April 2011

Kandahar City

Kandahar Province

TLO DISTRICT PROFILE

Kandahar City, Kandahar

A TLO District Profile

April 2011

© 2011, The Liaison Office. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the publisher, The Liaison Office. Permission can be obtained by emailing info@tlo-.org

Acknowledgements

This report is financed by the The authors would like to thank all Department of Foreign Affairs and individuals who spent time with the International Trade Canada | Affaires research team to contribute to this étrangères et Commerce international report as well as TLO colleagues whose Canada. comments and contributions helped to improve the clarity of the report and TLO would like to emphasize its the correctness of its facts. All commitment to independent and mistakes, opinions and impartial research. The findings in this recommendations, however, are the report are the sole opinion of TLO and sole responsibility of TLO. do not necessarily reflect the views and position of the Canadian government.

About The Liaison Office (TLO)

The Liaison Office (TLO) is an In addition to the TLO headquarter in independent Afghan non-governmental , the organization has a total of organization seeking to improve local four (3) regional (Paktia-Southeast, governance, stability and security Kandahar-South, Nangarhar-East) and through systematic and five (5) provincial (Uruzgan, Khost, institutionalized engagement with Paktika, Helmand, Nimroz) offices customary structures, local across Afghanistan, with over 200 staff. communities, and civil society groups. TLO was established in 2003 by TLO’s mission is to facilitate the formal swisspeace on the request of integration of communities and their community leaders in the Southeast. traditional governance structures TLO has been funded by various donors within Afghanistan’s newly emerging from the non-governmental and peace, governance and reconstruction governmental sectors, international framework. organizations and foundations. TLO main areas of activity are Currently the main donors include the Research/Analysis using the do-no Heinrich Boell Foundation, the United harm approach; Dialogue facilitation States Institute of Peace and the and participatory peacebuilding, access governments of Australia (AusAID), to justice and Livelihoods. Netherlands, Norway, Canada, Germany, and Switzerland (SDC).

Kandahar City

Preface

On 21 November 2001, US aerial and Each report is divided into four logistical support helped the Northern sections: Alliance oust the regime from 1. Basic information about the power in Kabul. Soon after, ’s population and City - the ‘spiritual homeland’ of the physical geography. Taliban- fell to the US-led invasion. As 2. A sketch of the district’s a result of the invasion, the Afghan political history, with a focus on government was fundamentally tribal and restructured once again for the sixth party/leadership dynamics from time in four decades (monarchy, the beginning of the Soviet War republic, communist, mujahideen, to recent (post-2001) political Taliban, and NATO-supported developments. democracy). Most Kandaharis—indeed, 3. Overview of sub-national many Afghans all across the country— government structures. were optimistic that a new government 4. Background on socio-economic accompanied by effective international services and their accessibility support would bring an end to conflict to district residents. and inaugurate a period of peace and prosperity after two decades of Although tribal dynamics are instability and conflict. Instead, almost sometimes examined in greater detail ten years later, violent conflict persists in the political history section, this is in Kandahar as the Taliban-led not intended to suggest that tribal insurgency and the NATO / Afghan politics is the primary or the most government continue to fight for important force at play in Kandahar or control of the province. This struggle southern Afghanistan. Rather, tribal has significant national and regional dimensions are highlighted because ramifications. they have been a focal point of TLO’s institutional attention, and are often In order to improve an understanding under-examined by newcomers to the of , The Liaison region while being implicitly Office (TLO) profiled all 18 districts, understood by most local actors. creating an overview of the political, historical, and socio-economic context These profiles are created in an effort in this important province. This profile to introduce engaged and interested is part of the complete Kandahar series. parties to local power dynamics and

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defining issues in specific localities. In enormously from region to region, or creating them, TLO does not seek to even within a single district, the reader promote any given side in the must keep in mind that collecting, continuing conflicts. Rather, our hope triangulating, assessing, and is that responsible documentation of disseminating political and the complex histories of the power ethnographic research in a time of dynamics at the district level will conflict is difficult, sensitive, and enhance the ability of involved parties inescapably imprecise. to promote stability, reconciliation, We at TLO are deeply aware of the peace, and prosperity in Kandahar limitations of conducting research on Province. the social and political dynamics in a In each of these district profiles, every region as volatile and quickly changing effort has been made to present the as Kandahar. After much internal information available to TLO in a debate, we determined it advantageous responsible and efficacious manner to make what we have understood to with attention to both district specific date, however uncertain, available to and wider regional contexts. the public for examination and responsible use. Given that circumstances in Afghanistan change quickly and vary

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Table of contents

Acknowledgements 3 About The Liaison Office (TLO) 3 Preface 4 Executive Summary 7 1 District Context ...... 9 1.1 Location ...... 9 1.2 Population, Tribal Composition, and City Precincts (Nahiya) ...... 10 1.3 Loya Wiala (Nahiya 9) and Mahalajat ...... 11 2 Political History ...... 12 2.1 The Pashtun Tribes ...... 12 2.2 Pashtun Tribes in Kandahar ...... 12 2.3 The Soviet Intervention and the Mujahideen Parties (1979 – 1992) ...... 14 2.4 The Civil War (1992 -1995) ...... 16 2.5 The Rise of the Taliban (1995 – 2001) ...... 16 2.6 The US Intervention, and a New Government ...... 16 2.7 The Political System Today ...... 17 2.8 The Insurgency ...... 17 2.9 International Military Actors ...... 18 3 Governance ...... 19 3.1 Provincial Governors ...... 19 3.2 Provincial Chiefs of Police ...... 20 3.3 Provincial Council ...... 21 4 Economy and Services ...... 23 4.1 Agriculture ...... 23 4.2 Poppy Economy ...... 24 4.3 Banks, Currency and Money Changers ...... 24 4.4 Trade Associations ...... 24 4.5 Education ...... 24 4.6 Health ...... 24 4.7 Telecommunications and Media ...... 25 4.8 Electricity ...... 25 4.9 Development ...... 26 Methodology ...... 27 List of Acronyms ...... 31 Glossary of Foreign Terms ...... 34

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Executive Summary

For centuries, Kandahar City has been resources and the manipulation of the centre of political struggles between internal Afghan divisions by foreign the leaders of different tribes countries for their own ends. competing for regional influence and The most important actors in the for control of the Afghan state. Rival government of Kandahar City and the groups sought to supplant each other, province are the leaders of two Zirak sometimes with the help of outsiders or Durrani sub-tribes, represented by the by their own internal intrigues: and Karzai family (Popalzai) and Gul Agha alliances often had tribal dimensions. Sherzai family (Barakzai). Both are However, to understand the political from Dand district and are highly landscape of Kandahar City and the influential in government, business and region today, it is more instructive to security sectors. The Popalzai and consider the contemporary fault lines Barakzai tribes make up approximately between the jihadi commanders who half of the Kandahar City population emerged during the Soviet War and (and a large portion of the provincial who ruled Kandahar between 1992 and population). 1994 and the Taliban leaders who succeeded them in power between 1994 The dominance of the Barakzai in the and late 2001. Kandahar government was at its highest during the governorship of the The US led-intervention of 2001 Barakzai leader brought the heirs of the mujahideen era (2002-2005). Based on the support he back to power and excluded the former received from the US in the ousting of Taliban in the emerging political the Taliban regime, Gul Agha Sherzai, dynamics, thus excluding from the the former mujahideen governor of outset a major and sometimes popular Kandahar, regained political influence political force in the country. The and control of Kandahar City in 2001. former Taliban leadership never found a “political home” or economic stakes In 2002, ’s half-brother, within the new government. This Ahmad Wali Karzai, was appointed created a gap between the population head of the Kandahar Islahi (reform) and the state in Kandahar and other Shura, a powerful structure that areas of the country, and the gap was parallels the provincial government. further widened by political tensions Three years later, he was selected to within the government itself, internal head the provincial council of competition over mostly international Kandahar and his influence over the

