CHAPTER 2 ILLUSION AND ITS DOUBLENESS ______

[W]e're dreaming. But we've got to be more realistic. —John Kendall (THI 2014)

The Fancifulness of Illusion

Dream studies, in general, involve the issues of illusion and reality— as already indicated in Sec. 1.3. The relationship between illusion and reality (in the context of dream studies) is dialectic, since there is no analysis of illusion without that of reality, and vice versa—to be eventually transcended altogether later. Yet, a scholarly danger here is to reduce the analysis of one to that of the other; thus, this book is to devote a whole chapter on each, with the understanding, of course, that the two are related. This dialectic relationship between illusion and reality (in the context of dream studies) can be revealed by showing how and why the analysis of illusion (in Chapter Two) is inadequate without the inclusion of reality, just as the examination of reality (in Chapter Three) is insufficient without the consideration of illusion. The issues concerning illusion (in the context of dream studies) are to be addressed in this chapter (Chapter Two), whereas the issues concerning reality (in the context of dream studies) will be analyzed in the next chapter (Chapter Three) instead. With this dialectic treatment in mind—a good way to examine illusion and its doubleness (in the context of dream studies) is by way of the evaluation of the extent to which it is in fact both possible (or impossible) and desirable (or undesirable). This can be done by way of a comprehensive analysis of illusion (in the context of dream studies) from the four perspectives of the mind, nature, society, and culture (in accordance to my sophisticated methodological holism, as explained in Sec. 1.9). Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 151

In the Eastern world, “this type of argument is well known” in the Chinese classic work “Zhuangzi Dreamed He Was a Butterfly (莊周夢蝶, Zhuāngzhōu mèng dié),” in which, “one night, Zhuangzi (369 BC) dreamed that he was a carefree butterfly, flying happily. After he woke up, he wondered how he could determine whether he was Zhuangzi who had just finished dreaming he was a butterfly, or a butterfly who had just started dreaming he was Zhuangzi. This was a metaphor for what he referred to as a 'great dream,'” and the argument continued like this: “He who dreams of drinking wine may weep when morning comes; he who dreams of weeping may in the morning go off to hunt. While he is dreaming he does not know it is a dream, and in his dream he may even try to interpret a dream. Only after he wakes does he know it was a dream. And someday there will be a great awakening when we know that this is all a great dream. Yet the stupid believe they are awake, busily and brightly assuming they understand things, calling this man ruler, that one herdsman—how dense! Confucius and you are both dreaming! And when I say you are dreaming, I am dreaming, too. Words like these will be labeled the Supreme Swindle. Yet, after ten thousand generations, a great sage may appear who will know their meaning, and it will still be as though he appeared with astonishing speed.” (WK 2014p; B. Watson 1996) And in Buddhism, some in the Dzogchen school “consider perceived reality literally unreal. As a prominent contemporary teacher, Chögyal Namkhai Norbu, puts it: 'In a real sense, all the visions that we see in our lifetime are like a big dream.' In this context, the term 'visions' denotes not only visual perceptions, but appearances perceived through all senses, including sounds, smells, tastes and tactile sensations, and operations on received mental objects.” (WK 2014p)

The Dream Argument, and Simulated Reality The dream argument becomes “a springboard for those who question whether our own reality may be an illusion. The ability of the mind to be tricked into believing a mentally generated world is the 'real world' means at least one variety of simulated reality is a common, even nightly event” (as in dreaming). (WK 2014p) The idea of “simulated reality” here refers to “reality” which “could be simulated…to a degree indistinguishable from 'true' reality….It could contain conscious minds which may or may not be fully aware that they are living inside a simulation. This is quite different from the current, technologically achievable concept of virtual reality. Virtual reality is easily distinguished from the experience of actuality; participants are 152 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

never in doubt about the nature of what they experience. Simulated reality, by contrast, would be hard or impossible to separate from 'true' reality.” (WK 2014q) For instance, “a dream could be considered a type of simulation capable of fooling someone who is asleep. As a result the 'dream hypothesis' cannot be ruled out….The philosophical underpinnings of this argument are also brought up by Descartes, who was one of the first Western philosophers to do so. In Meditations on First Philosophy, he states '…there are no certain indications by which we may clearly distinguish wakefulness from sleep,' and goes on to conclude that 'It is possible that I am dreaming right now and that all of my perceptions are false.'” (WK 2014q) And Davis J. Chalmers (2003) “discusses the dream hypothesis, and notes that this comes in two distinct forms”: (WK 2014q)

• “that [a dreamer] is currently dreaming, in which case many of his beliefs about the world are incorrect.” • “that he has always been dreaming, in which case the objects he perceives actually exist, albeit in his imagination.”

In this way, the dream argument is closely related to the “simulation hypothesis” about “simulated reality.” Yet, the dream argument differs from the simulation argument in one fundamental way, in that “the dream argument contends that a futuristic technology is not required to create a simulated reality, but rather, all that is needed is a human brain. More specifically, the mind's ability to create simulated realities during REM sleep affects the statistical likelihood of our own reality being simulated.” (WK 2014z)

The Simulation Hypothesis The “simulation hypothesis” (also known as the “simulation argument” or “simulism”) proposes that “reality is a simulation and those affected are generally unaware of this. The concept is reminiscent of René Descartes' Evil Genius but posits a more futuristic simulated reality.” (WK 2014z) In its current form, “the Simulation Argument began in 2003 with the publication of a paper by Nick Bostrom. Bostrom considers…that 'we have interesting empirical reasons to believe that a certain disjunctive claim about the world is true,'” and that “one of the disjunctive propositions” is that “we are almost certainly living in a simulation.” (WK 2014z; N. Bostrom 2008) Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 153

Davis J. Chalmers (2003) went on to “identify three separate hypotheses, which, when combined, gives what he terms the Matrix Hypothesis; the notion that reality is but a computer simulation,” as shown below: (WK 2014z)

• “The Creation Hypothesis”—states that “physical space-time and its contents were created by beings outside physical space-time.” • “The Computational Hypothesis”—states that “microphysical processes throughout space-time are constituted by underlying computational processes.” • “The Mind–Body Hypothesis”—states that “mind is constituted by processes outside physical space-time, and receives its perceptual inputs from and sends its outputs to processes in physical space- time.”

And “the term Simulism appears to have been coined by Ivo Jansch in September 2006.” (WK 2014z)

Implications for Skepticism In the end, the dream argument, together with its related arguments (like the simulation argument), has a strong dose of skepticism embedded within it and is related to the “skeptical hypothesis.” The “skeptical hypothesis” here refers to “a hypothetical situation which can be used in an argument for skepticism about a particular claim or class of claims. Usually the hypothesis posits the existence of a deceptive power that deceives our senses and undermines the justification of knowledge otherwise accepted as justified.” (WK 2014aa) In this sense, the “skeptical hypothesis” is strongly related to the “dream argument” (and other related ones, like the “simulated argument”). After all, “the 'dream argument' of Descartes and Zhuangzi supposes reality to be indistinguishable from a dream. Descartes' evil demon is a being 'as clever and deceitful as he is powerful, who has directed his entire effort to misleading me'….The simulated reality hypothesis or 'Matrix Hypothesis' suggest that everyone, or even the entire universe, might be inside a computer simulation….” (WK 2014aa)

Problems with the dream argument However, to the critics, this argument on illusion, the senses, and the dream argument has some major problems. Consider, for illustration, a few examples below. 154 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

Firstly, one main criticism of the argument on illusion, the senses, and the dream argument is that the kind of skepticism inherent in the dream argument lacks common sense. For instance, to the critics, “it has been argued that common sense and considerations of simplicity rule against it” (the dream argument), as Bertrand Russell in The Problems of Philosophy thus explained: “There is no logical impossibility in the supposition that the whole of life is a dream….But although this is not logically impossible, there is no reason whatever to suppose that it is true; and it is, in fact, a less simple hypothesis, viewed as a means of accounting for the facts of our own life, than the common-sense hypothesis that there really are objects independent of us, whose action on us causes our sensations.” (WK 2014q) Secondly, another main criticism of the argument on illusion, the senses, and the dream argument is that there are alternative ways (other than the common sense argument as indicated above) to refute skepticism. For instance, “many contemporary philosophers have attempted to refute dream skepticism in detail….Perhaps most notably, Ernest Sosa (2007) has devoted a chapter of a recent monograph to the topic. There, Sosa presents a new theory of dreaming and argues that his theory raises a new argument for skepticism, which he attempts to refute.” (WK 2014p) Thirdly, still another main criticism of the argument on Illusion, the senses, and the dream argument is that some versions of the dream argument are motivated by theological interests. For instance, the “Creation Hypothesis” in the “Matrix Hypothesis” by Chalmers is closely linked to the “Omphalos hypothesis in theology.” (WK 2014z) Fourthly, an additional main criticism of the argument on illusion, the senses, and the dream argument is that it is often not verifiable. For instance, as Chalmers (2003) himself acknowledged, the simulation argument is “metaphysical” in nature and is therefore beyond the observable realm for empirical verification. (WK 2014z) Fifthly, another additional main criticism of the argument on illusion, the senses, and the dream argument is that the skeptical hypothesis can be contradictory. For instance, to the critics, the skeptical hypothesis asserts “that no truth is knowable or only probable,” so a main criticism against it is that “the proposition that 'no truth is knowable' is knowably true is contradictory” by itself. (WK 2014aa; P. Kreeft 1994) Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 155

And sixthly, still another additional main criticism of the argument on illusion, the senses, and the dream argument is that the skeptical hypothesis can be “unhealthy.” For instance, to the critics, “Pierre Le Morvan (2011)…advocates a third approach—he dubs it the 'Health Approach'—that explores when skepticism is healthy and when it is not, or when it is virtuous and when it is vicious.” (WK 2014aa)

Beyond the Dream Argument These criticisms of the argument on illusion, the senses, and the dream argument should not be misunderstood as a total rejection of its validity but serve to show us the two opposing sides of the debate, such that the possibility (or impossibility) and desirability (or undesirability) of illusion (from the perspective of the mind with illusion, the senses, and the dream argument as a case study here) are not to the extent that the respective defenders would like us to believe. In fact, the analysis of illusion, the senses, and the dream argument can teach us a valuable lesson on the ontological principles in existential dialectics, and good examples include the formalness-informalness principle, the absoluteness-relativeness principle, the partiality-totality principle, the predictability-unpredictability principle, the explicability- inexplicability principle, the fiction-reality principle, the cognitiveness- noncognitiveness principle, the finiteness-transfiniteness principle, the preciseness-vagueness principle, the simpleness-complicatedness principle, the openness-hiddenness principle, the denseness-emptiness principle, the rule-exception principle, the indispensability-dispensability principle, the prototypicality-variation principle, the change-constancy principle, the order-chaos principle, the slowness-quickness principle, the expansion-contraction principle, the optimality-nonoptimality principle, the simultaneity-nonsimultaneity principle, the isolation-interaction principle, the theory-praxis principle, the convention-novelty principle, the evolution-transformation principle, the symmetry-asymmetry principle, the softness-hardness principle, the seriousness-playfulness principle, the activeness-inactivess principle, the selfness-otherness principle, the regression-progression principle, the same-difference principle, the stability-reaction principle, the functionality-nonfunctionality principle, the intentionality-nonintentionality principle: the survivability-non- survivability principle, the materiality-nonmateriality principle, and the proaction-adjustment principle. For instance, in relation to the formalness-informalness principle, if there is formalness (e.g., the formal logical requirement of soundness, 156 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

