronsay, Orkney, 170 1922 August 6–7, 269 1843 August 9: the Great Hailstorm, 170–172 1948 August 11–12, 269 1893 July 8: Northern England and Southern Scotland, 172–174 1968 July 9–10, 268, 269 1897 June 24: the Diamond Jubilee Storm, 174–175 1968 September 14–15, 268, 269 1915 July 4, 175–177 1969 July 27–28, 269 1935 September 22 (the ‘Great Northamptonshire Hailstorm’), 1969 July 28–29, 268 177–178 1973 September 20–21:,264–266, 268 1958 September 5: the Horsham Hailstorm, 178–179 2007, summer, 264–266, 267, 268 1959 July 9–11 (including the ‘Wokingham Storm’), 179–181 2007 July 19–20, 268, 269 1967 July 13: the Wiltshire Hailstorm, 181 1968 July 1–2: the ‘Dust Fall’ Storms, 181–185 ingredients-based approach to forecasting, 240–241 1983 June 5: South Coast Hailstorms, 185 injuries, lightning, 198–206 1983 June 7: Violent Hailstorms in North-West England, 185–186 instability, ingredients-based approach to forecasting, 240 1985 May 26: the Essex ‘Dunmow’ Hailstorm, 186–187 intensity of tornadoes, 65, 95–97 1996 June 7: The Storms, 187–189 site investigations, 93–94

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The International Journal of , 6, 7 multicell convection, 32–36 International T-Scale see T-Scale linear convective systems, 37–40 Isle of Wight and South Coast anomaly, tornadoes, 72–73 tornadogenesis, 37–39 The Journal of Meteorology inaugural issue, 4–6 narrow cold frontal rainbands (NCFRs), 39–40, 43, 45–46, 49–51 The International Journal of Meteorology, 6, 7 National Lightning Incidents Database, 206 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Radio All kernel density estimation, tornadoes, 74–75 Hazards, 239 kernel density mapping, tornadoes, 70, 71 NCFRs see narrow cold frontal rainbands NOAA see National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Lamb Weather Types (LWTs) Radio All Hazards fronts, 297 noise, tornado event site investigations, 97–99 snowfall, 285, 292–293, 298 non-supercell storms see also supercell convection/storms case studies, 48–55 largest outbreaks of tornadoes, 88–89 formation, 42–43 lift, ingredients-based approach to forecasting, 240 tornadoes, 36–43 lightning see also thunderstorms tornadogenesis, 37, 39 1938 August 4, damage, West Country, 121–122 non-tornadic winds, tornado event site investigations, 101 2004 August 18, 150, 151 nuclear hypotheses, ball lightning, 221 aircraft, lightning strikes, 205–206, 222–223 animals, lightning strikes, 204–205 optical illusion, ball lightning, 223 awareness, lightning risk, 206 ball lightning, 138 particularly dangerous situation (PDS), forecasting, 238 database, 206 photographic records, tornado event site investigations, 93 death tolls, 137, 198–206 plasma hypotheses, ball lightning, 222 defining, 209–210 potential (or convective) instability, 266 151 153 distribution and intensity, 150, , , 154 quantum-mechanical hypotheses, ball lightning, 221 early beliefs, 212–213 questionnaires, tornado event site investigations, 93 electrical routes, injuries, 199–200 frequency, lightning striking people, 202–203 rainfall see also flooding funnel lightning, tornado event site investigations, 101 Boscastle, Cornwall, UK, 16 August 2004, 272–274 groups of people, lightning strikes, 200 Clausius–Clapeyron relation, 261 historical research, 196–197 convective rainfalls, severe, 269–270 indoors, lightning incidents affecting people, 201–202 dynamic rainfall, 261–264 injuries, 198–206 embedded convective cells, 264–269 locations to avoid, 201 extreme recorded rainfalls, 269–270 motor vehicles, lightning strikes, 205–206 Gwynedd, North Wales, UK, 5 July 2001, 270–272 National Lightning Incidents