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city became further entrenched when disrupt and unseat the current Afghan Sherzai was transferred to Nangarhar national government, the Taliban province in 2005, where he retained assassination of pro-government the position of provincial governor. On religious, political and tribal leaders the whole, most influential people in appears have the objectives of the provincial and municipal eliminating the opposition and government appear to be close to these demonstrating the inability of the two families. government and NATO to protect Afghans. In 2009, when the primary The , another influential Zirak data for this report was collected, the Durrani tribe in Kandahar City and in Taliban’s operational radius reached far nearby districts, have had an uneasy into the city. relationship with both the Barakzai and the Popalzai. In part, the antagonism In 2005, security in Kandahar City between Barakzai (Sherzai) and the began to deteriorate due to the Alkozai (late Mullah Naqibullah and increasing presence of the Taliban in the late General Khan Mohammad) can surrounding rural districts and their be traced back to the mujahideen infiltration of the city. In an effort to government (1992 – 1994) when they disrupt and unseat the current Afghan struggled for control of Kandahar City. national government, the Taliban In the current government, Alkozai and assassinated pro-government religious, Barakzai are integrated into the police political and tribal leaders, both force and both influence the eliminating the opposition on one hand government security apparatus. and demonstrating the inability of the government and Coalition Forces (CF) Assassination attempts against those to protect Afghans on the other. The associated with the Afghan Taliban have also managed to take Government never stopped in post- advantage of tribal rivalries and of the Taliban Kandahar City, with several discontent of the tribes that feel attempts on the life of Hamid Karzai marginalized by the current and the killings of a large number of government. In 2010, when the important religious and political primary data for this report was leaders. In 2005, security in Kandahar collected, the Taliban’s operational city began to deteriorate as the Taliban reach cut across the city thus enabling increased their presence in them to conduct their operations with surrounding rural districts and began devastating outcomes. infiltrating the city. In an effort to

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1 District Context

intersection of empires, it has often been the 1.1 Location site of conflict for political control and for Kandahar city is located 457 km, or a five- access to the movement of trade. Kandahar hour drive, southwest of Kabul, at an remains the centre of trade in southern elevation of 1,000 meters above sea level. The Afghanistan, hosting a wide array of / Chaman border crossing, the businesses and administrative offices thus only legal border crossing to in making surrounding districts dependent on Kandahar Province, is located 121 km, or a its commerce and administrative services. two-hour drive, to the southeast of Kandahar city. Kandahar International Airport is located about 25 km south of the city in Daman District and connects Kandahar to national and international destinations including Kabul, Herat, Kuwait, Tehran, Mashad (Iran) and Dubai (United Arab Emirates).

Seventy percent of city land is developed with roads, houses, markets, schools, government buildings and parks and thirty percent is irrigated agricultural land. The most important source of water is an irrigation network from the . Similar to Kabul, most drinking water for the city is supplied by deep wells.

Kandahar city’s strategic location on trade routes between Iran, the Indian subcontinent and Central Asian has made it an important trading hub for centuries. Located at the

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Map 1: Kandahar city

Durrani, mostly of Mohammadzai, Barakzai 1.2 Population, Tribal and Popalzai tribal descent. Also present Composition, and City were Shia, of Qizilbash and Hazara descent Precincts (Nahiya) (nahiya 1), and the merchant Hindu The Central Statistics Office estimates put the community (nahiya 4). Shia still makes up an population of Kandahar City at 507,400 estimated 40% of nahiya 1. A small people.1 However, TLO informally assesses population of Sikhs (0.5%) have moved to the population to be significantly higher at nahiya 7, mostly from Tirin Kot in 1992 after near 1.1 million. Administratively, Kandahar mujahideen confiscated their property. Many City is divided into ten precincts or nahiya. of the Sikhs are moneychangers and Nahiya 1-4 make up the “old city” and were shopkeepers. Other non-Pashtun ethnic populated by the pre-war elite, the Zirak groups in Kandahar city include Baluch and farsiwan (Persian speaking Sunnite Tajiks) and religious families (such as Sayeds, Pirs). 1 Central Statistics Office (2010-11) The Sayed are respected as direct

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descendents of the Prophet Mohammad’s words of a police officer: “If someone lives in family (Peace Be Upon Him) and stand an area for a long time, their neighbours outside the tribal and ethnic rivalries and are usually know something about him and what often useful for settling conflicts . kind of person he is. But most people in Loya Wiala have been here less than six or seven years and they change houses more often. Therefore it is hard to track each and every 1.3 Loya Wiala (Nahiya 9) and one and know what he is up to.” Mahalajat

Loya Wiala (nahiya 9) and Mahalajat are two areas of Kandahar City that have been the centre of particular attention in recent military operations under Operation Hamkari: Loya Wiala, a large suburban area located north of the city centre (and old town); and Mahalajat is located at the southern edge of the city close to Dand district. Over the last three decades both areas have attracted many of the newly arriving economic migrants and people internally displaced by conflict (IDPs) moving to the provincial capital. The first wave of settlers was people displaced from farmland when the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) began a land redistribution policy in the late seventies and early eighties. From 1992 onwards, IDPs resettled in this area of the city to escape fighting between the mujahideen parties. After 2006, a new influx of IDPs joined the urban poor fleeing conflicts in Helmand, Uruzgan and Zabul. 2

It is also worth highlighting that the Mahalajat area was the main area from where mujahideen operated against the PDPA in the city. The relative anonymity of people living in the two areas and a weak sense of social cohesion have made the areas more susceptible to Taliban infiltration. In the

2 Susanne Schmeidl, Alexander D. Mundt and Nick Miszak, 2009, Beyond the Blanket: Towards more Effective Protection for Internally Displaced Persons in Southern Afghanistan , a Joint Report of the Brookings/Bern Project on Internal Displacement and The Liaison Office, Washington D.C.: The Brookings Institution.