completeness, and consistency in a system of ideas, as in the dream argument), there is informalness (e.g., the non-formal existence of unsoundness, incompleteness, and inconsistency in the dream argument, as shown in the criticisms that the kind of skepticism inherent in the dream argument lacks common sense, that there are alternative ways other than the common sense argument as indicated above to refute skepticism, that some versions of the dream argument are motivated by theological interests, that it is often not verifiable, that the skeptical hypothesis can be contradictory, and that the skeptical hypothesis can be “unhealthy”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the absoluteness-relativeness principle, if there is absoluteness (e.g., the absolute view on the dream argument by the advocates), there is relativeness (e.g., what is right for the advocates in regard to the dream argument is not necessarily so for the critics like Bertrand Russell with his “common sense” rebuttal). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the partiality-totality principle, if there is partiality (e.g., the partial view on the dream argument by the advocates like Descartes), there is totality (e.g., the more holistic view on the dream argument, such that the whole is not the sum of its parts, that is, it cannot be reduced to the sum of opposing views by Descartes, Russell, Sosa, Le Morvan, Chalmers, etc., since there will emerge new views in the future not yet known today, just as there are already alternative views nowadays which do not side exclusively with any of them, as is the analysis here). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the predictability-unpredictability principle, if there is predictability (e.g., the predictable tendency that the dream argument can be used for the simulation argument), there is unpredictability (e.g., the more difficult task to predict exactly which new arguments will be proposed in a particular distant future era to defend the simulation argument). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the explicability-inexplicability principle, if there is explicability (e.g., the explanation, by those advocates of the dream argument, of its basis on skepticism, that is, on “the existence of a deceptive power that deceives our senses and undermines the justification of knowledge otherwise accepted as justified”), there is inexplicability (e.g., the lack of sufficient explanation, by those advocates of the dream argument, of why skepticism is necessarily desirable, since the critic like “Pierre Le Morvan…advocates a third approach—he dubs it the 'Health Approach'—that explores when skepticism is healthy and when it is not, or Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 157

when it is virtuous and when it is vicious”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the fiction-reality principle, if there is fiction (e.g., the fictional aspect of dreaming, insofar as what happens in a dream can be an illusion), there is reality (e.g., the realistic aspect of dreaming, insofar as there exists a dreamer who dreams). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the cognitiveness-noncognitiveness principle, if there is cognitiveness (e.g., a view of things on the basis of reason and evidences, as shown in the finding that the dream argument can be related to the simulaiton argument), there is noncognitiveness (e.g., a view of things on the basis of non-cognitive factors like envy, jealousy, power, nationality, race, gender, age, class, greed, lust, status, faith, anger, sadness, joy, fear, wish, etc.—as shown in the faith of Chalmers in the “Creation Hypothesis” for his “Matrix Hypothesis” on the basis of the “Omphalos hypothesis in theology, even though it remains questionable to those who reject the theology). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the finiteness-transfiniteness principle, if there is finiteness (e.g., the finite number of different hypotheses which have been used to understand dreaming, like the dream argument, the simulation argument, etc. ), there is transfiniteness (e.g., the transfinite number of all the individuals, be they humans or animals, that have ever dreamed in history). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the preciseness-vagueness principle, if there is preciseness (e.g., the precise identification of 2 forms of the dream hypothesis by Chalmers in the article aforecited), there is vagueness (e.g., the vagueness in the identification of the 2 forms of the dream hypothesis by Chalmers in the article aforecited, since it is not clear why there must be only 2, not 3, 4, 5, 6, and so on). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the simpleness-complicatedness principle, if there is simpleness (e.g., the relatively simple analysis of the dream argument by the advocates), there is complicatedness (e.g., the relatively more complicated analysis of the dream argument, by challenging the claims and assumptions, as shown in the problems pointed out by the critics as cited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the openness-hiddenness principle, if there is openness (e.g., the open exploration of using the “Creation Hypothesis” for the “Matrix Hypothesis” by Chalmers), there is hiddenness (e.g., the hidden bias in the open exploration of using the “Creation Hypothesis” for the “Matrix Hypothesis” by Chalmers, since he was motivated by theological 158 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

interests, because the “Creation Hypothesis” is closely linked to the “Omphalos hypothesis in theology”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the denseness-emptiness principle, if there is denseness (e.g., the relatively denser concentration of concerns with skepticism by those for the dream argument), there is emptiness (e.g., the relatively less dense, or more empty, concentration of concerns with the “common sense” argument by those for the dream argument). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the rule-exception principle, if there are rules (e.g., the usual generalization, procedure, habit, or tendency that the dream argument is closely linked to the simulaiton argument, because “a dream could be considered a type of simulation capable of fooling someone who is asleep”), there are exceptions (e.g., a case to which a rule does not apply, such as the exceptional case that the dream argument differs from the simulaiton argument in the situation when “a futuristic technology is not required to create a simulated reality, but rather, all that is needed is a human brain”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the indispensability-dispensability principle, if there is indispensability (e.g., the need for something or someone, like the necessary inclusion of “skepticism” in the dream argument), there is dispensability (e.g., the superfluity of something or someone, like the dispensable inclusion of “a futuristic technology…to create a simulated reality” in the dream argument, since “all that is needed is a human brain” to dream). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the prototypicality-variation principle, if there is prototypicality (e.g., the prototype, like the example about the original work by Plato in Theaetetus on the dream argument), there is variation (e.g., different variants of the protoptye, as shown in many studies since the original work by Plato in Theaetetus on the dream argument—like the later ones by Aristotle in Metaphysics, Descartes in Meditations on First Philosophy, and so on, though each with its own variation, contribution, and disagreement). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the change-constancy principle, if there is change (e.g., the ever new ways to study dreaming, as shown in the dream argument), there is constancy (e.g., the ever constant existence of different problems with the ever new ways to study dreaming, as shown in the problems with the dream argument pointed out by the critics). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the order-chaos principle, if there is order (e.g., the more or less orderly view on reality, if looked from the sole vantage point of Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 159

“the common-sense hypothesis” by Russell to refute the dream argument), there is chaos (e.g., the more or less chaotic view on reality, if looked from the multiple, conflicting vantage points of both the advocates and the critics of the dream argument, especially in regard to the different problems aforecited, such that they do not add up to much of anything coherent). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the slowness-quickness principle, if there is slowness (e.g., the relatively slower speed for an advocate of the dream argument to decide if he is dreaming or awake), there is quickness (e.g., the relatively quicker speed for an advocate of “the common-sense hypothesis” to decide if he is dreaming or awake). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the expansion-contraction principle, if there is expansion (e.g., the relatively more developed ability to doubt things among those in favor of the dream argument), there is contraction (e.g., the relatively less developed ability to ascertain things among those in favor of the dream argument). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the optimality-nonoptimality principle, if there is optimality (e.g., the search for highly favorable options, like the quest for foundationism by Descartes, in that “he can only be sure of one thing: thought exists—cogito ergo sum, normally translated as 'I think, therefore I am,'” while being ready "never to accept anything for true which I did not clearly know to be such”), there is nonoptimality (e.g., the existence of non-optimal alternatives to optimality, like the argument for more realistic studies by the criticss, who, like Gilbert Ryle, pointed out the “ghost in the machine” in rejecting the foundationism by Descartes, because the “mind- body dualism” is mistaken, in that “mental states” cannot be “separable from physical states” as falsely assumed in “I think, therefore I am”). (WK 2014bb) And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the simultaneity-nonsimultaneity principle, if there is simultaneity (e.g., the occurrence of different things more or less at the same time, such as the simultaneous co-existence of different arguments about skepticsm, nowadays, like the dream argument, the simulation argument, etc.), there is nonsimultaneity (e.g., the occurrence of something after something else, such as the historical development of the dream argument in antiquity, well before the historical development of the simulation argument in 2003). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the isolation-interaction principle, if there is isolation (e.g., the state of a situation that is separated from others, such as the idea of the mind being separable from the body in René Descartes' mind-body dualism), there is interaction (e.g., the influence of entities on one another, such as the idea of the interaction between the mind and the body by 160 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

Gilbert Ryle, in his rejection of René Descartes' mind-body dualism). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the theory-praxis principle, if there is theory (e.g., the theoretical construction of the dream argument in the field of philosophy), there is praxis (e.g., the practical application of the dream argument in the field of philosophy to the field of film making, like the use of the dream argument in the movie “The Matrix”). (WK 2014p) And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the convention-novelty principle, if there is convention (e.g., the conventional wisdom about the mind-body dualism by Descartes in the debate on skepticism), there is novelty (e.g., the alternative novel challenge to the conventional wisdom about the mind-body dualism by Descartes in the debate on skepticism—by the new idea of the “ghost in the machine” by Gilbert Ryle, in his rejection of the Cartesian argument). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the evolution-transformation principle, if there is evolution (e.g., the natural evolution of humans to dream in the state of nature), there is transformation (e.g., the technical transformation of human ability to analyse dreams by the invention of different arguments like the “dream argument,” the “skepticism argument,” the “simulation argument”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the symmetry-asymmetry principle, if there is symmetry (e.g., the co-existence of different arguments on skepticism nowadays, like the ones by Descartes, Ryle, etc.), there is asymmetry (e.g., the argument by Ryle is more acceptable nowadays than the one by Descartes in their debate on skepticism). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the softness-hardness principle, if there is softness (e.g., the defense of the dream argument by the advocates like Zhuangzi), there is hardness (e.g., the critique of the dream argument, as shown in the problems pointed out by the critics like Russell aforecited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the seriousness-playfulness principle, if there is seriousness (e.g., the serious business of those who try to understand the nature of dreaming), there is playfulness (e.g., the playful part of those who try to understand the nature of dreaming, when they play around with different arguments over the centuries, like the dream argument, the simulation argument, the skepticism argument, etc.). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the activeness-inactivess principle, if there is activeness (e.g., the relative activeness of someone who is awake and doing some work), there is inactiveness (e.g., the relative inactiveness of a dreamer Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 161

who is not awake and therefore cannot work, although he can be dreaming about working). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the selfness-otherness principle, if there is selfness (e.g., the tendency to be mostly centered on one’s self or group, as shown in the defense by Chalmers of his “Creation Hypothesis” for the “Matrix Hypothesis,” because of his theological interests, that is, his interest in the “Omphalos hypothesis in theology, even though it remains questionable to those who reject the theology), there is otherness (e.g., the tendency to be mostly centered on others, as shown in the academic analysis of both sides of the debate on the dream argument and its relation to the “Matrix Hypothesis,” etc., as an advancement in the knowledge about dreaming and reality, for humanity). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the regression-progression principle, if there is regression (e.g., the regression made by the dream argument, as shown in the problems pointed out by the critics aforecited), there is progression (e.g., the progress made by the dream argument, as shown in the contribution to the understanding of skepticism aforecited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the same-difference principle, if there is similarity in outcome (e.g., the contribution to the molding and control of beliefs, values, and behaviors, regardless of whether this be done by way of the Dzogchen school of Buddhism, or by way of Descartes' mind-body dualism), there is difference in outcome (e.g., the contribution to the molding and control of beliefs, values, and behaviors by way of the Dzogchen school of Buddhism for a relatively more skeptical worldview—but the contribution to the molding and control of beliefs, values, and behaviors by way of Descartes' mind-body dualism for a relatively more foundationalist worldview). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the stability-reaction principle, if there is stability (e.g., the relatively more stable condition of Descartes' mind-body dualism in the old days), there is reaction (e.g., the relatively more stable condition of Descartes' mind-body dualism in the old days then led to further changes later on, when it was later replaced by Ryle’s new idea of the “ghost in the machine”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the functionality-nonfunctionality principle, if there is functionality (e.g., the presence of action for which something or someone is fitted, as shown in Descartes' mind-body dualism, which serves the function of providing an epistemic foundationalism in the form of “I think, therefore I am”), there is nonfunctionality (e.g., the relative lack of action for which something or someone is fitted, as shown in the problems 162 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

with Descartes' mind-body dualism, such that its epistemic foundationalism is not as functional as the advocates would like us to believe). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the intentionality-nonintentionality principle, if there is intentionality (e.g., the planning or design of something for a certain outcome, as shown in the intended consequences in regard to the dream argument, as those who proposed it intended to explain the illusion of the senses, with skepticism as a consequence), there is nonintentionality (e.g., the relative absence of planning or design of something for a certain outcome, such that the outcome can even be counter-intentional in being the opposite of what was originally planned, as shown in the use of the dream argument for entertainment in the movie “The Matrix”—contrary to the original intention of those who proposed it to explain the illusion of the senses, with skepticism as a consequence). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the survivability-nonsurvivability principle, if there is survivability (e.g., the relative survival, nowadays, of the idea of the “ghost in the machine” by Gilbert Ryle, in his rejection of the Cartesian argument), there is non-survivability (e.g., the relative non-survival, nowadays, of the mind-body dualism by Descartes, as it has been rejected by many philosophers). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the materiality-nonmateriality principle, if there is materiality (e.g., the material outcome in relation to space-time, matter- energy, Having, etc., like the use of the dream argument to question the reliability of the senses in everyday), there is non-materiality (e.g., the nonmaterial outcome in relation to the quest for Being, Belonging, etc., like the work by Chalmers to link the dream argument with the simulation argument, which is further refined to include the Creation Hypothesis that “physical space-time and its contents were created by beings outside physical space-time,” which is related to “the Omphalos hypothesis in theology” that God created the world recently). And the reverse direction also holds true. And in relation to the proaction-adjustment principle, if there is proaction (e.g., the detailed, long-term planning for an outcome, such as the well-thought-out quest for a form of foundationalism in “I think; therefore, I am” by Descartes, after refusing to “accept anything for true which I did not clearly know to be such”), there is adjustment (e.g., the ad- hoc, spontaneous dealing with a contingent outcome, such as the contingent appeal by Chalmers to the Creation Hypothesis, which is related to “the Omphalos hypothesis in theology,” as a way to formulate his version of the simulation argument, when he encountered some Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 163

problems in the original simulation argument by Nick Bostrom in 2003). And the reverse direction also holds true.