Database, 206 Holmfirth, Yorkshire, UK, 29 May 1944, 274–278 research, 196–198 hybrid rainfall, 264–269 sheet lightning, 195 Ottery St. Mary, Devon, UK, 30 October 2008, 278–280 Thunderstorm Census Organisation (TCO), 196–197 synoptic patterns, 262–263 TORRO database, 206 Rosdalla, County Westmeath, historical tornado, 21–22, 79 types, 195 Royal Society, ball lightning, 227 weather hazard, 195, 196 linear convective systems, multicell convection, 37–40 severe storms, forecasting, 238–239 lines, convection morphology classification criteria, 46–47, 48 severest tornado, 83–88 ‘London Metropolitan’ anomaly, tornadoes, 70–72 sferics, 109, 136–137 longest track tornado, 80–83 sheet lightning, 195 LWTs see Lamb Weather Types showery air masses, supercell convection/storms, 42–43 single-cell convection, 32–36 mapping site and track investigations, storm-damage, 6–8 tornado event site investigations, 93 site investigations, tornado events, 91–103 tornadoes, 66–70, 71 core winds, 94 MCSs see Mesoscale Convective Systems damage and debris, 99, 100 Mesoscale Convective Systems (MCSs) experience, 101–102 hybrid rainfall, 264 ‘explosive’ effects, 94–95 thunderstorms, 32, 36, 107, 109, 110, 122–123 field sketching, 93 mesovortices, tornadoes, 75 first, 91 meteorites, ball lightning, 211–212 funnel lightning, 101 meteors, ball lightning, 211–212 getting started, 92 micrometeorites of antimatter, ball lightning, 223 intensities, 93–94, 95–97 Ministry of Defence, ball lightning, 227–228 mapping, 93 moisture, ingredients-based approach to forecasting, 240 methods, 92–94 monthly totals, tornadoes, 21 multiple tracks, 95, 96

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site investigations, tornado events (cont’d) showery air masses, 42–43 noise, 97–99 Spanish Plume, 40–42 non-tornadic winds, 101 supercell convection/storms, 48–57 outcomes, 94–101 tornadoes, 36–43 photographic records, 93 West Cornwall supercell of 16 December 2012, 52–55, 56, 57 questionnaires, 93 synoptic patterns, dynamic rainfall, 262–263 timing and forward speeds, 95 synoptic situations, tornadoes, 40–43 topography, 97 synoptic type, tornadoes, 43–46, 47 weather sequences, 99–100 synoptic weather types, hail/hailstorms, 164–167 Sneinton, Nottinghamshire, historical tornado, 25–26 snowfall, 283–298 TCO see Thunderstorm Census Organisation 1861–1869, 286 temperature extremes 1865 February 20, 286 British Isles, 3–4 1870–1879, 286 T-Scale, 3–4 1880–1889, 286 terminology 1881 January 18–19, 286 tornado, 18–19 1890–1899, 287 waterspout, 18–19 1891 March 9–13, 287 whirlwind, 18–19 1900–1909, 287 Thunderstorm Census Organisation (TCO), 6, 117, 119, 120, 121, 122, 1910–1919, 287 157, 196–197 1913 January 11–12, 287–288 Thunderstorms see also lightning 1920–1929, 288 1879 August 2–3, 109–110 1923 December 25, 288 1910 June 5–10, 110–114 1929 February 15–16, 288 1923 July 7–10, 114, 123 1930–1939, 288 1926 July 17–18, 114 1940 January 26–30, 288 1930 August 28–29, 114–116 1940–1949, 288 1936 June 18–22, 116–119 1941 February 18–20, 288–289 1938 August 4, West Country, 119–123 1941 March 26–27, 289 1958 September 5, 123–125, 137, 138 1950–1959, 289 1960 June 22–24, 125, 126 1955 February 8, 289 1960s, 137–141 1960–1969, 289 1970s, 141–143 1970–1979, 289 1975 August 8–9, 125, 127 1980–1989, 289 1977 June 13–14, 126–127 1990–1999, 289 1980s, 143–147 climatology, 284 1985 July 25–26, 127–128, 129 data sources, 284 1989 May 24, 128–131 days with snowfall, 284–285 1990s, 147–150 definitions, 283 1992 August 8–9, 131 depressions, HSEs, 293–296 1994 June 24, 132 frequencies, LWTs, 292–293 2000-2013, 150–154 frequencies 1861–1999, 289–292 