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2 Political History

The Ghilzai confederation is made up of the 2.1 The Pashtun Tribes Ali Khail, Andar, Hotak, Kharoti, Naser, The Pashtun tribal system is divided into Suliman Khail, Taraki, Tokhi and Tota Khail, different confederations, tribes and sub- etc. Their territories are more scattered than tribes. The most prominent confederations in that of the Durrani tribes. They are most Afghanistan are the Durrani, Ghilzai, prominent in , Paktika, Zabul and Karlyani, and Ghurghusht. The Durrani and parts of Kandahar but also have significant the Ghilzai confederations make up more populations in northern Afghanistan. than two-thirds of all Afghan and The Ghurghusht tribal confederation in predominate in southern Afghanistan. Afghanistan is mostly made up of the Kakar The Durrani confederation is split into two tribe. There are few Kakar living in Uruzgan, main sub-confederations: Zirak and Panjpai. Kandahar and Zabul. A much larger The Achekzai, Alokozai, Barakzai, population of the Kakar lives in Zhob district Muhammadzai and Popalzai make up the of Baluchistan province in Pakistan. Zirak Durrani confederation. Afghan rulers since Nadir Shah (1747) traditionally came from the Zirak Durrani confederation. 2.2 Pashtun Tribes in Geographically, they are concentrated in Kandahar Kandahar, eastern Uruzgan, and western Zabul. Given the lack of a recent census, political sensitivities associated with tribal The Panjpai Durrani (literally five legs) is composition percentages, rapid urban composed of Alizai, Ishaqzai, Nurzai, migration to Kandahar city, and an Khogiani and Maku tribes. Large Panjpai overburdened central government, the exact populations live in Helmand, western figures on tribal affiliation in Kandahar are Uruzgan, Farah and Nimroz and are usually difficult to verify and the subject of some less influential than the Zirak Durrani. controversy. Based on informal sources, there are members of an estimated 40 tribes

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living in Kandahar-city, with half having but the Nurzai and Ishaqzai are considered populations of less than one percent of the to be the most populous group among the total. Percentage estimates of tribal, religious Panjpai and the Hotak, Tokhi and Lodin are and ethnic groups are as follows: Zirak have the largest numbers amongst the Durrani constitute roughly 50%, Panjpai Ghilzai. Among the other Pashtun tribes, the Durrani 15%, Ghilzai 15%, and 20% of the Kakar remain the most sizeable group. population is made of other Pashtun tribes such as Wardak, Mohmand, Kakar, as well as Shia and non-Pashtun groups such as the Sayed, Tajik, and Baluch. There are no percentages for the Panjpai and Ghilzai tribes

Figure 1: Tribal tree of Kandahar-city and approximate demographic distribution

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opposition led many to join the mujahideen 2.3 The Soviet Intervention against the PDPA, even army officers who and the Mujahideen Parties had been affiliated with the PDPA. (1979 – 1992) The resistance soon became organized into Since the communist coup d’état (27 April seven major jihadi parties who received 1978), the successive wars have killed many, support from the US, Europe and Gulf Arab displaced large populations, destroyed countries to fight the Soviet military and the property and fundamentally disrupted the Afghan Communist government. Most of social fabric of Afghan society. In the early these resources were channelled through stages three factors contributed to what Pakistan. became the mujahideen resistance to the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan During the Soviet War, despite the (PDPA) and, after December 1979, against the increasing resistance to the PDPA and Soviet Soviet military: one, the economic policies of military, the Afghan government stayed in the Khalqis (PDPA party) which went against power and maintained its control of traditional arrangements; second, the Kandahar City. In part, this was achieved perception that the policies of the Khalqis through the government’s ability to keep were “atheist” and thus contrary to the pro-government individuals relatively safe religious sentiment of majority of Afghans; by striking deals with the mujahideen to third, the brutal violence of the Khalqis in secure the city until the government purging what they perceived to be potential collapsed in 1992. For example, under the enemies from the royal family and political leadership Dr. Najibullah’s government, families associated with them, as well as (1989 – 1992), the prominent PDPA Maoists, Islamists, religious and spiritual supporter and former Minister of Defence leaders, intellectuals and opponents within and Governor of Kandahar, Nur-ul Haq their own ranks and from other PDPA Ulumi of the Barakzai tribe allowed factions, The violent repression of potential mujahideen fighters to enter the city at night without weapons to visit their families.

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For example, under the leadership Dr. allowed mujahideen fighters to enter the city Najibullah’s government, (1989 – 1992), the at night without weapons to visit their prominent PDPA supporter and former families and paid some mujahideen leaders Minister of Defence and Governor of not to attack the city.3 Kandahar, Nur-ul Haq Ulumi of the Barakzai tribe,

Box 1: Main jihadi factions operating around Kandahar City

Jamiat-e Islami (Islamic Society) was led in the Kandahar region by the late Mullah Naqibullah Akhund, an Alokozai from Arghandab. He later became a very important commander in the mujahideen government. Mahaz-e Milli-e Islami (National Islamic Front) had the strong support of the Barakzai and Popalzai tribal establishment. The most important Mahaz commanders operating around Kandahar City were Haji Latif, the father of Gul Agha Sherzai (Barakzai), and Amir Lalay (Popalzai) from Shah Wali Kot. Hizb-e Islami of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar (Islamic Party - HIG) was strong in the western parts of Kandahar City. A main commander was Sarkatib Atta Muhammad, a Lodin from Dand district of Kandahar. Ittehad-e Islami (United Islamic Party) was backed by a variety of commanders. One of the major commanders was Ustad Abdul Halem, a Nurzai from Panjwayi. Harakat-e Islami (Islamic Movement ) was the faction supported by the Shia population in the city and was led by Ali Yawar, a Shia of Qizilbash descent, and resident of Tup Khana, Kandahar City. Harakat-e Inqilab-e Islami (Revolutionary Islamic Movement) was led by Mullah Azizullah in the city. The party was strong among religious leaders (mullahs) and later become influential in the Taliban movement.