Illusion, Subjectivity, and Dreamwork

Another way to evaluate the possibility (or impossibility) and desirability (or undesirability) of illusion from the perspective of the mind is to explore illusion, subjectivity, and dreamwork. An argument in the literature is that “dreamwork” can “explore the various images and emotions that a dream presents and evokes, while not attempting to come up with a single unique dream meaning. In this way the dream remains 'alive' whereas if it has been assigned a specific meaning, it is 'finished' (i.e., over and done with). Dreamworkers take the position that a dream may have a variety of meanings,” depending on an individual dreamer in question (say, his subjectivity). (WK 2014cc)

Dreamwork, and the Subjectivity of an Individual Because of this stress on individuality, “a tenet of dreamwork is that each person has his or her own dream 'language.' Any given place, person, object or symbol can differ in its meaning from dreamer to dreamer and also from time to time in the dreamer's ongoing life situation. Thus someone helping a dreamer get closer to her or his dream through dreamwork adopts an attitude of 'not knowing' as far as possible.” (WK 2014cc) So, in dreamwork, it is important “to wait until all the questions have been asked—and the answers carefully listened to—before the dreamworker (or dreamworkers if it is done in a group setting) offers any suggestions about what the dream might mean. In fact, a dreamworker often prefaces any interpretation by saying, 'if this were my dream, it might mean,'” which is “a technique first developed by Montague Ullman, Stanley Krippner, and Jeremy Taylor and now widely practiced.” (WK 2014cc) In this way, “dreamers are not obliged to agree with what is said and may use their own judgment in deciding which comments appear valid or provide insight. If the dreamwork is done in a group, there may well be several things that are said by participants that seem valid to the dreamer but it can also happen that nothing does. Appreciation of the validity or insightfulness of a comment from a dreamwork session can come later, sometimes days after the end of the session.” (WK 2014cc)

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Psychodynamic Perspective in Dreamwork The foundation of dreamwork is based on “Sigmund Freud's theory of Psychoanalysis,” which is “largely based on the importance of the unconscious mind. According to the theory, the unconscious does not only affect a person during the day, but also in dreams. In the psychodynamic perspective, the transferring of unconscious thoughts into consciousness is called dreamwork.” ( WK 2014cc) In the context of dreams, “there are two different types of content, the manifest and latent content. The latent content is the underlying, unconscious feelings and thoughts. The manifest content is made up of a combination of the latent thoughts and it is what is actually being seen in the dream. According to Carl Jung's principle of compensation, the reason that there is latent content in dreams is because the unconscious is making up for the limitations of the conscious mind. Since the conscious mind cannot be aware of all things at once, the latent content allows for these hidden away thoughts to be unlocked. Psychoanalysts use the knowledge of the process of dreamwork to analyze dreams. In other words, the clinician will study the manifest content to understand what the latent content is trying to say.” (WK 2014cc; S. Cloninger 2008)

Steps of Dreamwork This psychodynamic perspective in dreamwork follows four main steps (as summarized in Table 2.2). (WK 2014cc) (a) Condensation The first step is called “condensation,” which refers to “the combining of different unconscious thought into one. The combining of the unconscious thoughts makes it easier for the mind to express them in the dream. The step of condensation has two sub-steps, day residues and censorship….Day residues are left over daily issues that bring up some unconscious thought. The mind then displays this thought through a similar situation from the day. Before the unconscious thoughts can be displayed, they are censored. Since many unconscious thoughts do not follow the moral code of society, the mind changes them to be more respectful. This is done so that it does not cause the dreamer anxiety and therefore wake them up. It is also due to censorship that multiple unconscious thoughts are combined, since it is hard to just have one slip through.” (WK 2014cc; J. Suler 2003; FRE 2014)

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(b) Displacement The second step is called “displacement,” which is “where the dream directs feelings or desires onto an unrelated subject. This is similar to the practice of transference, which is a common technique used in psychoanalysis.” (WK 2014cc) (c) Symbolism The third step is called “symbolism,” which refers to “objects or situations” in dreams which “actually represent something else, commonly an unconscious thought or desire. An example may be that in your dream you burned the dinner you were cooking for your parents. This may actually represent your fear of failing them.” (WK 2014cc) (d) Secondary Revision And the fourth step is called “secondary revision,” where “all the thoughts are put together and are made coherent. Also another point of this step is to make the dream relate to the dreamer.” (WK 2014cc) In sum, these four steps put together constitute the entire process of dreamwork.

Role of Dreamworkers Those who study these steps of dreamwork or “study the formation of dreams and then analyze them [for a dreamer as their client in a session] are called dreamworkers.” (WK 2014cc) The role of dreamworkers, then, is to “work backwards from the conscious to the unconscious. Since they are not the ones who saw the dream, they use among a variety of methods, depending on the background of the dreamworker” and allow “free association with their clients. Free association is where the client describes the dream and relates as many aspects of it to their life as possible. The dreamworker listens intently and once he/she has gained as much information as possible about the dream both through the dreamer's description of the dream and through the dreamer's emotional status, they may be able to understand the dream better and to gain information about the dreamer that they may not be aware of or be willing to share.” (WK 2014cc; K. Wilson 2005)

Problems with the Argument on Dreamwork However, to the critics, this argument on illusion, subjectivity, and dreamwork has some major problems. Consider, for illustration, a few examples below (as summarized in Table 2.2). 166 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

Firstly, one main criticism of the argument on illusion, subjectivity, and dreamwork is that the psychodynamic perspective in dreamwork is not verifiable. For example, to the critics, the psychoanalytic distinction between “manifest content” and “latent content” in dreamwork only raises more difficult questions than easy solutions, since the challenge here is how any interpretation about “latent content” can be proved to be true. The critic E. Fuller Torrey, “writing in Witchdoctors and Psychiatrists (1986), stated that psychoanalytic theories have no more scientific basis than the theories of traditional native healers, 'witchdoctors' or modern 'cult' alternatives such as est. Frank Cioffi, author of Freud and the Question of Pseudoscience, cites false claims of a sound scientific verification of the theory and its elements as the strongest basis for classifying the work of Freud and his school as pseudoscience.” (WK 2014dd; F. Cioffi 2005) Secondly, another main criticism of the argument on illusion, subjectivity, and dreamwork is that the dreamwork approach is too relativistic (subjective). For instance, to the critics, dreamwork differs from “dream interpretation,” in that “the aim is to explore the various images and emotions that a dream presents and evokes, while not attempting to come up with a single unique dream meaning.” (WK 2014cc) But the weakness of this flexible approach is that anyone can make any comment about a dream, so the approach can become too relativistic to be really helpful. Karl Popper (1990) even “argued that psychoanalysis is a pseudoscience because its claims…cannot be refuted; that is, they are not falsifiable,” so anyone can make any interpretation in practice. (WK 2014dd) Thirdly, still another main criticism of the argument on illusion, subjectivity, and dreamwork is that there is no consensus on the specific steps of dreamwork. For instance, even the psychoanalytic scholars disagree among themselves with what the specific steps of dreamwork are, as Montague Ullman and Erich Fromm suggested differently that “dreams have no censorship at all,” contrary to the two sub-steps in condensation (as introduced earlier). (WK 2014cc) Fourthly, an additional main criticism of the argument on illusion, subjectivity, and dreamwork is that it can become the victim of “institutional power.” For instance, to the critics, “Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze claimed that the institution of psychoanalysis has become a center of power and that its confessional techniques resemble the Christian Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 167

tradition,” although they allow multiple viewpoints. (WK 2014dd; J. Weeks 1989) And fifthly, another additional main criticism of the argument on illusion, subjectivity, and dreamwork is that it is not effective, because of its dependence on the Freudian psychodynamic perspective. For instance, “a French 2004 report from INSERM said that psychoanalytic therapy is far less effective than other psychotherapies (including cognitive behavioral therapy)….Numerous studies have shown that its efficacy is related to the quality of the therapist, rather than the psychoanalytic school or technique or training.” (WK 2014dd; A. Horvath 2001)

Beyond Dreamwork These criticisms of the argument on illusion, subjectivity, and dreamwork do not mean a total rejection of its usefulness but serve to show us the two opposing sides of the debate, such that the possibility (or impossibility) and desirability (or undesirability) of illusion (from the perspective of the mind with illusion, subjectivity, and dreamwork as a case study here) are not to the extent that the respective defenders would like us to believe. Moreover, the analysis of illusion, subjectivity, and dreamwork casts a bright light on the ontological principles in existential dialectics, and good examples include the formalness-informalness principle, the absoluteness-relativeness principle, the partiality-totality principle, the predictability-unpredictability principle, the explicability-inexplicability principle, the fiction-reality principle, the cognitiveness-noncognitiveness principle, the finiteness-transfiniteness principle, the preciseness- vagueness principle, the simpleness-complicatedness principle, the openness-hiddenness principle, the denseness-emptiness principle, the rule-exception principle, the indispensability-dispensability principle, the prototypicality-variation principle, the change-constancy principle, the order-chaos principle, the slowness-quickness principle, the expansion- contraction principle, the optimality-nonoptimality principle, the simultaneity-nonsimultaneity principle, the isolation-interaction principle, the theory-praxis principle, the convention-novelty principle, the evolution-transformation principle, the symmetry-asymmetry principle, the softness-hardness principle, the seriousness-playfulness principle, the activeness-inactivess principle, the selfness-otherness principle, the regression-progression principle, the same-difference principle, the stability-reaction principle, the functionality-nonfunctionality principle, the intentionality-nonintentionality principle: the survivability-non- 168 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

survivability principle, the materiality-nonmateriality principle, and the proaction-adjustment principle. For instance, in relation to the formalness-informalness principle, if there is formalness (e.g., the formal logical requirement of soundness, completeness, and consistency in a system of ideas, as in the argument on dreamwork), there is informalness (e.g., the non-formal existence of unsoundness, incompleteness, and inconsistency in the argument on dreamwork, as shown in the criticisms that the psychodynamic perspective in dreamwork is not verifiable, that the dreamwork approach is too relativistic, that there is no consensus on the specific steps of dreamwork, that it can become the victm of “institutional power,” and that it is not effective because of its dependence on the Freudian psychodynamic perspective). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the absoluteness-relativeness principle, if there is absoluteness (e.g., the absolute view on dream interpretation by those in the classical tradition, who “attempt…to come up with a single unique dream meaning”), there is relativeness (e.g., what is right for the advocates of the classical tradition in regard to dream interpretation is not necessarily so for those in dreamwork, who “differ…from classical dream interpretation in that the aim is to explore the various images and emotions that a dream presents and evokes”). (WK 2014cc) And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the partiality-totality principle, if there is partiality (e.g., the partial view on dream interpretation by the advocates of dreamwork), there is totality (e.g., the more holistic view on dream interpretation, such that the whole is not the sum of its parts, that is, it cannot be reduced to the sum of opposing views by those for dreamwork, those for the classical tradition, etc., since there will emerge new views in the future not yet known today, just as there are already alternative views nowadays which do not side exclusively with any of them, as is the analysis here). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the predictability-unpredictability principle, if there is predictability (e.g., the predictable tendency that dreamwork depends on the psychodynamic perspective), there is unpredictability (e.g., the more difficult task to predict exactly which particular result of a dreamwork session will be on a particular future occasion, since when “the dreamwork is done in a group, there may well be several things that are said by participants that seem valid to the dreamer but it can also happen that nothing does,” or still other possibilities). And the reverse direction also holds true. Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 169

