1 Other 'Europes'
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Notes 1 Other ‘Europes’ 1 Mark Bassin, ‘Russia between Europe and Asia: The ideological construction of geographical space’, Slavic Review, vol. 50, no. 1 (Spring 1991), pp. 1–17, at pp. 6–7. 2 Alexander von Humboldt, Cosmos: A Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe, trans. E. C. Otté, vol. 2 (New York: Harper, 1850), p. 118. 3 For a review, see Armagan Emre Çakir, ed., Fifty Years of EU-Turkey Relations (London and New York: Routledge, 2011). 4 ‘Charlemagne: Europe, Russia and in-between’, The Economist, 28 October 2006, p. 58. 5 Yu. K. Efremov, ‘Obsuzhdenie voprosa o granitse Evropy i Azii v Moskovskom filiale Geograficheskogo obshchestva SSSR’, Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR: seriya geograficheskaya, no. 4 (1958), pp. 144–146, at pp. 144, 146. 6 ‘Gde konchaetsya Evropa?’, June 2010, at http://www.rgo.ru/2010/06/ gde- konchaetsya-evropa/, last accessed 5 July 2012. 7 ‘Obsuzhdenie voprosa o granitse Evropy i Azii’, Izvestiya Akademii Nauk SSSR: Seriya geograficheskaya, no. 4 (July–August 1963), pp. 154–155, at p. 155. For another discussion, see Michael Smith, ‘The European Union and a changing Europe: Establishing the boundaries of order’, Journal of Common Market Studies, vol. 34, no. 1 (March 1996), pp. 5–28. 8 Efremov, ‘Obsuzhdenie’, p. 144. 9 Herodotus, The History, trans. David Grene (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1987), p. 297 (the Rioni river was known at this time as the Phasis). 10 The Great Soviet Atlas put the entire Caucasus inside ‘Europe’, as far as the Turkish border with the USSR (Efremov, ‘Obsuzhdenie’, p. 145); so did the Great Soviet Encyclopedia that appeared in the early 1950s (Bol’shaya sovetskaya entsiklopediya, 2nd edn, vol. 15 (Moscow: Bol’shaya sovetskaya entsiklopediya, 1952), p. 382). At least four distinct Caucasian boundaries are identified in E. M. Murzaev, ‘Gde zhe provodit’ geograficheskuyu granitsu Evropy i Azii?’, Izvestiya Akademii nauk SSSR. Seriya geograficheskaya, no. 4 (July–August 1963), pp. 111–119, at p. 111. 11 The ‘action plans’ that were concluded by the EU with Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine as part of the European Neighbourhood Policy acknowledged their ‘European aspirations’ and welcomed their ‘European choice’ (see, for instance, the Ukrainian action plan at http://ec.europa.eu/world/enp/ pdf/action_plans/ukraine_enp_ap_final_en.pdf, last accessed 4 July 2012). 12 Peter Burke, ‘Did Europe exist before 1700?’, History of European Ideas, vol. 1, no. 1 (1980), pp. 21–29, at p. 21. 13 Richard J. Evans, ‘What is European history? Reflections of a cosmopolitan islander’, European History Quarterly, vol. 40, no. 4 (October 2010), pp. 593–605, at p. 594. 14 Denys Hay, Europe: The Emergence of an Idea, rev. edn (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1968), p. vi. 15 Evans, ‘What is European history?’, pp. 594–595. 271 272 Notes 16 Hugh Seton-Watson, ‘What is Europe, Where is Europe? From mystique to politique’, Encounter, vol. 65, no. 2 (July–August 1985), pp. 9–17, at p. 16. The ‘Muslim strand’ is given close attention in Jack Goody, Islam in Europe (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004). 17 Christoph Pan and Beate Sibylle Pfeil, comps., National Minorities in Europe: Handbook (Vienna: Braumuller, 2003), pp. 12, 14–16. 18 These included Luxembourgish, an official language of Luxembourg since 1984, and Turkish, an official language of Cyprus. 19 Calculated from David Crystal, ed., The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, 3rd edn (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 469, 479, 481. 20 Ute Frevert, ‘Europeanizing German history’, GHI Bulletin, no. 36 (Spring 2005), pp. 9–24, at p. 11. 21 Klaus Eder, ‘Europe as a narrative network: Taking the social embeddedness of identity constructions seriously’, in Sonia Lucarelli, Furio Cerutti and Vivien Schmidt, eds, Debating Political Identity and Legitimacy in the European Union (London and New York: Routledge, 2011), pp. 38–54. 22 To borrow the title of Anderson’s influential study, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, revised edn (London: Verso, 2006). 23 On these wider issues, see Christos Kassimeris, Football Comes Home: Symbolic Identities in European Football (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2010). The USSR became a member of UEFA (the Union of European Football Associations) in 1954, on its foundation. 24 See http://euobserver.com/18/8530, last accessed 19 May 2012. 