3 He remains a leader of the Barakzai tribe and was a member of the Wolesi Jirga .

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Commander Mansur4 (Achekzai) in Takhta 2.4 The Civil War (1992 -1995) Pul of Kandahar province for misbehaviour. After the Soviet military retreated (15 Haji Basher, a Nurzai commander, was one February 1989) and the Afghan government of the first major jihadi commanders to of Najibullah fell (16 April 1992), the support the Taliban movement with weapons mujahideen leaders began to battle each other and money, providing momentum at a over control of the city and the main roads. decisive moment. Gul Agha Sherzai (Barakzai/Durrani, from The exact situation under which Kandahar Mahaz-e Milli) became the first mujahideen was handed over to the Taliban has been the governor of Kandahar, but rivalries between subject to speculation. A pervasive popular various militias in the city remained beyond perception in Kandahar is that Pakistan was his control. As mujahideen commanders deeply involved in the Taliban takeover by fought to expand their territories, hundreds of encouraging mujahideen commanders to go people were killed and the city was divided into exile in neighbouring countries. Some city street-by-street. The continuing local respondents claim that while Gul Agha insecurity and criminality created a sense of Sherzai and the Taliban were still popular frustration with the mujahideen, as negotiating, Mullah Naqibullah (Alkozai, armed militias taxed, looted and killed with from Jamiat-e Islami) handed over weapons impunity. and ammunition to the Taliban, thus During this period of mujahideen civil war weakening the negotiating position of the powerful commanders occupied state land mujahideen government. Naqibullah was located north of the army garrison (Qishla-e- allowed to stay in Arghandab District while Jadeed) as well as the Loya Wiala desert (now the mujahideen governor and Barakzai nahiya 9) and distributed it among their sub- commander, Gul Agha Sherzai, took exile in commanders who subsequently sold it. This Quetta without a fight. Some use this to process enabled commanders who did not explain the current rivalry between the come from traditional landed or leading Alkozai and the Barakzai. families to rise in importance and foster political constituencies. At the same time, violence and chaotic power struggles during 2.6 The US Intervention, and the mujahideen rule (1992 – 1995) resulted in a New Government a power vacuum that the Taliban movement turned to their advantage. When the US-led Coalition Forces supported the Northern Alliance against the Taliban, Hamid Karzai and Gul Agha Sherzai led militias on Kandahar city with extensive US 2.5 The Rise of the Taliban aerial support. Gul Agha Sherzai (Barakzai) (1995 – 2001) entered Afghanistan from Pakistan with a The precise origins of the Taliban remain tribal militia capturing the Kandahar Air uncertain. Some trace its beginning to Field (KAF). Hamid Karzai (Popalzai) rallied (minor) jihadi figures Mullah Rabbani support from Zirak Durrani tribes in (Kakar), Mullah Omar (Hotak), and Mullah Abdul Salam Zaeef who responded to 4 Commander Mansur is the uncle of Abdur Raziq rampant road extortion and hung (Achekzai), the current head of Afghan Border Police in Spin Boldak.

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Uruzgan and approached Kandahar city from and respected tribal elders constituted an Shah Wali Kot. Amir Lalay (Popalzai) took important link between the people and the control of the in Shah Wali Kot government in the past. district. Mullah Naqibullah, the Alkozai leader The importance of tribal elders has steadily who had remained in Arghandab district eroded since 1978, as many traditional tribal during the Taliban rule, became the key leaders (such as khans and maleks) were negotiator between the Taliban and the new killed or displaced during the course of 30 powers. With the exception of foreign Taliban years of war and replaced by a new or Al Qaeda fighters of Arab descent, few put generation of leaders of jihadi commanders. up a fight. Following negotiations, Gul Agha Leading jihadi commanders in southern Sherzai's troops took control of the city, while Afghanistan usually did not come from the the entire Taliban leadership escaped under traditional tribal establishment.6 Religious unclear circumstances. leaders also rose in prominence, assuming Defeating the Taliban proved easier than important functions in terms of security, sharing power, and the different victors conflict resolution and were further positioned themselves to claim key positions empowered during the Taliban rule. As a in the post-Taliban government. The question consequence, the tribal system today in of control over Kandahar city created a Kandahar is weaker than in other Pashtun tension between the Zirak leaders Gul Agha areas of Afghanistan, such as the southeast Sherzai and Hamid Karzai.5 Karzai wanted to (Loya Paktia) and east (Nangarhar). install Mullah Naqibullah as provincial Religious leaders, former jihadi governor but Sherzai opposed this. It is said commanders, and businessmen are firmly Sherzai resented the role Naqibullah had rooted alongside and take on many of the played in the Taliban take-over of Kandahar same functions that used to be the domain of and desired this power himself. Under tribal leaders. pressure of some tribal elders and the Americans, Karzai conceded and appointed Sherzai governor of Kandahar. 2.8 The Insurgency The Taliban movement in Kandahar has 2.7 been described over simply as composed of The Political System Today three main groups: old garde Taliban, new Before the communist coup d’état of 1978, the generation Taliban, and foreign fighters. The political system of Kandahar was dominated prominent old garde (and their close by established tribal families, many from the relatives) were part of the former regime and Zirak Durrani. These community leaders were often in leadership positions. They were usually members of respected landowning instrumental in the formation of the Taliban families and well connected to the district, provincial and the central government. On the 6 Examples in Kandahar are Sarkatib (Lodin, Ghilzai), sub-district and village level, jirgas composed Chatt Akhundzada (Popalzai, military commander and of tribal elders had an important role in religious figure), Sherzai (Barakzai, military conflict resolution and solved disputes that commander), Naqibullah (Alkozai military commander, mullah and shopkeeper), Amir Lalay were not handled by the courts. Recognized (Popalzai, military commander) and in Helmand both Nasim Akhundzada (Alizai) and Rais Baghran (Alizai) 5 CNN December 6, 2001 come from religious (mullahs) families.

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insurgency in Kandahar (2003-2005). Some extreme pressure as the Taliban insurgency avoided arrest by fleeing to Pakistan and later gathered momentum. As early as 2006, returned to Afghanistan. A larger number of district council members from western them originally come from the western Kandahar either stopped participating as Kandahar districts of , Panjwayi and official district council members or moved to Zhari as well as northern Shah Wali Kot and Kandahar city to escape Taliban persecution. , where proto Taliban movements In other areas, the Taliban exploit pre- existed as early as the 1980s. existing power struggles between rival local leaders, some going back to the mujahideen A new generation of Taliban grew up time, or promote a side in long-standing land educated in Pakistani madrassas and appear conflicts to advance their cause. to join the Taliban ranks for a mix of opportunism and ideology. A clear The security situation in Kandahar city assessment of economic and ideological deteriorated after 2005 when attacks on the motivation amongst a younger generation GIRoA and international military increased. remains a subject of much speculation. In 2006, the city population witnessed 26 suicide attacks that killed at least 42 Afghan Foreign fighters are a third group. Most of civilians and 12 soldiers or policemen in 6 them are highly ideologically motivated and months.7 Attacks on international often provide specialised technical skills such development actors and the UN and as explosives and IED (Improvised Explosive politically motivated assassinations Device) making or combat skills. They often mounted. The two areas of Kandahar city participate in large-scale assaults. that appear most insecure are Loya Wiala Insurgents are able to cross the porous border and Mahalajat in the south of the city. The with Pakistan, appear to be well financed and latter was the main launching pad for have a clear understanding of Kandahar’s insurgent attacks of the mujahideen in the social landscape and local communities. The time of the PDPA regime. Both areas are said porous border to Pakistan was also important to have a separate Taliban command in the 1980s when mujahideen used it as a structure . safe haven and were trained against the Soviets and the PDPA government. The poppy cultivation, black markets and external 2.9 International Military funding help finance the insurgency. Actors The Taliban resurgence builds upon old Kandahar City hosts a number of different networks of previous sympathizers, people international military actors with different who feel politically or economically mandates, In Daman district, 25 km south of marginalized, and links to narcotics Kandahar City, Kandahar Airfield (KAF) smugglers. All these factors appear to be houses the second largest contingent of present in the north and western districts of international military in Afghanistan led by Kandahar Province, Maiwand, Panjwayi, the US with troops from many different parts of Zhari and northern Shah Wali Kot. nations. In the first half of 2010, the number Community leaders with links to the GIRoA of US military and civilian personnel in (Government of the Islamic Republic of Kandahar surged in numbers. Afghanistan), in particular district council members, have been targeted and put under 7 Agence France Presse – English June 25, 2006

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3 Governance

Kandahar City is the seat of all provincial (2002-September 2003) and the second time wide government institutions as well as the for only 6 months (December 2004 - June municipality government ( sharwali wolayat ). 2005). During the 15 months between his The most important among them are the tenure he switched positions with Yusef Provincial Governor, Chief of Police, the 15- Pashtun to become the Minister of Urban member Provincial Council, and provincial Affairs. In June 2005 he was appointed the line departments. Governor of Nangarhar and replaced with .

