Notes Introduction 1 . José Martí, “Our America,” in José Martí: Selected Writings, ed. Esther Allen and Roberto González Echevarría (New York: Penguin Books, 2002), 295. 2 . Regarding empire, Sinha emphasizes the importance of framing female agency as the “outcome of specific struggles in history” rather than measuring women’s ideas and actions according to past or contemporary theories or foundationalisms. Mrinalini Sinha, “Mapping the Imperial Social Formation: A Modest Proposal for Feminist History” Signs 25 (Summer 2000) 4: 1077–1082. Julian Go refers to a “global inter-imperial field” in “Crossing Empires: Anti-Imperialism in the US Territories” (paper presented at American Anti-imperialism since 1776 Conference, Oxford University, England, April 29–30, 2011, cited with author’s permission). Paul A. Kramer, “Race, Empire and Transnational History,” in Colonial Crucible: Empire in the Making of the Modern American State , ed. Alfred W. McCory and Francisco A. Scarano (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2009), 199–209, emphasizes a dynamic distinct from the one I focus on: “Not simply that dif- ference made empire possible; empire remade difference in the process” (200). On white supremacy, see Marilyn Lake and Henry Reynolds, Drawing the Global Colour Line: White Men’s Countries and the International Challenge of Racial Equality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008). 3 . In this extensive literature, most influential on my thinking have been Antoinette M. Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865–1915 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); Kevin K. Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership and Politics in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Glenda E. Gilmore, Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896–1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1996); Louise Newman, White Women’s Rights: The Racial Origins of Feminism in the United States (New York: Oxford, 1999); Peggy Pascoe, What Comes Naturally: Miscegenation Law and the Making of Race in America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009). 4 . In this tremendous literature, see Peggy Pascoe, “Miscegenation Law, Court Cases, and Ideologies of ‘Race’ in Twentieth-Century America,” Journal of American History 83 (June 1996) 1: 44–69; Joanne Meyerowitz, “‘How Common Culture Shapes the Separate Lives’: Sexuality, Race, and Mid-Twentieth Century Social Constructionist Thought,” Journal of American History 96 (March 2010) 4: 1057–1086; Nell Irvin Painter, The History of White People (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), chapters 16 and 24 ; George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate over Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817–1914 (New York: Harper & Row, 1971); and Reginald Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981). 5 . Thomas Bender, ed., Rethinking American History in a Global Age (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002); “AHR Conversation: On Transnational History,” 173 174 Notes American Historical Review 11 (December 2006) 5: 1140–1464; Ann Curthoys, ed., Connected Worlds : History in Transnational Perspective (Canberra: ANU Australian National University, 2005.); Ian R. Tyrrell, Transnational Nation: United States History in Global Perspective since 1789 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007); Caroline F. Levander and Robert S. Levine, eds., Hemispheric American Studies (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2008); Manning Marable and Vanessa Agard-Jones, eds., Transnational Blackness: Navigating the Global Color Line (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008); Kimberly Jensen and Erika A. Kuhlman, eds., Women and Transnational Activism in Historical Perspective (Dordrecht: Republic of Letters Publishing, 2010). 6 . Irene Lara, “Goddess of the Americas in the Decolonial Imaginary: Beyond the Virtuous Virgin/Pagan Puta Dichotomy,” Feminist Studies 34 (2008) 1: 99–127, and Walter D. Mignolo, “Citizenship, Knowledge, and the Limits of Humanity,” American Literary History 18 (2006) 2: 312–331. Exile and exodus have had long purchase in African American history written in the United States. For a fresh departure, see the innovative work of Elizabeth Anne Pryor, “‘Jim Crow’ Cars, Passport Denials and Atlantic Crossings: African-American Travel, Protest and Citizenship at Home and Abroad, 1827–1865,” PhD diss., University of California Santa Barbara, 2008. 