25 As the Commission President, José Manuel Barroso, told journalists before the 2009 G20 summit, ‘Europe must speak with one voice in London’ (‘EU chief says Europe will speak with one voice at G20’, Reuters, 16 March 2009, at http://in.reuters.com/ article/2009/03/16/financial-britain-idINLG42435720090316, last accessed 5 July 2012). Soviet foreign minister Anatolii Gromyko had asked the West German dip- lomat Egon Bahr as early as 1970 when the European Community (as it then was) would ‘speak with a single voice’. ‘Ask again in twenty years’, responded Bahr, only to be described as a ‘defeatist’ when he related the exchange to the German Chancellor, Willy Brandt (O. F. Potemkina, N. Yu. Kaveshnikov and N. B. Kondrat’eva, eds, Evropeiskii Soyuz v XXI veke: vremya ispytanii (Moscow: Ves’ mir, 2012), p. 550). 26 See http://europa.eu/lisbon_treaty/take/index_en.htm, last accessed 5 July 2012. 27 See Gerard Delanty, Inventing Europe: Idea, Identity, Reality (Houndmills: Macmillan and New York: St Martin’s, 1995), and also Furio Cerutti and Sonia Lucarelli, eds, The Search for European Identity: Values, Policies and Legitimacy of the European Union (London: Routledge, 2008) and Jeffrey T. Checkel and Peter J. Katzenstein, eds, European Identity (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009). 28 Treaty Establishing the European Economic Community. Rome, 25th March, 1957 (London: HMSO, 1962), art. 237. 29 Treaty on European Union [hereafter Maastricht Treaty] (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1992), art. O, p. 138. 30 Ulrich Sedelmeier, ‘Enlargement’, in Helen Wallace, Mark A. Pollack and Alasdair R. Young, eds, Policy-Making in the European Union, 6th edn (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 401–429, at p. 405 (the EU’s response to a letter from King Hassan welcomed the Moroccan monarch’s wish for a ‘closer rapproche- ment’ and looked forward to a ‘reinforced and more extended cooperation’ but did not in fact directly refer to the issue of membership, nor identify geography as a Notes 273 relevant consideration: Uffe Ellemann-Jensen to Hassan II of Morocco, Copenhagen, 1 October 1987, EU archives, Brussels). 31 Former Commission President Romano Prodi spoke of a ‘dynamic Europe which, as stated in the founding Treaty of Rome, is open to all European countries that share its values and intend to pursue its common policies’ (Europe as I See it, trans. Allan Cameron (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2000), p. 23); there was, in fact, no reference to ‘values’ of any kind in the Treaty, and not a single reference to ‘democracy’, ‘human rights’ or the ‘rule of law’. We take this discussion further on p. 249ff. 32 Maastricht Treaty, art. F, p. 9. 33 Treaty of Amsterdam (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1997), p. 8 (the same wording had appeared in the preamble to the Maastricht Treaty). The Lisbon Treaty of 2007 made further changes in wording, amending what became article 2 of the Maastricht Treaty to read as follows: The Union is founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities. These values are common to the Member States in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail (Treaty of Lisbon, 17 December 2007, in Official Journal of the European Union, 2007/6 at p. C306/11). 34 Treaty of Amsterdam, p. 9. 35 Ibid., p. 24. 36 See ‘Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union’, Official Journal of the European Communities, 2000/C 364/01, 18 December 2000. The Lisbon Treaty pre- scribed that the Charter would have the ‘same legal value as the Treaties’ (Lisbon Treaty, p. C306/13). 37 Presidency Conclusions, Copenhagen European Council, 21–22 June 1993, at http://ec.europa.eu/bulgaria/documents/abc/72921_en.pdf, at p. 13, last accessed 5 July 2012. 38 Presidency Conclusions, Madrid European Council, 15–16 December 1995, at http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/en/ec/00400- C.EN5.htm, last accessed 5 July 2012. 39 Ian Barnes and Pamela Barnes, ‘Enlargement’, in Michelle Cini and Nieves Pérez- Solórzano Borragán, eds, European Union Politics, 3rd edn (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 418–435, at p. 424. 40 M. S. Gorbachev, Izbrannye rechi i stat’i, 7 vols (Moscow: Politizdat, 1987–1990), vol. 2, p. 114. There was another early reference in Gorbachev’s election address of 20 February 1985 (ibid., p. 126). 41 Ibid., vol. 3, p. 106. 42 Leonid I. Brezhnev, Leninskim kursom, vol. 9, 2nd edn (Moscow: Politizdat, 1983), p. 304. 43 M. S. Gorbachev, Zhizn’ i reformy, 2 vols (Moscow: Novosti, 1995), vol. 2, p. 72. It was during this official visit, Gorbachev wrote later, that the formulation ‘Europe – our common home’ had ‘first appeared’ (M. S. Gorbachev, Naedine s soboi (Moscow: Grin Strit, 2012), p. 458). 44 Gorbachev, Izbrannye rechi i stat’i, vol. 2, pp. 441–442; also in Gorbachev, Zhizn’ i reformy, vol. 2, p. 71. Speaking rather later to the French Senate, a deputy foreign minister explained that the ‘common home’ could have ‘different interiors, reflecting the political pluralism of its inhabitants’, but it assumed a set of ‘com- mon human values’, and it should provide a ‘firmly-based structure of security not only against war, but against other threats to the existence of European civilisation’ (‘Vystuplenie zamestitelya ministra inostrannykh del SSSR V.