In relation to the explicability-inexplicability principle, if there is explicability (e.g., the explanation, by those advocates of dreamwork, of its desirability on the basis that it is “to explore the various images and emotions that a dream presents and evokes, while not attempting to come up with a single unique dream meaning”), there is inexplicability (e.g., the lack of sufficient explanation, by those advocates of dreamwork, of why it is necessarily desirable, since, to the critics, the weakness of this flexible appraoch is that anyone can make any comment about a dream, so the approach can become too relativistic to be really helpful). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the fiction-reality principle, if there is fiction (e.g., the fictional aspect of dreamwork, insofar as it allows different views, such that, as pointed out by Karl Popper, “its claims…cannot be refuted; that is, they are not falsifiable”), there is reality (e.g., the realistic aspect of dreamwork, insofar as it does not “attempt…to come up with a single unique dream meaning”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the cognitiveness-noncognitiveness principle, if there is cognitiveness (e.g., a view of things on the basis of reason and evidences, as shown in the finding that dreamwork depends on the psychoanalytic perspective as a foundation), there is noncognitiveness (e.g., a view of things on the basis of non-cognitive factors like envy, jealousy, power, nationality, race, gender, age, class, greed, lust, status, faith, anger, sadness, joy, fear, wish, etc.—as shown in the continued faith by the advocates in the psychoanalytic perspective in dreamwork, in spite of the severe criticisms that it is not verifiable, can become the victim of “institutional power,” is not effective and is not falsifiable, as discussed earlier). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the finiteness-transfiniteness principle, if there is finiteness (e.g., the finite number of the specific steps of dreamwork, like the 4 aforecited), there is transfiniteness (e.g., the transfinite number of all the individuals in history that have ever used any of the specific steps of dreamwork to help them understand their dreams, regardless of whether they formally know anything about the approach or not). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the preciseness-vagueness principle, if there is preciseness (e.g., the precise identification of 4 specific steps of dreamwork by the advocates in the article aforecited), there is vagueness (e.g., the vagueness in the identification of the 4 specific steps of dreamwork by the advocates in the article aforecited, since it is not clear why there must be only 4, not 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, and so on). And the reverse direction also holds true. 170 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

In relation to the simpleness-complicatedness principle, if there is simpleness (e.g., the relatively simple analysis of dreamwork by the advocates), there is complicatedness (e.g., the relatively more complicated analysis of dreamwork, by challenging the claims and assumptions, as shown in the problems pointed out by the critics as cited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the openness-hiddenness principle, if there is openness (e.g., the open exploration of using the psychoanalytic approach as a foundation for dreamwork), there is hiddenness (e.g., the hidden bias in the open exploration of using the psychoanalytic approach as a foundation for dreamwork, since the critics pointed out the problems that it is not verifiable, can become the victim of “institutional power,” is not effective and is not falsifiable, as discussed earlier). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the denseness-emptiness principle, if there is denseness (e.g., the relatively denser concentration of concerns with exploring “the various images and emotions that a dream presents and evokes” by the advocates of dreamwork), there is emptiness (e.g., the relatively less dense, or more empty, concentration of concerns with the issues of falsification and verification by those advocates of dreamwork). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the rule-exception principle, if there are rules (e.g., the usual generalization, procedure, habit, or tendency that dreamwork makes good use of the Freudian psychoanalytic approach), there are exceptions (e.g., a case to which a rule does not apply, such as the exceptional situation when dreamwork differs from the Freudian psychoanalytic approach, in that it seeks “to explore the various images and emotions that a dream presents and evokes, while not attempting to come up with a single unique dream meaning”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the indispensability-dispensability principle, if there is indispensability (e.g., the need for something or someone, like the necessary inclusion of “displacement” and “symbolism” in the specific steps of dreamwork, in the article aforecited), there is dispensability (e.g., the superfluity of something or someone, like the dispensable requirement of “things that are said by participants that seem valid to the dreamer” in dreamwork, since this may or may not be true at all, as “it can also happen that nothing does”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the prototypicality-variation principle, if there is prototypicality (e.g., the prototype, like the example about the original work on dreams by Freud with his psychoanalytic approach), there is variation (e.g., different variants of the protoptye, as shown in many Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 171

studies since the original work on dreams by Freud with his psychoanalytic approach—like the later ones by Montague Ullman, Stanley Krippner, and Jeremy Taylor on dreamwork, though each with its own variation, contribution, and disagreement). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the change-constancy principle, if there is change (e.g., the ever new ways to study dreams, as shown in dreamwork), there is constancy (e.g., the ever constant existence of different problems with the ever new ways to study dreams, as shown in the problems with dreamwork pointed out by the critics aforecited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the order-chaos principle, if there is order (e.g., the more or less orderly view on things, when “secondary revision” occurs, where “all the thoughts are put together and are made coherent”), there is chaos (e.g., the more or less chaotic view on things, when “displacement” occurs, “where the dream directs feelings or desires onto an unrelated subject,” such that things can look chaotic and incoherent). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the slowness-quickness principle, if there is slowness (e.g., the relatively slower speed for a dreamworker to look for “a single unique dream meaning,” because his training asks him not to do that), there is quickness (e.g., the relatively quicker speed for a classical dream interpreter to look for “a single unique dream meaning,” because he has a different training which does not discourage him from doing that). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the expansion-contraction principle, if there is expansion (e.g., the relative spread of the use of dreamwork nowadays, because it is still relatively new and draws attention from dream researchers), there is contraction (e.g., the relative decline of the Freudian psychoanalytic approach nowadays, because it has been discredited as unscientific by many, as discussed earlier). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the optimality-nonoptimality principle, if there is optimality (e.g., the search for highly favorable options, like the quest for a systematic analysis of dreamwork in terms of the 4 specific steps aforediscussed, so as “to explore the various images and emotions that a dream presents and evokes”), there is nonoptimality (e.g., the existence of non-optimal alternatives to optimality, like the argument for more realistic studies by the critics, who pointed out different problems with dreamwork aforecited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the simultaneity-nonsimultaneity principle, if there is simultaneity (e.g., the occurrence of different things more or less at the 172 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

same time, such as the simultaneous co-existence of dfferent approaches to do dream analysis nowadays, like “dreamwork,” “classical dream interpretation,” etc.), there is nonsimultaneity (e.g., the occurrence of something after something else, such as the historical development of “dreamwork,” long after the historical development of “classical dream interpretation”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the isolation-interaction principle, if there is isolation (e.g., the state of a situation that is separated from others, such as the isolation of a dreamer in his private bedroom at home while dreaming), there is interaction (e.g., the influence of entities on one another, such as the interaction between the participants and a dreamer in a dreamwork session). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the theory-praxis principle, if there is theory (e.g., the theoretical construction of the psychodynamic perspective in the field of psychology), there is praxis (e.g., the practical application of the psychodynamic perspective in the field of psychology to the realm of practice, like a dreamwork session with the participants and a dreamer as a client). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the convention-novelty principle, if there is convention (e.g., the conventional wisdom about “a single unique dream meaning” in “classical dream interpretation”), there is novelty (e.g., the alternative novel challenge to the conventional wisdom about “a single unique dream meaning” in “classical dream interpretation”—by the new idea of exploring “the various images and emotions that a dream presents and evokes” in dreamwork). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the evolution-transformation principle, if there is evolution (e.g., the natural evolution of humans to dream about things in the state of nature), there is transformation (e.g., the technical transformation of human ability to analyze dreams by the invention of the technique of “dreamwork”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the symmetry-asymmetry principle, if there is symmetry (e.g., the co-existence of both “participants” and “dreamer” in a dreamwork session), there is asymmetry (e.g., the “dreamer” in a dreamwork session is treated as a “client” for his dream analysis—but the “participants” are not treated as clients and are there to give their own thoughts about the dreams by the “dreamer” instead). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the softness-hardness principle, if there is softness (e.g., the defense of dreamwork by the advocates aforecited), there is hardness (e.g., the critique of dreamwork, as shown in the problems pointed out by the critics aforecited). And the reverse direction also holds true. Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 173

In relation to the seriousness-playfulness principle, if there is seriousness (e.g., the serious business of those who try to understand the process of dreamwork), there is playfulness (e.g., the playful part of those who try to understand the process of dreamwork, when they play around with different ideas about the specific steps of dreamwork over the years, like “condensation,” “displacement,” “symbolism,” “secondary revision,” etc.). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the activeness-inactivess principle, if there is activeness (e.g., the relative activeness of a dreamer when he analyzes his dreams in a dreamwork session with the “participants”), there is inactiveness (e.g., the relative inactiveness of a dreamer when he is still asleep in his bedroom at home, in the state of dreaming, and therefore cannot engage in a dreamwork with the “participants”). In relation to the selfness-otherness principle, if there is selfness (e.g., the tendency to be mostly centered on one’s self or group, as shown in the dependence, by the advocates of dreamwork, on the psychodynamic perspective, even though it has been subject to different criticisms that it is not verifiable, can become the victim of “institutional power,” is not effective and is not falsifiable, as discussed earlier), there is otherness (e.g., the tendency to be mostly centered on others, as shown in the academic analysis of both sides of the debate on dreamwork, as an advancement in the knowledge of dreams, for humanity). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the regression-progression principle, if there is regression (e.g., the regression made by the technique of dreamwork, as shown in the problems pointed out by the critics), there is progression (e.g., the progress made by the technique of dreamwork, as shown in the contribution to the understanding of “the various images and emotions that a dream presents and evokes” aforecited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the same-difference principle, if there is similarity in outcome (e.g., the contribution to the molding and control of beliefs, values, and behaviors, regardless of whether this be done by way of the Freudan psychoanalytic perspective in dreamwork, or by way of the critical outlook by Popper on dream analysis), there is difference in outcome (e.g., the contribution to the molding and control of beliefs, values, and behaviors by way of the Freudan psychoanalytic perspective in dreamwork for a relatively more speculative worldview—but the contribution to the molding and control of beliefs, values, and behaviors by way of the critical outlook by Popper on dream analysis for a relatively more falsifiable worldview). And the reverse direction also holds true. 174 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

In relation to the stability-reaction principle, if there is stability (e.g., the relatively more stable condition of the Freudan psychodynamic perspective in the older days), there is reaction (e.g., the relatively more stable condition of the Freudan psychodynamic perspective in the older days then led to further changes later on, when nowadays, it is refined and used for the approach known as “dreamwork” instead). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the functionality-nonfunctionality principle, if there is functionality (e.g., the presence of action for which something or someone is fitted, as shown in dreamwork, which serves the function of exploring “the various images and emotions that a dream presents and evokes”), there is nonfunctionality (e.g., the relative lack of action for which something or someone is fitted, as shown in the problems with dreamwork, such that it is not as functional as the advocates would like us to believe). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the intentionality-nonintentionality principle, if there is intentionality (e.g., the planning or design of something for a certain outcome, as shown in the intended consequences in regard to the psychoanalytic approach to dream studies, as those who used it intended to analyse dreams in terms of the unconscious for therapy as aforediscussed), there is nonintentionality (e.g., the relative absence of planning or design of something for a certain outcome, such that the outcome can even be counter-intentional in being the opposite of what was originally planned, as shown in the critique by Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze that the psychoanalytic approach becomes a victim of institutional power, that is, “the institution of psychoanalysis has become a center of power”—contrary to the original intention of those who used it to analyse dreams in terms of the unconscious for therapy). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the survivability-nonsurvivability principle, if there is survivability (e.g., the relative survival, nowadays, of the technique of dreamwork, because it is still relatively new and draws attention from the scholars in the field), there is non-survivability (e.g., the relative non- survival, nowadays, of the Freudian psychoanalytic approach, because it has been discredited as unscientific by many). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the materiality-nonmateriality principle, if there is materiality (e.g., the material outcome in relation to space-time, matter- energy, Having, etc., like the use of the psychoanalytic approach to study dreams in everyday life), there is non-materiality (e.g., the nonmaterial outcome in relation to the quest for Being, Belonging, etc., like the use of Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 175

the psychoanalytic approach by some for “institutional power,” as Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze claimed that “the institution of psychoanalysis has become a center of power”). And the reverse direction also holds true. And in relation to the proaction-adjustment principle, if there is proaction (e.g., the detailed, long-term planning for an outcome, such as the persistent approach to study dreams over the decades on the basis of the unconscious by those in the psychoanalytic tradition), there is adjustment (e.g., the ad-hoc, spontaneous dealing with a contingent outcome, such as the contingent response by the defenders of the psychoanalytic tradition against some criticisms that it is unverfiable and unfalsiable, by saying that, in spite of these problems, “the unconscious is now a popular topic of study in the fields of experimental and social psychology”). (WK 2014dd) And the reverse direction also holds true.