Yusef Pashtun (Barakzai) is from 3.1 Provincial Governors Kandahar and served as Governor in Kandahar has had five governors in eight Kandahar from September 2003 to years. According to local respondents, the December 2004. He had worked with the replacement of governors, with the exception Demining Agency for Afghanistan during the of Gul Agha Sherzai, has not changed the mujahideen government and lived in Quetta balance of power significantly and most claim during the Taliban era. He returned to the city is under the authority of Provincial Kandahar in 2001 and was advisor and Council Head, Ahmad Wali Karzai. The latter spokesman of Gul Agha Sherzai. He is already wielded a considerable amount of currently Minister of Urban Development, a power as head of the Kandahar Provincial position he also held before his Shura when Gul Agha Sherzai was provincial governorship. governor, with local respondents speaking of Asadullah Khalid (Taraki, Ghilzai) is from ‘two governments’ in Kandahar- Karzai’s and Ghazni and served as Governor of Kandahar Sherzai’s. province for over three years (from June Gul Agha Sherzai (Barakzai) served as 2005 to August 2008). He was previously Governor of Kandahar three times; first from the Governor of (2001 to 1992 to 1994 during the mujahideen 2004). He escaped an assassination attempt government, twice during the current in early 2007 when a suicide bomber administration: the first time for 29 months targeted him. He was replaced by

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Rahmatullah Raufi in August 2008 and civil war in Lebanon. Dr. Wesa completed a appointed Minister for Parliamentary Affairs. doctoral degree in the field of agriculture. He He is now Minister of Tribal Affairs. worked as a high level advisor with Ministry Assadullah Khalid was affiliated with the of Education from 1989 to 1990 and helped Ittehad-e Islami faction. establish Kandahar University. When the civil war began in 1992, he left Afghanistan Rahmatullah Raufi (Wardak, Mir Khail) is and served as a professor in Zurich from Wardak province and became Provincial University from 1992 to 1995. He worked as Governor on 15 August 2008 for only four adviser for the Canadian government from months (August – December 2008). He was 2004 to 2008. Dr. Wesa has published more the the shortest serving provincial governor of than 20 essays about agriculture and advised Kandahar and replaced after three months different organizations in more than 20 due to differences with local power brokers. . He was appointed He completed his military studies in the as Governor of Kandahar province in 2009. Soviet Union and was a former PDPA army Besides managing day-to-day affairs of the commander. province he also heads the Kandahar Dr. Toryalai Wesa (Mohammadzai) the province military council . current Governor of Kandahar province was born in Kohak village of Arghandab district in 1951. He is the son of Abdul Samad Khan, a 3.2 Provincial Chiefs of Police well-known local tribal elder and childhood friend of President Karzai. Dr. Wesa Between 2002 and 2009 Kandahar province completed his primary education in Shalimar had 8 provincial Chiefs of Police, most of School and later attended Ahmad Shah Baba them appointed for a period of one year only, High School in Kandahar where he finished with some staying only a few months. The 12th grade. He was admitted to the Kandahar city police force itself has agriculture faculty of , where members from many different tribes, but the he received his degree in the field of Alkozai and Barakzai dominate because Gul agricultural economy and continued his Agha Sherzai (Barakzai) and Akram academic involvement with the faculty. He Khakrezwal (Alkozai) integrated many received a scholarship to study at the former fighters into the ANP after the American University of Beirut (AUB), but had establishment of the current government. to abandon study after a few months due to

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Table 1: Provincial Chiefs of Police in Kandahar City since 2001 Name Tribe Background General Muhammad 2002 – August 2003. From Khakrez. He was killed in June 2005 by Alokozai Akram Khakrezwal a suicide bomber inside a mosque in Kandahar-city.

Muhammad Hashim August 2003 - March 2004. From Parwan, was with Jamiat-e Islami Tajik Salangi and the Northern Alliances.

Khan Muhammad Alokozai March 2004 - March 2005 Mujahid

March 2005 - August 2006. A resident of nahiya 4 in Kandahar city. Abdel Malek Wahedi Tajik/Shia During the jihad and Taliban time he lived in Pakistan and Germany.

Sayed Aziz Ahmad August 2006 - December 2006. From Sayed Abad district in Wardak Wardak Maidan Wardak. Was affiliated with Mahaz-e Milli.

Ismatullah Alizai Alizai December 2006 – November 2007. From Musa Qala, Helmand.

November 2007 - June 2008. From Farah Province. Non-aligned Sayed Agha Saqib Nurzai during jihad and Taliban.

June 2008 – June 2009. From Khas Uruzgan. On 29 June 2009 he Matiullah Qatea Achakzai was killed in a shootout.

Sardar Muhammad Zazai June 2009 – Nov 2010. From Zazai district of Pakitia Zazai (Jaji)

On 14 November 2010, Khan Muhammad of 15 members (see Table 2). The members Mujahid, an Alokozai from Arghandab are elected by popular vote. However, there district, was appointed as chief of police of are no fixed quotas for representatives from Kandahar Province. He was previously the different districts. According to an AREU deputy to Mullah Naqibullah Akhund, a Briefing Paper, the rights and obligations of famous jihadi commander of Jamiat-e Islami the Provincial Council fall into three during the jihad against the former Soviet categories: “Participation in provincial Union. After the establishment of new regime development planning, monitoring and in 2001, he returned to the province and was appraisal of other provincial governance appointed as the head of Kandahar Corps. He institutions, participation in three inter- has also served as chief of police in Balkh related activities of conflict resolution, the Province and later on was appointed as elimination of customs “contrary to the law advisor to the Ministry of Interior. On 15 and shari’a ” or human rights standards, and April 2011 he was killed by a suicide bomber the reduction of illicit drug activity. 8 as he was headed towards his home.

3.3 Provincial Council 8 AREU Briefing Paper Series, Provincial Governance The present Provincial Council (PC) was Structures in Afghanistan: From Confusion to Vision? elected in September 2009 and is composed 2006.