annual record, 107, 108 fronts, HSDs, 296–297 classifying, 136–137 Heavy Snow Days (HSDs), 289–292, 296–298 comparison with the incidence of hailstorms, 159–160, 162 Heavy Snowfall Events (HSEs), 285–292, 293–298 ‘days with thunder heard’ statistic, 140 Lamb Weather Types (LWTs), 285, 292–293, 298 defining, 31–32 mean length (in days), HSEs, 291–292 diurnal record, 107, 108 snow depth, 284–285 early observations, 135–137 synoptic systems, HSEs, 283–284 forecasting, 145–146 Spanish Plume, 40–42 locations to avoid, 201 St Elmo’s fire, 127–128, 210–11 Mesoscale Convective Systems (MCSs), 32, 36, 107, 109, 110, storm cells see also cells; supercell convection/storms 122–123 life cycle, 32 Prichard thunderstorm severity scale, 136–137 multicell convection, 32–36 sferics, 109, 136–137 single-cell convection, 32–36 summarising, 107–109 supercell convection/storms, 32–36 topography, tornado event site investigations 97 storm-damage site and track investigations, 6–8 Tornado and Storm Research Organisation (TORRO) supercell convection/storms, 32–36 see also cells; non-supercell storms; conferences, 8–11 storm cells databases, 62–63, 155, 206 case studies, 48–57 forecasting, 239, 241–245 English Midlands supercells of 28 June 2012, 51–52 future, 11–12 giant hail, 47–48 origins and development, 1–8 non-supercell storms, 48–55 TORRO Ball Lightning Division, 226–227, 228–230

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Tornadoes see also funnel clouds; historical tornadoes; site spatial distribution, 44–46, 47, 66–70 investigations, tornado events supercell convection/storms, 36–43 annual number, 63–64 synoptic situations, 40–43 Birmingham tornado of 14 June 1931, 9, 10 synoptic type, 43–46, 47 Birmingham tornado of 28 July 2005, 8, 9 terminology, 18–19 climatology, 43 tornado days, 63–64 Craigbrack, Northern Ireland 2011, 93, 94 TORRO database, 62–63 damage and debris, tornado event site investigations, 99, 100 track lengths, 65 database, 62–63 track widths, 65–66 death tolls, 89 United Kingdom and Ireland, 1054–2013, 319–320 decadal totals, 19, 20 Voronoi tessellation, 70, 75 directions of travel, 66 widest track, 82–83 distribution, 88–89 tornadogenesis, 36–39 earliest, 77–79 multicell convection, 37–39 etymology of the word tornado, 17–18 non-supercell storms, 37, 39 forecasting, 237–238, 246 TORRO see Tornado and Storm Research Organisation frequency, 43, 46 track and site investigations, storm-damage, 6–8 frequency for the United Kingdom and Ireland: 1981–2010, 63–66 T-Scale historical, 17–30 characteristic damage intensity, 3 hours of occurrence, 65 hailstorm research, 3 intensities, 65 temperature extremes, 3–4 Isle of Wight and South Coast anomaly, 72–73 theoretical basis, 2–4 kernel density estimation, 74–75 kernel density mapping, 70, 71 Voronoi tessellation, tornadoes, 70, 75 largest outbreaks, 88–89 ‘London Metropolitan’ anomaly, 70–72 waterspouts, 6, 79–80, 81–82 longest track, 80–83 terminology, 18–19 mapping, 66–70, 71 weather sequences, tornado event site investigations, 99–100 mesovortices, 75 Wellesbourne, Warwickshire, historical tornado, 22–23 month of occurrence, 64 West Country thunderstorm of 4 August 1938, 119–123 monthly totals, 21 flood damage, 121–122 morphology, 46–47, 48 lightning damage, 121–122 narrow cold frontal rainbands (NCFRs), 39–40, 43, 45–46 synoptic background, 119–120 non-supercell storms, 36–43 whirlwinds, 79–80, 82 season of occurrence, 64 terminology, 18–19 severest, 83–88 widest track tornado, 82–83 site investigations, 91–103 wind shear, ingredients-based approach to forecasting, 240–241

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