Illusion and Nature

Illusion, when examined from the perspective of nature, can show us in a controversial way its possibility (or impossibility) and desirability (or undesirability), and this can be shown by way of two case studies, namely, (2.3.1) illusion, animal deception, and REM sleep, and (2.3.2) illusion, uncreated creation, and the Dreaming—to be addressed in what follows, respectively.

Illusion, Animal Deception, and REM Sleep

A good way to evaluate the possibility (or impossibility) and desirability (or undesirability) of illusion from the perspective of nature is to explore illusion, animal deception, and REM sleep. An argument in the literature is that, “according to I. Tsoukalas (2012) REM sleep [where dreams occur] is an evolutionary transformation of a well-known defensive mechanism, the tonic immobility reflex. This reflex, also known as animal hypnosis or death feigning, functions as the last line of defense against an attacking predator and consists of the total immobilization of the animal: the animal appears dead (cf. 'playing possum').” (WK 2014; R. Vitelli 2013)

Sleep in Animals As a starting point of the analysis, “sleep in non-human animals refers to how the behavioral and physiological state of sleep, mainly 176 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

characterized by reversible unconsciousness, non-responsiveness to external stimuli, and motor passivity, appears in different categories of animals.” (WK 2014ee) In the physiological definition, “sleep is a state characterized by reversible unconsciousness, special brainwave patterns, sporadic eye movement, [and] loss of muscle tone….The physiological definition applies well to birds and mammals.” (WK 2014ee; A. Rechtschaffen 1968) And in the behavioral definition, “sleep is characterized by non- responsiveness to external stimuli, the adoption of a typical posture, and the occupation of a sheltered site, all of which is usually repeated on a 24- hour basis”; in animals “whose brain is not as complex,…the behavioral definition is more often used. In very simple animals, behavioral definitions of sleep are the only ones possible….” (WK 2014ee; R. Meddis 1975) (a) In Invertebrates In invertebrates, for instance, “the nematode C. elegans is the most primitive organism in which sleep-like states have been observed. Here, a lethargus phase occurs in short periods preceding each moult, a fact which may indicate that sleep primitively is connected to developmental processes.” (WK 2014ee) In “such simple animals as fruit flies…systematic disturbance of that state [sleep] leads to cognitive disabilities….A common method is to let the flies choose whether they want to fly through a tunnel that leads to a light source, or through a dark tunnel. Normally, flies are attracted to light. But if sugar is placed in the end of the dark tunnel, and something the flies dislike is placed in the end of the light tunnel, the flies will eventually learn to fly towards darkness rather than light. Flies deprived of sleep require a longer time to learn this and also forget it more quickly. If an arthropod is experimentally kept awake longer than it is used to, then its coming rest period will be prolonged. In cockroaches that rest period is characterized by the antennae being folded down and by a decreased sensitivity to external stimuli. Sleep has been described in crayfish, too, characterized by passivity and increased thresholds for sensory stimuli as well as changes in the EEG pattern, markedly differing from the patterns found in crayfish when they are awake.” (WK 2014ee; R. Huber 2005; L. Tobler 1992; F. Ramón 2004) (b) In Vertebrates In vertebrates, however, there are different species, namely, (b1) fish, (b2) reptiles, (b3) birds, and (b4) mammals. Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 177

(b1) In fish, for example, “zebrafish, tilapia, tench, brown bullhead, and swell shark,” when they sleep, “become motionless and unresponsive at night (or by day, in the case of the swell shark); Spanish hogfish and blue-headed wrasse can even be lifted by hand all the way to the surface without evoking a response. A 1961 observational study of approximately 200 species in European public aquaria reported many cases of apparent sleep. On the other hand, sleep patterns are easily disrupted and may even disappear during periods of migration, spawning, and parental care.” (WK 2014ee; I. Zhdanova 2001; C. Shapiro 1976; J. Peyrethon 1967; E. Titkov 1976; D. Nelson 1970; E. Tauber 1974; S. Reebs 2002) (b2) In reptiles, “the electrical activity in the brain has been registered when the animals have been asleep. However, the EEG pattern in reptilian sleep differs from what is seen in mammals and other animals. In reptiles, sleep time increases following sleep deprivation, and stronger stimuli are needed to awaken the animals when they have been deprived of sleep as compared to when they have slept normally. This suggests that the sleep which follows deprivation is compensatorily deeper.” (WK 2014ee; M. Nicolau 2000; W. Flanigan 1973) (b3) In birds, there are “both REM and NREM sleep, and the EEG patterns of both have similarities to those of mammals. Different birds sleep different amounts, but the associations seen in mammals between sleep and variables such as body mass, brain mass, relative brain mass, basal metabolism and other factors…are not found in birds. The only clear explanatory factor for the variations in sleep amounts for birds of different species is that birds who sleep in environments where they are exposed to predators have less deep sleep than birds sleeping in more protected environments.” (WK 2014ee; T. Roth 2006) Interestingly, “a peculiarity that birds share with aquatic mammals, and possibly also with certain species of lizards (opinions differ about that last point), is the ability for unihemispheric sleep. That is the ability to sleep with one cerebral hemisphere at a time, while the other hemisphere is awake (Unihemispheric slow-wave sleep). When only one hemisphere is sleeping, only the contralateral eye will be shut; that is, when the right hemisphere is asleep the left eye will be shut, and vice versa. The distribution of sleep between the two hemispheres and the amount of unihemispheric sleep are determined both by which part of the brain has been the most active during the previous period of wake—that part will sleep the deepest—and it is also determined by the risk of attacks from predators. Ducks near the perimeter of the flock are likely to be the ones that first will detect predator attacks. These ducks have significantly more unihemispheric sleep than those who sleep in the middle of the flock, and 178 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

they react to threatening stimuli seen by the open eye.” (WK 2014ee; N. Rattenborg 2000; G. Mascetti 2007) (b4) And in mammals, “some, such as bats, sleep 18–20 hours per day, while others, including giraffes, sleep only 3–4 hours per day. There can be big differences even between closely related species.” (WK 2014ee) Like birds, “the main rule for mammals (with certain exceptions…) is that they have two essentially different stages of sleep: REM and NREM sleep….Mammals' feeding habits are associated with their sleep length. The daily need for sleep is highest in carnivores, lower in omnivores and lowest in herbivores. Humans do not sleep unusually much or unusually little compared to other mammals, but we sleep less than many other omnivores. Many herbivores, like Ruminantia (such as cattle), spend much of their wake time in a state of drowsiness, which perhaps could partly explain their relatively low need for sleep. In herbivores, a direct correlation is apparent between body mass and sleep length; big mammals sleep less than smaller ones. This correlation is thought to explain about 25% of the difference in sleep amount between different mammals. Also, the length of a particular sleep cycle is associated with the size of the animal; on average, bigger animals will have sleep cycles of longer durations than smaller animals. Sleep amount is also coupled to factors like basal metabolism, brain mass, and relative brain mass.” (WK 2014ee; J. Siegel 2005)

Dreams in Animals To understand sleep in animals is a step forward for the study of dreams in animals. For instance, “REM sleep and the ability to dream seem to be embedded in the biology of many animals….Scientific research suggests that all mammals experience REM. The range of REM can be seen across species: dolphins experience minimum REM, while humans remain in the middle and the opossum and the armadillo are among the most prolific dreamers.” (WK 2014; J. Lesku 2011; D. Williams 2007) In fact, “studies have observed dreaming in mammals such as monkeys, dogs, cats, rats, elephants and shrews. There have also been signs of dreaming in birds and reptiles. Sleeping and dreaming are intertwined…; the function of sleeping in living organisms is increasingly clear. For example, recent sleep deprivation experiments conducted on rats and other animals have resulted in the deterioration of physiological functioning and actual tissue damage of the animals.” (WK 2014; ENCY 2011 & 2011a) Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 179

What is inreresting here is that “some scientists argue that humans dream for the same reason other amniotes do. From a Darwinian perspective dreams would have to fulfill some kind of biological requirement, provide some benefit for natural selection to take place, or at least of have no negative impact on fitness. In 2000 Antti Revonsuo, a professor at the University of Turku in Finland, claimed that centuries ago dreams would prepare humans for recognizing and avoiding danger by presenting a simulation of threatening events. The theory has therefore been called the threat-simulation theory. According to Tsoukalas (2012) dreaming is related to the reactive patterns elicited by predatorial encounters, a fact that is still evident in the control mechanisms of REM sleep.” (WK 2014; D. Williams 2007; R. Vitelli 2013)

Animal Deception, and Dreams The claim by Tsoukalas (2012) is intriguing enough, as he suggested that “REM sleep is an evolutionary transformation of a well-known defensive mechanism, the tonic immobility reflex.” (WK 2014; R. Vitelli 2013) The idea of “tonic immobility” is also known as “apparent death,” which refers to “a state of apparent paralysis that animals enter, in most cases in response to a threat.” (WK 2014v) For instance, “some sharks can be placed in a tonic state. The shark remains in this state for an average of 15 minutes before recovering. Scientists have exploited this phenomenon to study shark behaviour. The effects of chemical shark repellent have been studied to test effectiveness and to more accurately estimate dose sizes, concentrations and time to awaken,” but “sharks may not always respond to tonic immobility by physical inversion of the animal, as has been demonstrated with lemon and reef sharks. With tiger sharks 3–4 metres (10 to 15 feet) in length, tonic immobility may be achieved by placing hands lightly on the sides of the animal's snout approximate to the general area surrounding its eyes. Great White sharks have been shown to be less responsive than other species when tonic immobility has been attempted….During tonic immobility, the dorsal fin(s) straighten, and both breathing and muscle contractions become more steady and relaxed.” (WK 2014v) According to Tsoukalas, “this reflex, also known as animal hypnosis or death feigning, functions as the last line of defense against an attacking predator and consists of the total immobilization of the animal: the animal appears dead (cf. 'playing possum'). Tsoukalas claims the neurophysiology and phenomenology of this reaction shows striking similarities to REM sleep, a fact which betrays a deep evolutionary kinship. For example, both 180 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

reactions exhibit brainstem control, paralysis, sympathetic activation, and thermoregulatory changes. The author claims this theory integrates many earlier findings into a unified framework.” (WK 2014; R. Vitelli 2013)

Problems with the Argument on Animal Deception and REM Sleep However, to the critics, this argument on illusion, animal deception, and REM sleep has some major problems. Consider, for illustration, a few examples below. Firstly, one main criticism of the argument on illusion, animal deception, and REM sleep is that the distinction between sleep and wakefulness in animals is not so clear-cut. For example, to the critics, in “very simple” animals, “even…the behavioral repertoire of the animal may not be extensive enough to allow distinction between sleep and wakefulness.” (WK 2014ee; M. Nicolau 2000) Secondly, another main criticism of the argument on illusion, animal deception, and REM sleep is that sleep does not always exist in animals, with implications for the ability to dream. For instance, to the critics, “some species that always live in shoals or that swim continuously (because of a need for ram ventilation of the gills, for example) are suspected never to sleep. There is also doubt about certain blind species that live in caves.” (WK 2014ee; J. Kavanau 1998) Thirdly, still another main criticism of the argument on illusion, animal deception, and REM sleep is that much remains unknown in the research on sleep and dreams. For instance, to the critics, “scientific research results regarding the function of dreaming in animals remain disputable.” (WK 2014) And “all hibernating animals interrupt their hibernation multiple times during the winter so that they can sleep. The reason for the requirement of sleep during hibernation, which involves an energetically costly transition from hypothermia to euthermia, is unknown.” (WK 2014ee; F. Michel 1967) Fourthly, an additional main criticism of the argument on illusion, animal deception, and REM sleep is that correlation does not imply causation. For instance, just because tonic immobility reflex “shows striking similarities to REM sleep” does not therefore mean a causation in the history of evolution, or “a deep evolutionary kinship”—as the old saying in statistics goes, “Correlation does not imply causation.” Fifthly, another additional main criticism of the argument on illusion, animal deception, and REM sleep is that tonic immobility can be for Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 181

different reasons, not necessarily in any close relationship with the claim about “evolutionary transformation”). For instance, to the critics, tonic immobility “can be for various reasons, such as that of a prey evading a predator [for defense], a male trying to mate with a female [for reproduction], or a predator trying to lure potential prey closer [for predation].” (WK 2014v) And sixthly, the last main criticism of the argument on illusion, animal deception, and REM sleep is that there are disagreements on sleep in animals even among researchers themselves. For instance, even among researchers on animal sleep, “opinions differ about whether or not, or to what extent, “birds share with aquatic mammals, and possibly also with certain species of lizards,” in regard to “the ability for unihemispheric sleep.” (WK 2014ee) In addition, some researchers suggested that “the exact function of sleep is still unknown”— whereas others made the contrary claim that “the function of sleeping in living organisms is increasingly clear. For example, recent sleep deprivation experiments conducted on rats and other animals have resulted in the deterioration of physiological functioning and actual tissue damage of the animals.” (WK 2014ee)