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Table 2: Provincial Council members elected in 2009 (women are indicated with a *)

Tribal S/N: Name: Position: District: background

Dand and Kandahar 1 Ahmad Wali Karzai Provincial Council Popalzai City

Haji Muhammad Maiwand and 2 Deputy Director Nurzai Ehsan Panjwayi

3 Haji Hafizullah Clerk Alokozai Arghandab

Provincial Council 4 Haji Mukhtar Rasheedi Qazal Bashi Dand Member

Haji Sayed Jan Provincial Council 5 Popalzai Khakrez Khakrezwal Member

Haji Agha Lalai Provincial Council 6 Alokozai Panjwayi Dastageri Member

Haji Rahmatullah Provincial Council 7 Achakzai Achakzai Khan Member

Provincial Council 8 Ahmad Shah Khan Achakzai Dand & Kandahar City Member

Haji Muhammad Provincial Council Arghandab & 9 Alokozai Reedai Member Kandahar City

Provincial Council 10 Maryam Durrani* Popalzai Kandahar City Member

Provincial Council 11 Shakela Salehi* Shia Kandahar City Member

Provincial Council 12 Zarghuna Kakar* Kakar Kandahar City Member

Provincial Council 13 Haji Fazel Muhammad Achakzai Spin Boldak Member

Provincial Council 14 Niamatullah Sherdilai Nurzai Spin Boldak Member

Salih Muhammad 15 Senator Achakzai Takhta Pul Pahlawan

16 Bismillah Afghanmal Senator Mohmand Kandahar City

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4 Economy and Services

Local respondents consider shop-keeping, ($90 USD to $100 USD) in the city, more export / import of food and items of daily use, than double the World Bank poverty line poppy production, daily wage ($1.25 USD/day). 9 labour/construction, agriculture, transportation, the government or an NGO as the major sources of income in the city. The 4.1 Agriculture most important trading partner is Pakistan, with Iran and China also holding a substantial The main crops grown in and around share of the city’s market. There are many Kandahar City are pomegranates, grapes, shops and bazaars in the city and no scarcity carrots, alfalfa, spinach, and cauliflower. of goods. The main export items, fresh and Pomegranates are the most important crop dry fruits and nuts, are prized in Pakistan, and cultivated on an estimated third of all India, and UAE and have a great export cultivated land, fetching a high export price potential. Traders describe their main and relatively easy to transport. Irrigation problems as border and port delays, road water for Kandahar City comes primarily insecurity, political instability, arbitrary from the Arghandab canal network that ‘taxation’ of business transactions and feeds water from the Arghandab and Aliband inadequate infrastructure (lack of reliable rivers to other canals. The most important electricity, cool storage, processing and canal for Kandahar City is known both as packaging facilities). Intermittent closure of Loya Wiala (big canal) or Zahir Shahi canal, the Pakistan border crossing at Spin Boldak with tributaries that transverse the entire quickly increases the price of important city. The limitations of agricultural imported goods such as meat, fertilizer, sugar production in the city are similar to that of and rice, making the and surrounding districts. There is sufficient the crossing important to all Kandahar water for potentially far greater production residents. Infrastructural limitations severely but the lack of modern equipment (tractors, constrain Kandahar’s export potential. fertilizers, improved seeds and pesticides)

The average income level of each family is 9 www.globalissues.org/article/4/poverty-around-the- between 4,500 and 5,000 Afghani per month world#WorldBanksPovertyEstimatesRevised

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and refrigerated processing facilities hinder increased agricultural production and 4.4 Trade Associations distribution. Trade associations and interest groups in Kandahar City include organizations for perishable goods, non-perishable goods, and 4.2 Poppy Economy public services. Their main purpose is price Kandahar City is on a key route used to control and lobbying. For perishable goods transport opium from farms to factories in there are fresh and dried fruit, butchers and Afghanistan and Pakistan where it is refined bakers associations. For non-perishable into heroin. The narcotics industry in goods there are textiles, gasoline, Afghanistan is an economic competition construction materials, car dealers, between rival networks, often structured jewellery, gas and wood supplier along tribal lines that can be both pro- and associations. Service associations include anti-government. The tribes marginalized money exchange, tailors, hotels, truck from economic opportunities appear more drivers, teachers, doctors, and literary likely to be involved in illicit smuggling groups. activities. In 2002, the US Special Forces ordered the poppy bazaars in Hazar Ji Baba of Kandahar City be shut down and they remain 4.5 Education closed to this day.10 Literacy and education levels are relatively high in Kandahar City as compared to the rest of the countryside. The education sector 4.3 Banks, Currency and has been a main focus of the Canadian Money Changers efforts in Kandahar that focused on school Kandahar City is the financial centre of construction and rehabilitation, teacher southern Afghanistan. There are several training and literacy training. As of March banks in Kandahar City and it has the largest 2011 TLO surveyors identified at least 60 money exchange market in southern open schools but the number may be larger Afghanistan. The currency used in Kandahar because of the fast changing situation on the City is the Pakistani rupee (PKR) and the ground. There is also a University with four Afghani (AFA). Local respondents stated that faculties (medicine, engineering, agriculture large business transactions are still done in and training and education). There are also a the Pakistani rupee (PKR) but the Afghani large number of private education (AFA) is increasingly used. There are institutions functioning in the provincial approximately 90 roadside money exchangers capital and a teachers training institute. The in the city centre with most of them city is also an important centre for girls’ concentrated in the Sarafi market of Nahiya.11 education. 4.6 Health 10 Press Worldstream February 11, 2002 There is a mix of government, private and 11 The money exchangers and lenders use the hawala NGO-run hospitals and clinics in Kandahar (money transaction) system and charge one percent on City. There are 2 government-run hospitals every transaction to Kabul.

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and 9 private hospitals. The Ministry of Public BBC, Radio Azadi, Voice of America and Health also indicates an additional 16 clinics Radio Kandahar (government radio). Radio of different types, with 2 supported by the Killid (from Kabul) is popular with young government and 14 by NGOs: 4 people. There are also some print media, Comprehensive Health Clinics, 7 Basic Health such as Surghar (monthly magazine Clinics, and 5 specialized clinics. The largest published in and limited English) and hospital in the entire region, the Mirwais Tolo Afghan (5 Afghani and published 3 Hospital, is a government hospital that times a week by the Directorate of receives significant funding from the ICRC. Information and Culture). The local NGO, Afghan Health & The major mobile phone providers in Development Services (AHDS) runs the Kandahar city are Afghan Wireless (AWCC), highest number of clinics (8): four Basic Roshan, MTN, Etisalat and Afghan Telecom. Health Centres and four Comprehensive Currently, AWCC is the most popular Health Centres. The Afghan Red Crescent telecommunications company in Kandahar Society (ARCS) also runs a clinic. 4 other province, particularly in Kandahar City. It NGOs are in charge of the remaining 5 clinics: provides different types of services such as Comprehensive Disabled Afghans' Program mobile, internet and GPRS (General Packet (CDAP), Coordination of Afghan Relief Radio Service) services. Based on some (COAR), and Alternative Development and unconfirmed reports the majority of people Agriculture (ADAG) run one each, and the living inside the city use AWCC. Islamic Aid Health Centre (IAHC) runs two. Medicine of Pakistani, Iranian, Indian and According to local respondents, Roshan is Chinese origin is available in over 730 private the second largest provider of pharmacies located in different parts of the telecommunication services to Kandahar city. Most of them are staffed with poorly citizens. Although, it is more expensive than trained pharmacists or businessmen who are other companies, it provides better quality heavily relied upon to administer medical services, especially to those living in the advice. districts. The two other companies (MTN and Etisalat) are believed to be in competition with each other. Some affluent 4.7 Telecommunications and people use satellite phones as well. There are 2,000 public call offices (PCOs) located Media around the city. The Taliban warned the Kandahar City has a greater selection of print, companies not to operate services at night. radio and TV media when compared to the After refusal to comply, the Taliban blew up rest of the rural South. People say that media their transmitters. Overall, freedom is limited and content censored. telecommunication services have improved Local respondents provided the example of since 2010 and the number of mobile phone the government’s censorship and denial of users has increased in the province. dissemination opportunities to a disabled person who wanted to read poetry that was socially critical. The case was brought to the 4.8 Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Electricity Commission (AIHRC) and UNAMA without Previously, the main source of electricity was much success. FM radio channels include an installation of 14 diesel-run generators