7 . Laura Briggs, Gladys McCormick, and J. T. Way, “Transnationalism: A Category of Analysis,” American Quarterly 60 (September 2008) 3: 625–648. Very stimulating treatments can be found in Rita de Grandis and Zilà Bernd, eds., “Unforeseeable Americas: Questioning Cultural Hybridity in the Americas,” Critical Studies vol. 13 (Atlanta: Rodopi, 2000), and Nancy L. Green, “Expatriation, Expatriates, and Expats: The American Transformation of a Concept,” American Historical Review 114 (April 2009) 2: 307–328. 8 . Frederick Cooper and Ann Laura Stoler, eds., Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Ruth Roach Pierson, Nupur Chaudhuri, and Beth McAuley, eds., Nation, Empire, Colony: Historicizing Gender and Race (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Caren Kaplan, Norma Alarcón, and Minoo Moallem, eds., Between Woman and Nation: Nationalisms, Transnational Feminisms, and the State (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999); Inderpal Grewal, Transnational America: Feminisms, Diasporas, Neoliberalisms , (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005); Tony Ballantyne and Antoinette Burton, eds., Bodies in Contact: Rethinking Colonial Encounters in World History (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005); Tony Ballantyne and Antoinette Burton, eds., Moving Subjects: Gender, Mobility and Intimacy in an Age of Global Empire (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009). 9 . Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (New York: Routledge, 1995), chapter 1, especially page 24; Ann Laura Stoler, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002), 57. 10 . Linda Gordon, “Internal Colonialism and Gender” in Haunted by Empire: Geographies of Intimacy in North American History , ed. Ann Laura Stoler (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006), 444, 450. 11 . Laura Briggs, “Gender and US Imperialism in Women’s History,” in The Practice of US Women’s History: Narratives, Intersections, and Dialogues , ed. S. J. Kleinberg, Eileen Boris, and Vicki Ruiz (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2007), 156. 12 . Chris Bayly, quoted in “AHR Conversation: On Transnational History,” 1452. 13 . Stephanie M. Camp, Closer to Freedom: Enslaved Women and Everyday Resistance in the Plantation South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004) and James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985). Notes 175 14 . For the idea of the native helper and related themes, see Peggy Pascoe, Relations of Rescue: The Search for Female Moral Authority in the American West, 1874–1939 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), and Catherine Ceniza Choy, Empire of Care: Nursing and Migration in Filipino American history (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003). 15 . Kristin L. Hoganson, “‘As Badly off as the Filipinos’: US Women’s Suffragists and the Imperial Issue at the Turn of the Twentieth Century,” Journal of Women’s History 13 (2001) 2: 9–33; Leila Rupp, “Challenging Imperialism in Women’s Organizations, 1888–1945,” NWSA Journal 8 (Spring 1996) 1: 8–27; Allison L Sneider, Suffragists in an Imperial Age: US Expansion and the Woman Question, 1870–1929 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, “Enfranchising Women of Color: Woman Suffragists as Agents of Empire,” in Nation, Empire Colony , 41–56. See also Ian R. Tyrrell, Reforming the World: The Creation of America’s Moral Empire (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010), especially chapter 6 . 16 . Laura Briggs, “In Contested Territory,” The Women’s Review of Books XVII (March 2000) 6: 21. 17 . Alessandra Lorini, “Cuba Libre and American Imperial Nationalism: Conflicting Views of Racial Democracy in the Post-Reconstruction United States,” in Contested Democracy: Freedom, Race and Power in American History, ed. Manisha Sinha and Penny Von Eschen (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 191–214; Laura Lomas, Translating Empire: José Martí, Migrant Latino Subjects, and American Modernities (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008); Maria DeGuzmán, Spain’s Long Shadow: The Black Legend, Off-Whiteness, and Anglo-American Empire (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2005). 18 . Emma Pérez, The Decolonial Imaginary: Writing Chicanas into History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999), xiii–xix. 19 . “No Dictionary Entries Found for ‘decolonial.’” Oxford English Dictionary , http:// www.oed.com/(viewed on January 1, 2011). For early works citing Spivak, see Laura E. Donaldson, Decolonizing Feminisms; Race, Gender & Empire Building (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), and Linda Tuhiai Smith, Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples (Dunedin,