Beyond Animal Deception and REM Sleep These criticisms of the argument on illusion, animal deception, and REM sleep do not imply a total rejection of its usefulness but serve to show us the two opposing sides of the debate, such that the possibility (or impossibility) and desirability (or undesirability) of illusion (from the perspective of nature with illusion, animal deception, and REM sleep as a case study here) are not to the extent that the respective defenders would like us to believe. In fact, the analysis of illusion, animal deception, and REM sleep offers a refreshing insight on the ontological principles in existential dialectics, and good examples include the formalness-informalness principle, the absoluteness-relativeness principle, the partiality-totality principle, the predictability-unpredictability principle, the explicability- inexplicability principle, the fiction-reality principle, the cognitiveness- noncognitiveness principle, the finiteness-transfiniteness principle, the preciseness-vagueness principle, the simpleness-complicatedness principle, the openness-hiddenness principle, the denseness-emptiness principle, the rule-exception principle, the indispensability-dispensability principle, the prototypicality-variation principle, the change-constancy principle, the order-chaos principle, the slowness-quickness principle, the expansion-contraction principle, the optimality-nonoptimality principle, 182 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

the simultaneity-nonsimultaneity principle, the isolation-interaction principle, the theory-praxis principle, the convention-novelty principle, the evolution-transformation principle, the symmetry-asymmetry principle, the softness-hardness principle, the seriousness-playfulness principle, the activeness-inactivess principle, the selfness-otherness principle, the regression-progression principle, the same-difference principle, the stability-reaction principle, the functionality-nonfunctionality principle, the intentionality-nonintentionality principle: the survivability-non- survivability principle, the materiality-nonmateriality principle, and the proaction-adjustment principle. For instance, in relation to the formalness-informalness principle, if there is formalness (e.g., the formal logical requirement of soundness, completeness, and consistency in a system of ideas, as in the argument on sleep and dreams in animals), there is informalness (e.g., the non-formal existence of unsoundness, incompleteness, and inconsistency in the argument on sleep and dreams in animals, as shown in the criticisms that the distinction between sleep and wakefulness in animals is not so clear- cut, that sleep does not always exist in animals [with implications for the ability to dream], that much remains unknown in the research on sleep and dreams, that correlation does not imply causation, that tonic immobility can be for different reasons [not necessarily in any close relationship with the claim about “evolutionary transformation”], and that there are disagreements on sleep in animals even among researchers themselves). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the absoluteness-relativeness principle, if there is absoluteness (e.g., the absolute view on the function of sleep by those researchers who suggested that “the exact function of sleep is still unknown”), there is relativeness (e.g., what is right for those researchers who suggested that “the exact function of sleep is still unknown” is not necessarily so for other researchers who made the contrary claim that “the function of sleeping in living organisms is increasingly clear”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the partiality-totality principle, if there is partiality (e.g., the partial view on tonic immobility by those who prefer the argument for “defense”), there is totality (e.g., the more holistic view on tonic immobility, such that the whole is not the sum of its parts, that is, it cannot be reduced to the sum of opposing views by those for “defense,” those for “mating,” those for “predation,” etc., since there will emerge new views in the future not yet known today, just as there are already alternative views nowadays which do not side exclusively with any of them, as is the analysis here). And the reverse direction also holds true. Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 183

In relation to the predictability-unpredictability principle, if there is predictability (e.g., the predictable tendency that, according to those advocates like Tsoukalas, “tonic immobility reflex…shows striking similarities to REM sleep”), there is unpredictability (e.g., the more difficult task to predict exactly the extent to which Tsoukalas’ claim that “REM sleep is an evolutionary transformation of…the tonic immobility reflex” is accepted as true in a distant future era). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the explicability-inexplicability principle, if there is explicability (e.g., the explanation, by those advocates like Tsoukalas, of the claim that “REM sleep is an evolutionary transformation of…the tonic immobility reflex” on the basis that “tonic immobility reflex…shows striking similarities to REM sleep”), there is inexplicability (e.g., the lack of sufficient explanation, by those advocates like Tsoukalas, of why his claim that “REM sleep is an evolutionary transformation of…the tonic immobility reflex” is necessarily desirable, since, to the critics, correlation does not imply causation, together with other problems aforecited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the fiction-reality principle, if there is fiction (e.g., the fictional aspect of the distinction between sleep and wakefulness in animals, insofar as, in “very simple” animals, “even…the behavioral repertoire of the animal may not be extensive enough to allow distinction between sleep and wakefulness”), there is reality (e.g., the realistic aspect of the distinction between sleep and wakefulness in animals, insofar as the distinction holds for more complex animals). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the cognitiveness-noncognitiveness principle, if there is cognitiveness (e.g., a view of things on the basis of reason and evidences, as shown in the finding by Tsoukalas that “tonic immobility reflex…shows striking similarities to REM sleep”), there is noncognitiveness (e.g., a view of things on the basis of non-cognitive factors like envy, jealousy, power, nationality, race, gender, age, class, greed, lust, status, faith, anger, sadness, joy, fear, wish, etc.—as shown in the contineud faith by Tsoukalas about his claim that “REM sleep is an evolutionary transformation of…the tonic immobility reflex,” in spite of the criticisms that correlation does not imply causation, that tonic immobility can be for different reasons [not necessarily in any close relationship with the claim about “evolutionary transformation,” etc.). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the finiteness-transfiniteness principle, if there is finiteness (e.g., the finite number of the categories of animals who Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 185

In relation to the indispensability-dispensability principle, if there is indispensability (e.g., the need for something or someone, like the need of sleep for a lot of animals), there is dispensability (e.g., the superfluity of something or someone, like the dispensable use of sleep for some animals, because “some species that always live in shoals or that swim continuously [because of a need for ram ventilation of the gills, for example] are suspected never to sleep”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the prototypicality-variation principle, if there is prototypicality (e.g., the prototype, like the example about the original “nematode C. elegans,” which “is the most primitive organism in which sleep-like states have been observed”), there is variation (e.g., different variants of the protoptye, as shown in many studies since the original “nematode C. elegans,” which “is the most primitive organism in which sleep-like states have been observed”—like the later ones about more complex animals like fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals, though each group with their own differences). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the change-constancy principle, if there is change (e.g., the ever new ways to study dreams, as shown in the research on dreams in animals), there is constancy (e.g., the ever constant existence of different problems with the ever new ways to study dreams, as shown in the problems with the research on dreams in animals pointed out by the critics). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the order-chaos principle, if there is order (e.g., the more or less orderly view on sleep, if looked from the sole vantage point of those researchers who claimed that “the function of sleeping in living organisms is increasingly clear”), there is chaos (e.g., the more or less chaotic view on dreaming, if looked from the conflicting claims by some researchers who argued that “the exact function of sleep is still unknown” whereas others made the contrary claim that “the function of sleeping in living organisms is increasingly clear,” together with other conflicting claims aforedescribed). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the slowness-quickness principle, if there is slowness (e.g., the relatively slower speed for “fruit flies,” when “deprived of sleep,” to learn, since, in a study in the article aforecited, they “require a longer time to learn” things), there is quickness (e.g., the relatively quicker speed for “fruit flies,” if having sufficient sleep, to learn, since, in a study in the article aforecited, they “require a longer time to learn” things if deprived of sleep). (WK 2014ee) And the reverse direction also holds true. Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 187

In relation to the convention-novelty principle, if there is convention (e.g., the conventional wisdom about the need to sleep in animals), there is novelty (e.g., the alternative novel challenge to the conventional wisdom about the need to sleep in animals—by the new idea that “some species that always live in shoals or that swim continuously [because of a need for ram ventilation of the gills, for example] are suspected never to sleep”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the evolution-transformation principle, if there is evolution (e.g., the natural evolution of humans to need sleep in the state of nature), there is transformation (e.g., the technical transformation of human ability to understand sleep by the invention of the “evolutionary transformation of the tonic immobility reflex” argument by Tsoukalas). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the symmetry-asymmetry principle, if there is symmetry (e.g., the co-existence of different animals who need sleep, like “carnivores,” “omnivores” and “herbivores”), there is asymmetry (e.g., “the daily need for sleep is highest in carnivores, lower in omnivores and lowest in herbivores”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the softness-hardness principle, if there is softness (e.g., the use of “tonic immobility” for “defense” aforecited), there is hardness (e.g., the use of “tonic immobility” for “predation” aforecited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the seriousness-playfulness principle, if there is seriousness (e.g., the serious business of those who try to understand the phenomenon of “tonic immobility”), there is playfulness (e.g., the playful part of those who try to understand the phenomenon of “tonic immobility,” when they play around with different explanations over the years, like “defense,” “reproduction,” “predation,” etc.). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the activeness-inactivess principle, if there is activeness (e.g., the relative activeness of animals when they do not play “apparent death” and can engage in mating, feeding, etc.), there is inactiveness (e.g., the relative inactiveness of animals when they play “apparent death”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the selfness-otherness principle, if there is selfness (e.g., the tendency to be mostly centered on one’s self or group, as shown in the contineud faith by Tsoukalas about his claim that “REM sleep is an evolutionary transformation of…the tonic immobility reflex,” in spite of the criticisms that correlation does not imply causation, that tonic immobility can be for different reasons [not necessarily in any close relationship with the claim about “evolutionary transformation],” etc.), 188 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

there is otherness (e.g., the tendency to be mostly centered on others, as shown in the academic analysis of both sides of the debate on “tonic immobility,” as an advancement in the knowledge of sleep, for humanity). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the regression-progression principle, if there is regression (e.g., the regression made by the study on animal sleep, as shown in the problems pointed out by the critics), there is progression (e.g., the progress made by the study on animal sleep, as shown in the contribution to the understanding of “tonic immobility” aforecited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the same-difference principle, if there is similarity in outcome (e.g., the contribution to the molding and control of beliefs, values, and behaviors, regardless of whether this be done by way of the belief that “REM sleep is an evolutionary transformation of…the tonic immobility reflex,” or by way of the belief that “the exact function of sleep is still unknown”), there is difference in outcome (e.g., the contribution to the molding and control of beliefs, values, and behaviors by way of the belief that “REM sleep is an evolutionary transformation of…the tonic immobility reflex” for a relatively more trusting worldview—but the contribution to the molding and control of beliefs, values, and behaviors by way of the belief that “the exact function of sleep is still unknown” for a relatively more questioning worldview). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the stability-reaction principle, if there is stability (e.g., the relatively more stable condition of the older idea that animals need sleep), there is reaction (e.g., the relatively more stable condition of the older idea that animals need sleep then led to further changes later on, when nowadays, some suggest that sleep does not always exist in animals, because “some species that always live in shoals or that swim continuously…are suspected never to sleep”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the functionality-nonfunctionality principle, if there is functionality (e.g., the presence of action for which something or someone is fitted, as shown in the phenomenon of “tonic immobility,” which, according to Tsoukalas, serves the function that “REM sleep is an evolutionary transformation of…the tonic immobility reflex”), there is nonfunctionality (e.g., the relative lack of action for which something or someone is fitted, as shown in the problems with the idea of “tonic immobility” aforediscussed, such that it is not as functional as the advocates would like us to believe). And the reverse direction also holds true. Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 189