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that was functioning in Brishna Kot area of Gul Agha Sherzai and Yusaf Pashtun. (nahiya 6) located in the north of the city; Prominent examples include the however, the provincial administration has construction of the Eidgah road, the road to recently added 3 more generators to the Arghandab district, the repair of Bai road, as existing installation. People are estimated to well as the construction of Ghazi Park. have access to 12 hours of electricity over a During the governorship of Yusaf Pashtun 24-hour period, a considerable increase in (2003-2004),12 the National Solidarity power supply compared to 6 hours of Project of the Ministry of Rural electricity reported in early 2010. Another Rehabilitation and Development (MRRD) major source of power in Kandahar City is the with the Ministry of Urban Development & of Helmand Province. It supplies Housing established an Urban Management electricity to precinct 9, 1, Mirza Muhammad Consultative Group (CG). A key area of Khan Kalacha of (nahiya 6) and other parts of intervention was the upgrading Loya Wiala. the city. The factories operating in The Canadian Provincial Reconstruction Shorandam area, located at the eastern Team (PRT) in Kandahar city did large outskirts of the city receive electricity from a infrastructure projects such as roads, 10 megawatt generator. Similarly, local bridges, and schools, including projects, authorities have installed another 10 mostly roads, in Eidgah, Bai, Sarai Jamai, megawatt electricity generator in Bagh-e Pul Shkapur Darwaza, Kabul Darwaza and Loya area of precinct 10 that provides 24 hour Wiala. The PRT works through a public electricity to Bagh-e Pul residents, although bidding system and implements its projects the government has not inaugurated it with local contractors, a business-sector officially. In addition to the sources dominated by Barakzai and Popalzai tribes. mentioned above, Kandahar municipality has also installed solar panels on the top of street- lights that provide light on the main streets during the night. This is an innovative and efficient source of electricity. When there is no electricity, many affluent people, NGOs and businesses rely on private generators to continue their daily operations. A National Solidarity Programme (NSP) project implemented by UN Habitat provides electricity through solar panels and generators in nahiya 2, 5, 6, and 9. More recently, 6 solar panels and 2 generators provide electricity in an area called Naw-e Hawza to the north of the city centre.

4.9 Development According to local respondents, between 2002 and 2005 large reconstruction projects 12 Pashtun also used to be the Minister of Urban were implemented during the governorships Development and returned to this post after Gul Agha Sherzai became provincial governor for a second time.

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Methodology

In addition to desk research in Kabul, assure that the surveyors were fit for qualitative research was conducted through the job. semi-structured interviews and focus group After surveyors were selected they were discussions. The methodology used for this trained on the survey questionnaire and the assessment reflects a pragmatic approach to information to be collected. A conducting research in a difficult and insecure comprehensive training was conducted at environment where obtaining information is the beginning of research, and subsequently not without danger. This is reflected in the surveyors were re-trained after the selection of surveyors, sampling techniques completion of both the first and second and triangulation of data. phases of data collection, when data was First, given that reporting was being delivered to TLO’s regional office in conducted in an environment characterized Kandahar. by volatility and mistrust of outsiders, Second, for security reasons only a few surveyors were not selected based on their formal interviews were conducted. The previous research experience, but were interview methodology was adjusted for carefully chosen according to the following informal discussions, where surveyors used criteria: their knowledge about individuals in the • Prior knowledge of the district context district to engage them into a conversation and ability to gather information covering various topics. Furthermore, again efficiently without drawing too much due to security concerns, surveyors did not attention to themselves. disclose the organization they worked for, or • Surveyors had to be known either to the donor that commissioned the research, TLO staff or trusted focal points – or the fact that they were conducting formal hence only individuals considered as research. honest and trustworthy were hired. If Third, representative and random sampling the surveyor was not well-known, techniques were not used for this background checks were conducted assessment; rather, surveyors relied on a mix with other trusted individuals to

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of non-probability sampling techniques in and economic context, and is an important order to reduce risk to their person: part of triangulation. Furthermore, in order to verify information, the Kabul research • Purposive/stratified sampling , where team conducted four individual interviews, a subset of the population which lasting approximately four hours each, with shares at least one common key informants in Kandahar and Kabul. characteristic is selected. For these profiles, tribal elders, government employees, teachers, and other Data limitations and Management individuals with relevant knowledge of Bias (e.g., farmers) in the district were These profiles are limited by several factors, selected for interviews. Men from all all linked to conducting research in an tribes within a district were insecure and difficult environment. In interviewed. conflict contexts, the well-being of surveyors • Convenience sampling , where those needs to be balanced against scientific individuals known to the surveyor, or standards and rigor. Even though we readily available to participate in the attempted as much as possible to double- research, are interviewed. Here check and triangulate information, we surveyors also used snowballing cannot fully guarantee the accuracy of data sampling, where they relied on presented here. referrals from initial interview partners to identify additional ones. First, even though surveyors were rigorously screened and subsequently trained, their • Judgment sampling, whereby potential bias towards other tribes/ethnic surveyors used their best judgment on groups/communities, international military whom to include in the interview actors, and the GIRoA must be taken into process. This only worked due to the account. careful selection of the surveyors based on their previous experience Second, while the sampling techniques used and knowledge of the districts dramatically reduced risks to the surveyors, included in this study. it may have introduced bias, as those interviewed likely do not represent a perfect Two surveyors conducted 45 individual cross-section of the population. As a result, informal interviews ranging from 30 minutes findings by no means reflect the views of the to three hours with: tribal elders (16), NGO entire population in the areas studied, even staff (4), shopkeepers (6), merchants (3), though interview partners were selected as medical doctors (2), spiritual figures (3), the most adequate sources to reflect the mullahs (3), former jihadi commanders (2), views and experiences of the local staff of the Directorate of Refugees and population. Repatriation (2), Afghan National Police (ANP) officers (2), and health professionals Third, the surveyor had to first memorize (2). parts of the questionnaire and could not immediately write down, much less record, Surveyors supplemented interview data with respondents’ answers. The delay between information gathered through participant receiving and recording information may observation. This helped, at times, to put have resulted in the omission of details or information into the relevant social, political, the oversimplifications.