In relation to the intentionality-nonintentionality principle, if there is intentionality (e.g., the planning or design of something for a certain outcome, as shown in the intended consequences in regard to “tonic immobility,” as those who used it intended to “measure…the assessment of animal welfare, particularly hens, since 1970,” as aforediscussed), there is nonintentionality (e.g., the relative absence of planning or design of something for a certain outcome, such that the outcome can even be counter-intentional in being the opposite of what was originally planned, as shown in the use of “tonic immobility” by Tsoukalas in 2012 to show that “REM sleep is an evolutionary transformation of…the tonic immobility reflex”—contrary to the original intention of those who first used it to “measure…the assessment of animal welfare, particularly hens, since 1970”). (WK 2014 & 2014v) And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the survivability-nonsurvivability principle, if there is survivability (e.g., the relative survival of some animals like “some species that always live in shoals or that swim continuously [because of a need for ram ventilation of the gills, for example]” when they “are suspected never to sleep”), there is non-survivability (e.g., the relative non-survival of some animals like “rats” that were “kept from sleeping” when they “died within a couple of weeks”). (WK 2014v) And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the materiality-nonmateriality principle, if there is materiality (e.g., the material outcome in relation to space-time, matter- energy, Having, etc., like the use of “tonic immobility…to show that hens in cages are more fearful than those in pens”), there is non-materiality (e.g., the nonmaterial outcome in relation to the quest for Being, Belonging, etc., like the quest for evolutionary ideas by Tsoukalas when he linked “REM sleep” with the “evolutionary transformation of…the tonic immobility reflex”). And the reverse direction also holds true. And in relation to the proaction-adjustment principle, if there is proaction (e.g., the detailed, long-term planning for an outcome, such as the tendency of flies, by evolution over myriad years, to be “attracted to light”), there is adjustment (e.g., the ad-hoc, spontaneous dealing with a contingent outcome, such as the contingent change of direction by flies when “sugar is placed in the end of the dark tunnel, and something the flies dislike is placed in the end of the light tunnel,” as “the flies will eventually learn to fly towards darkness rather than light” instead, although “flies deprived of sleep require a longer time to learn this”). (WK 2014ee) And the reverse direction also holds true. Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 191

indigenous Australian might say that he or she has Kangaroo Dreaming, or Shark Dreaming, or Honey Ant Dreaming, or any combination of Dreamings pertinent to their country. This is because in 'Dreamtime' an individual's entire ancestry exists as one, culminating in the idea that all worldly knowledge is accumulated through one's ancestors. Many Indigenous Australians also refer to the Creation time as 'The Dreaming.' The Dreamtime laid down the patterns of life for the Aboriginal people.” (WK 2014gg; ENCY 2013) In this way, “Dreaming stories vary throughout Australia, with variations on the same theme. For example, the story of how the sun was made is different in New South Wales and in Western Australia. Stories cover many themes and topics, as there are stories about creation of sacred places, land, people, animals and plants, law and custom. It is a complex network of knowledge, faith, and practices that derive from stories of creation. It pervades and informs all spiritual and physical aspects of an indigenous Australian's life.” (WK 2014gg) In the Dreamtime, the “eternal part existed before the life of the individual begins, and continues to exist when the life of the individual ends. Both before and after life, it is believed that this spirit-child exists in the Dreaming and is only initiated into life by being born through a mother. The spirit of the child is culturally understood to enter the developing fetus during the fifth month of pregnancy. When the mother felt the child move in the womb for the first time, it was thought that this was the work of the spirit of the land in which the mother then stood. Upon birth, the child is considered to be a special custodian of that part of his country and is taught the stories and songlines of that place,” as Wolf (1994: p. 14) told us: “A black 'fella' may regard his totem or the place from which his spirit came as his Dreaming. He may also regard tribal law as his Dreaming.” (WK 2014gg; D. Bates 1996) According to the Dreaming, “before humans, animals and plants came into being, their 'souls' existed; they knew they would become physical, but they didn't know when. And when that time came, all but one of the 'souls' became plants or animals, with the last one becoming human and acting as a custodian or guardian to the natural world around them.” (WK 2014gg) Thus, “traditional Australian indigenous peoples embrace all phenomena and life as part of a vast and complex system-network of relationships which can be traced directly back to the ancestral Totemic Spirit Beings of The Dreaming.” (WK 2014gg) In this “vast and complex system-network of relationships,” it is believed that “everything in the natural world is a result of the past, 192 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

present and future actions of the archetypal beings, whose actions are continuously creating the world….The meaning and significance of particular places and creatures is wedded to their origin in the Dreaming, and certain places have a particular potency, which the Aborigines call its dreaming. In this dreaming resides the sacredness of the earth. For example, in Perth, the Noongar believe that the Darling Scarp is the body of the Wagyl—a serpent being that meandered over the land creating rivers, waterways and lakes. It is taught that the Wagyl created the Swan River. In another example, the Gagudju people of Arnhemland, for which Kakadu National Park is named, believe that the sandstone escarpment that dominates the park's landscape was created in the Dreamtime when Ginga (the crocodile-man) was badly burned during a ceremony and jumped into the water to save himself. He turned to stone and became the escarpment. The common theme in these examples and similar ones is that topographical features are either the physical embodiments of creator beings or are the results of their activity.” (WK 2014gg) In fact, “in one version (there are many Aboriginal cultures), Altjira was a spirit of the Dreamtime; he created the Earth and then retired as the Dreamtime vanished, with the coming of Europeans. Alternative names for Altjira in other Australian languages include Alchera (Arrernte), Alcheringa, Mura-mura (Dieri), and Tjukurpa (Pitjantjatjara).” (WK 2014gg)

Ownership of Dreamings However, there can be different “Dreamings,” so “a Dreaming is a story owned by different tribes and their members that explains the creation of life, people and animals. A Dreaming story is passed on protectively as it is owned and is a form of 'intellectual property.' In the modern context, an Aborigine cannot relate, or paint someone else's dreaming or creation story without prior permission of the Dreaming's owner. Someone's dreaming story must be respected, as the individual holds the knowledge to that Dreaming story. Certain behavioural constraints are associated with dreaming ownership; for instance, if a Dreaming is painted without authorisation, such action can meet with accusations of 'stealing' someone else's Dreaming.” (WK 2014ff) Indeed, “the late Geoffrey Bardon's three books on Papunya specifically mention conflict related to possession of a dreaming story. He uses as an example the Honey Ant Dreaming painted in contemporary times on the school walls of Papunya. Before the mural could be painted, all tribes in Papunya: the Pintupi, Warlpiri, Arrernte, and Anmatyerre, had to agree that the honey ant was an acceptable mural, since Papunya is Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 195

In fact, the analysis of illusion, uncreated creation, and the Dreaming can show us something important about the ontological principles in existential dialectics, and good examples include the formalness- informalness principle, the absoluteness-relativeness principle, the partiality-totality principle, the predictability-unpredictability principle, the explicability-inexplicability principle, the fiction-reality principle, the cognitiveness-noncognitiveness principle, the finiteness-transfiniteness principle, the preciseness-vagueness principle, the simpleness- complicatedness principle, the openness-hiddenness principle, the denseness-emptiness principle, the rule-exception principle, the indispensability-dispensability principle, the prototypicality-variation principle, the change-constancy principle, the order-chaos principle, the slowness-quickness principle, the expansion-contraction principle, the optimality-nonoptimality principle, the simultaneity-nonsimultaneity principle, the isolation-interaction principle, the theory-praxis principle, the convention-novelty principle, the evolution-transformation principle, the symmetry-asymmetry principle, the softness-hardness principle, the seriousness-playfulness principle, the activeness-inactivess principle, the selfness-otherness principle, the regression-progression principle, the same-difference principle, the stability-reaction principle, the functionality-nonfunctionality principle, the intentionality- nonintentionality principle: the survivability-non-survivability principle, the materiality-nonmateriality principle, and the proaction-adjustment principle. For instance, in relation to the formalness-informalness principle, if there is formalness (e.g., the formal logical requirement of soundness, completeness, and consistency in a system of ideas, as in the argument on “The Dreaming”), there is informalness (e.g., the non-formal existence of unsoundness, incompleteness, and inconsistency in the argument on “The Dreaming,” as shown in the criticisms that the concept of the Dreaming means different things to different groups, that the Dreaming is mythological in nature, that there exists some form of gender discrimination in the ownership of different Dreaming stories, that different Dreaming stories have been used and misused for ulterior purposes, and that the stories of the Dreaming can have negative effects on their believers). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the absoluteness-relativeness principle, if there is absoluteness (e.g., the absolute view on the Dreaming by the believers as literally true), there is relativeness (e.g., what is true for the believers who considered the Dreaming as literally true is not necessarily so for those 196 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

Europeans at the time of colonization who considered it as “mythological”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the partiality-totality principle, if there is partiality (e.g., the partial view on the Dreaming by its advocates), there is totality (e.g., the more holistic view on the Dreaming, such that the whole is not the sum of its parts, that is, it cannot be reduced to the sum of opposing views among the advocates of different Dreaming stories, as well as their myriad critics, etc., since there will emerge new views in the future not yet known today, just as there are already alternative views nowadays which do not side exclusively with any of them, as is the analysis here). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the predictability-unpredictability principle, if there is predictability (e.g., the predictable tendency that the Dreaming stories will remain influential among Australian Aboriginal groups in the foreseeable future), there is unpredictability (e.g., the more difficult task to predict exactly the extent to which the Dreaming stories will remain influential in a particular distant future era). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the explicability-inexplicability principle, if there is explicability (e.g., the explanation, by the believers in the Dreaming stories, of their credubility on the basis of “a vast and complex system- network of relationships which can be traced directly back to the ancestral Totemic Spirit Beings”), there is inexplicability (e.g., the lack of sufficient explanation, by the believers in the Dreaming stories, of why this “vast and complex system-network of relationships which can be traced directly back to the ancestral Totemic Spirit Beings” is necessarily credible, since the critics like those Europeans at the time of colonization “consider these cultural ancestors to be mythical”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the fiction-reality principle, if there is fiction (e.g., the fictional aspect of the Dreaming, insofar as the critics like some Europeans “consider these cultural ancestors to be mythical”), there is reality (e.g., the realistic aspect of the Dreaming, insofar as it has different versions owned by different tribes or groups). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the cognitiveness-noncognitiveness principle, if there is cognitiveness (e.g., a view of things on the basis of reason and evidences, as shown in the finding that there are different Dreaming stories owned by different tribes or groups), there is noncognitiveness (e.g., a view of things on the basis of non-cognitive factors like envy, jealousy, power, nationality, race, gender, age, class, greed, lust, status, faith, anger, sadness, joy, fear, wish, etc.—as shown in the continued faith by different Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 199

In relation to the slowness-quickness principle, if there is slowness (e.g., the relatively slower speed for an European critic to believe in “The Dreaming”), there is quickness (e.g., the relatively quicker speed for an Australian aboriginal individual to believe in “The Dreaming”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the expansion-contraction principle, if there is expansion (e.g., the relative spread of the dismissive belief among Europeans at the time of colonization that “The Dreaming” by Australian natives is “mythical”), there is contraction (e.g., the relative decline of the dismissive rejection of “The Dreaming” as “mythical,” as more and more researchers like Tony Crisp nowadays come to appreciate the narrative for us to learn about). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the optimality-nonoptimality principle, if there is optimality (e.g., the search for highly favorable options, like the quest for a comprehensive narrative combining everything in the universe which “can be traced directly back to the ancestral Totemic Spirit Beings of The Dreaming”), there is nonoptimality (e.g., the existence of non-optimal alternatives to optimality, like the argument for more realistic studies by the critics, who pointed out different problems with the narrative about “The Dreaming” as discussed earlier). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the simultaneity-nonsimultaneity principle, if there is simultaneity (e.g., the occurrence of different things more or less at the same time, such as the simultaneous co-existence of different stories about “The Dreaming” nowadays), there is nonsimultaneity (e.g., the occurrence of something after something else, such as the historical development of the original narrative about “The Dreaming” by indigenous Australians before the historical development of the version by Brendan McCarthy in his Dr Strange series Fever for Marvel Comics” and by Colby Herchel for the new opera “The Dreamtime”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the isolation-interaction principle, if there is isolation (e.g., the state of a situation that is separated from others, such as the separation among different Australian aboriginal groups, such that “the Dreaming has different meanings for different Aboriginal groups” and “dreaming stories vary throughout Australia, with variations on the same theme”), there is interaction (e.g., the influence of entities on one another, such as the interaction between “The Dreaming” and its use by “non- native writers and artists” who “have appropriated” it for their own purposes, like the case about Brendan McCarthy for his “Dr Strange series Fever for Marvel Comics”). And the reverse direction also holds true. 200 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