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of 100 households, which each have an Estimation Methods average of 10 members. These profiles include two types of Tribal Group estimates : In interviews population estimates: those for the general with local respondents, surveyors asked tribal district population, as well as those for elders to estimate the tribal composition of smaller population groups within the district. the city. These estimations were compared The following methods were used to arrive at with the percentages available from the the final estimates, which differ from those of Ministry of Tribal Affairs (MTA). We found the Central Statistics Office. very few discrepancies between their estimates and our own, and when we did we Population estimates: Surveyors generally usually used the figure they estimated the population numbers with the provided. help of the number of mosques. They estimated that there are 2,000 mosques in the city. Every mosque represents an average

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List of Acronyms

Abbreviation Meaning

ABP Afghan Border Police ADA Afghan Development Association; Afghan NGO ADAG Alternative Development and Agriculture; Afghan NGO AFA Afghani; official currency of Afghanistan AHDS Afghan Health & Development Services; Afghan NGO AIHRC Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission ANA ANP Afghan National Police ANSF Afghan National Security Forces AOG Armed Opposition Groups APTTA Afghanistan Pakistan Transit Trade Agreement ARCS Afghan Red Crescent Society Association for Rural Development Inc.; international ARD development contractor AREU Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit ASOP Afghanistan Social Outreach Program ATTA Afghanistan Transit Trade Agreement AUB American University of Beirut AusAID Australian Agency for International Development Afghan Wireless Communication Company; Afghan AWCC telecommunication provider BBC British Broadcasting Corporation BHC Basic Health Centre Central Asia Development Group; international development CADG contractor CARs Central Asian Republics Comprehensive Disabled Afghans' Program; UNDP/UNOPS CDAP interagency initiative in Afghanistan CDC Community Development Council of NSP

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Abbreviation Meaning

CF Coalition Forces; Combined Forces Command – Afghanistan CHC Comprehensive Health Centre CIDA Canadian International Development Agency CoAR Coordination of Afghan Relief; Afghan NGO CoP Chief of Police CSO Central Statistics Office DDA District Development Assembly DFAIT Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada DG District Governor FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FATA Federally Administered Tribal Areas of Pakistan FC Frontier Corps; Pakistan FOB Forward Operating Base GDP Gross Domestic Product GFCF Gross Fixed Capital Formation GIRoA Government of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GIZ GmbH, Formerly GTZ GPRS General Packet Radio Service, Mobile Phone Norm HIG Hizb-e Islami of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar; Mujahideen Party HIK Hizb-e Islami of Younas Khales; Mujahideen Party IAHC Islamic Aid Health Centre; Afghan NGO IDLG Independent Directorate of Local Governance; part of GIRoA IDP Internally Displaced Person IED Improvised Explosive Device ISAF International Security Assistance Force ISI Inter-Services Intelligence of Pakistan KAF Kandahar Airfield K-PRT/KPRT Kandahar Provincial Reconstruction Team LBG Louis Berger Group, Inc.; U.S. war-zone contractor MRRD Ministry of Rehabilitation and Rural Development Africa's leading telecommunication provider, bought Areeba in MTN (Group) Afghanistan NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

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Abbreviation Meaning

NDS National Directorate of Security; part of GIRoA NGO Non-Governmental Organization NLC National Logistics Cell NSP National Solidarity Program of MRRD North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan, now called Khyber NWFP Pakhtunkhwa Peace Be Upon Him; used after mentioning Prophet PBUH Muhammad PC Provincial Council PCO Public Call Office PDPA People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan PKR Pakistani Rupee; official currency of Pakistan PMAP Pakhtunkhwa Milli Awami Party PRT Provincial Reconstruction Team RPG Rocket Propelled Grenade RRD Rural Rehabilitation and Development SDC Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation UN United Nations UNAMA United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan UNDOC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UN-Habitat United Nations Agency for Human Settlements UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund USAID United States Agency for International Development VoA Voice of America

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Glossary of Foreign Terms

Term Meaning

Also known as Afghan Social Democratic Party, a nationalist Afghan Millat Party party led by current Minister of Trade and Commerce Dr. Anwar Ul Haq Ahadi Collective pro bono work by community members for up- Ashar keeping of community (e.g., kareez cleaning) Chena Spring Dasht Desert Farsiwan Persian-speaking Sunnite Tajiks Fidayan-e Islam Esmat Muslim’s Party Ghaz Local plant Hamkari Cooperation in Dari, Name of Military Operation in Kandahar Hawala Informal money transfer system Ikhwanian Religious Political Party; Muslim Brotherhood Islahi Reform (Islah) - Refarmatory (Islahi) Jat Gypsy Traditional unit of land measurement in the Middle East and Jerib southwestern Asia; equivalent to 1/5 hectare or 2,000 square meters) Holy War in defence of one's faith; here the resistance against Jihad the Russian invasion from 1979 to 1989 Kafir Unbeliever Karez Man-made underground channel system Hereditary title among the traditional Pashtun landed elite; Khan other influential and affluent individuals also assume the title Kharwar Traditional unit weight measurement; equivalent to 5,400 kg Khyber Pukhthunkhwa New Name for NWFP in Pakistan Kiln Traditional oven for burning bricks Kuchi Pashtun (semi-)nomadic group Madrassa Islamic School Traditional village/community leader serving as representative Malek for outside interactions Malem Teacher; simplification of mualim

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Term Meaning

Traditional unit weight measurement; equivalent to 4.5 kg in Man Kandahar; in Kabul it is 7 kg Traditional administrative division in Afghanistan. Locally used to designate a shared space defined either by tribal or sub- Manteqa tribal links, geographic delimitations (valley, desert) and/or a common economic space (bazaar), infrastructure (e.g., karez), political (fort), or religious site (shrine). Markaz Center of a province, district or city Honorific Islamic religious title given to Sunni Muslim religious Mawlawi scholars or Ulema Mela Public fair and outing Holy Warriors; those who waged jihad against the Soviet mujahideen Union and the Afghan communist government in the 1980s. Mullah Islamic clergy usually attached with a mosque Nahiya City Precinct Nawor Name of place, usually after the proper name Pataks Road Check Posts Pir Spiritual Sufi Leader Qala Fort Reg Sand Shabnama Night Letter; used by Taliban insurgency to issue threats Shari’a Islamic Law Sharwali Wolayat Municipality for provincial centre Originally gathering of Islamic dignitaries; today any gathering Shura or council with official character Spin Giri White Bearded elder Sufi Follower of mystical Islam; also called Dervish Talash Searches Talisman or charm given by spiritual figure to protect against Taweez or heal ailments, is worn around the neck or put under pillow Topaki Gunman; used for militia member; implies a bad person Another form of talisman or charm given by spiritual figure to Tsacht protect against or heal ailments, needs to be dissolved in water and drunken Islamic tax (one tenth) on the potential produce output of a Ushur piece of land Wiala Stream; traditional irrigation canal Islamic Tax; giving of 2.5% of one's possessions (surplus Zakat wealth) to charity, generally to the poor and needy Ziarat Shrine

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