In relation to the theory-praxis principle, if there is theory (e.g., the theoretical construction of “The Dreaming” in the field of Australian Aboriginal mythology), there is praxis (e.g., the practical application of “The Dreaming” in the field of Australian Aboriginal mythology to the field of entertainment, like the use of “The Dreaming” by Brendan McCarthy for his “Dr Strange series Fever for Marvel Comics”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the convention-novelty principle, if there is convention (e.g., the conventional wisdom about “The Dreaming” among Australian Aboriginal groups as literally true), there is novelty (e.g., the alternative novel challenge to the conventional wisdom about “The Dreaming” among Australian Aboriginal groups as literally true—by the new idea by those “Europeans” who “consider these cultural ancestors to be mythical”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the evolution-transformation principle, if there is evolution (e.g., the natural evolution of humans to experience space-time, the cycle of life and death, etc. in the state of nature in a primitive way), there is transformation (e.g., the technical transformation of human ability to understand space-time, the cycle of life and death, etc. by the invention of the narrative like “The Dreaming”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the symmetry-asymmetry principle, if there is symmetry (e.g., the co-existence of different groups like the “Europeans,” the “Australian natives,” etc.), there is asymmetry (e.g., many Australian aboriginal groups believe in “The Dreaming”—but many European critics question them as “mythical”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the softness-hardness principle, if there is softness (e.g., the defense of “The Dreaming” by the advocates like the Australian natives as discussed earlier), there is hardness (e.g., the critique of “The Dreaming” by those Europeans who question it as “mythical,” as discussed earlier). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the seriousness-playfulness principle, if there is seriousness (e.g., the serious business of those who try to understand creation), there is playfulness (e.g., the playful part of those who try to understand creation, when they play around with different stories over the centuries, like different “Dreaming stories” by different Australian aboriginal groups as discussed earlier). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the activeness-inactivess principle, if there is activeness (e.g., the relative activeness, according to “The Dreaming,” of those “souls” who are born and come into existence in the physical world, so Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 203

Illusion and Society

Illusion, when examined from the perspective of society, can reveal to us some powerful features in relation to its possibility (or impossibility) and desirability (or undesirability), and this can be shown by way of two case studies, namely, (2.4.1) illusion, technology, and dream therapy, and (2.4.2) illusion, social groups, and dream control—to be addressed hereafter.

Illusion, Technology, and Dream Therapy

A good way to evaluate the possibility (or impossibility) and desirability (or undesirability) of illusion from the perspective of society is to explore illusion, technology, and dream therapy. An argument in the literature is the idea in the novel The Dream Master (1966) by Roger Zelazny, who wrote about “a future where the forces of overpopulation and technology have created a world where humanity suffocates psychologically beneath its own mass while abiding in relative physical comfort. This is a world ripe for psychotherapeutic innovations.” (WK 2014w)

Technology and the Dream Master In 1966, Roger Zelazny wrote The Dream Master, which was “originally published as a novella titled He Who Shapes.” (WK 2014w) The Dream Master describes “a future where the forces of overpopulation and technology have created a world where humanity suffocates psychologically beneath its own mass while abiding in relative physical comfort. This is a world ripe for psychotherapeutic innovations, such as the 'neuroparticipant therapy' in which the protagonist, Charles Render, specializes. In neuroparticipation, the patient is hooked into a gigantic simulation controlled directly by the analyst's mind; the analyst then works with the patient to construct dreams—nightmares, wish- fulfillment, etc.—that afford insight into the underlying neuroses of the patient, and in some cases the possibility of direct intervention….For example, a man submerging himself in a fantasy world sees it utterly destroyed at Render's hands, and is thus 'cured' of his obsession with it.” (WK 2014w) Later, “Render, the leader in his field, takes on a patient with an unusual problem. Eileen Shallot aspires to become a neuroparticipant therapist herself, but is somewhat hampered by congenital blindness. Not 204 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

having experienced visual sensation in the same way as her patients, she would be unable to convincingly construct visual dreams for them; indeed, in a case of eye-envy, her own neurotic desire to see through the eyes of her patients might prevent her from treating them effectively. However, she explains to Render, if a practicing neuroparticipant therapist is willing to work with her, he can expose her to the full range of visual stimuli in a controlled environment, free of her own attachments to the issue, and enable her to pursue her career.” (WK 2014w) Yet, “despite his better sense and the advice of colleagues, Render agrees to go along with the treatment. But as they progress, Eileen's hunger for visual stimulation continues to grow, and she begins to assert her will against Render's, subsuming him into her own dreams.” (WK 2014w)

Technology and Dreamscape In 1981, “Zelazny wrote a film outline based on The Dream Master that 20th Century Fox purchased and later developed into the film Dreamscape.” (WK 2014w) In 1984, “Dreamscape” was released as a “science fiction horror film directed by Joseph Ruben and written by David Loughery, with Chuck Russell and Ruben co-writing.” (WK 2014hh) In the film Dreamscape, “psychic Alex Gardner (Dennis Quaid) was the 19-year-old prime subject of a scientific research project documenting his psychic ability, but in the midst of the study he disappeared and has since been using his talents solely for personal gain, which lately consists mainly of gambling and womanizing. After running afoul of a local gangster/extortionist named Snead (Redmond Gleeson), Gardner evades two of Snead's thugs by allowing himself to be taken by two men, Finch (Peter Jason) and Babcock (Chris Mulkey), who identify themselves as being from an academic institution. At the institution, Alex is reunited with his former mentor Dr. Paul Novotny (Max von Sydow) who is now involved in government-funded psychic research. Novotny, aided by fellow scientist Jane DeVries (Kate Capshaw), has developed a technique that allows psychics to voluntarily link with the minds of others by projecting themselves into the subconscious during REM sleep (i.e., while they are dreaming). Novotny equates the original idea for the dreamscape project to the practice of the Senoi, who believe the dream world is just as real as reality.” (WK 2014hh) But, against his will, “Alex is blackmailed into joining Novotny’s project that he (Novotny) intended to use for a benevolent purpose as a clinic to diagnose and treat sleep disorders, particularly in the form of Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 205

nightmares, but the project has been hijacked by Bob Blair (Christopher Plummer), a powerful government agent with possible CIA ties, though it is never clearly revealed in the film. Alex eventually discovers that he is actually involved in a U.S. government-funded project to use this dream- linking technique for assassination. Before the plot is revealed, Alex gains experience helping a man worried about his wife’s infidelity and taking over the case of a young boy named Buddy (Cory Yothers) who is plagued with nightmares so terrible that a previous psychic lost his mind in an attempt to help Buddy. Buddy's nightmare bogeyman involves a large snakeman which later becomes a weakness for Alex.” (WK 2014hh) In the meantime, “a subplot involving Alex and Jane’s growing infatuation culminates with him sneaking into Jane's dream without the use of the machine that is a part of the process, a point Jane does not realize at first because she is too angry that Alex was able to have sex with her in her dream. With the help of a novelist named Charlie Prince (George Wendt), who has been covertly investigating the project for the basis of a new book, Alex learns of Blair’s sinister intentions.” (WK 2014hh) Then, “Prince and Novotny are both murdered to silence them; things get worse when the President of the United States (Eddie Albert) is admitted as a patient and Alex’s colleague Tommy Ray Glatman (David Patrick Kelly), a psychopath who (as Alex discovers) shot and killed his own father, is sent into the President's nightmare by Blair in an attempt to assassinate the President. Blair considers the President a threat to national security due to the President's nightmares of a post-apocalyptic world, which represent his fears and becomes cause for his wishing to enter unfavorable negotiations for nuclear disarmament.” (WK 2014hh) Consequently, “Alex and Jane manage to get close enough to the President’s room for Alex to project himself into the President's dream and save him: after a fight in which Glatman rips out a police officer's heart, attempts to incite a mob of nuclear attack victims to attack the President, and battles Alex in the form of the snake-monster from Buddy's dream, Alex assumes the appearance of Glatman's murdered father (Eric Gold) in order to distract him, allowing the President to ram a spear into Glatman's back, killing him. The President is grateful to Alex but reluctant to confront Blair, who apparently holds a truly powerful position in the government. To protect himself and Jane, Alex enters Blair’s dream and murders him before Blair can bring about any sort of retribution.” (WK 2014hh) In the last scene, “the film ends with Jane and Alex boarding a train to Louisville, Kentucky, intent on making their previous dream encounter a Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 207

does not appear in the credits; assertions that he removed his name from the credits are unfounded.” (WK 2014hh; C. Kovacs 2009) Fifthly, another additional main criticism of the argument on illusion, technology, and dream therapy is that psychotherapy can be pseudo- effective (that is, effective for the wrong reasons). For instance, “critics of psychotherapy are skeptical of the healing power of a psychotherapeutic relationship. Because any intervention takes time, critics note that the passage of time alone, without therapeutic intervention, often results in psycho-social healing. Social contact with others is universally seen as beneficial for all humans and regularly scheduled visits with anyone would be likely to diminish both mild and severe emotional difficulty.” (WK 2014ii; J. Masson 1988; D. Smith 1999; E. Watters 1999) And sixthly, still another additional main criticism of the argument on illusion, technology, and dream therapy is that psychotherapy is often not effective (not just pseudo-effective). For instance, to the critics, “there is considerable controversy about which form of psychotherapy is most effective, and more specifically, which types of therapy are optimal for treating which sorts of problems. Furthermore, it is controversial whether the form of therapy or the presence of factors common to many psychotherapies best separates effective therapy from ineffective therapy….The dropout level is quite high; one meta-analysis of 125 studies concluded that the mean dropout rate was 46.86%. The high level of dropout has raised some criticism about the relevance and efficacy of psychotherapy. There are different drop out rates depending on how drop-out is defined.” (WK 2014ii; B. Carey 2004; M. Wierzbicki 1993; J. Egan 2005)

Beyond Technology and Dream Therapy These criticisms of the argument on illusion, technology, and dream therapy do not imply a total rejection of its usefulness but serve to show us the two opposing sides of the debate, such that the possibility (or impossibility) and desirability (or undesirability) of illusion (from the perspective of society with illusion, technology, and dream therapy as a case study here) are not to the extent that the respective defenders would like us to believe. Moreover, the analysis of illusion, technology, and dream therapy is to show us the working of the ontological principles in existential dialectics, and good examples include the formalness-informalness principle, the absoluteness-relativeness principle, the partiality-totality principle, the predictability-unpredictability principle, the explicability- Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 209

discussed earlier), there is totality (e.g., the more holistic view on technology and dream therapy, such that the whole is not the sum of its parts, that is, it cannot be reduced to the sum of different opposing views by the advocates, the critics, and so on, as discussed earlier, since there will emerge new views in the future not yet known today, just as there are already alternative views nowadays which do not side exclusively with any of them, as is the analysis here). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the predictability-unpredictability principle, if there is predictability (e.g., the predictable tendency that there will be more novels and films dealing with technology and dream therapy, in the foreseeable future), there is unpredictability (e.g., the more difficult task to predict exactly the extent to which the use of technology for dream therapy will become effective, as suggested in Dreamscape, in a particular distant future era). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the explicability-inexplicability principle, if there is explicability (e.g., the explanation, by Eileen to Render, in the novel The Dream Master, that, “if a practicing neuroparticipant therapist is willing to work with her, he can expose her to the full range of visual stimuli in a controlled environment, free of her own attachments to the issue, and enable her to pursue her career”), there is inexplicability (e.g., the lack of sufficient explanation, by Eilee, in the novel The Dream Master, of why it is necessarily desirable to allow her into the treatment, since the “advice” of the “colleagues” of Render is against her participation, fearing the danger of “her will against Render's, subsuming him into her own dreams” instead). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the fiction-reality principle, if there is fiction (e.g., the fictional aspect of Zelazny's novel, insofar as it speculates about “a future where the forces of overpopulation and technology have created a world where humanity suffocates psychologically beneath its own mass while abiding in relative physical comfort”), there is reality (e.g., the realistic aspect of of Zelazny's novel, insofar as there already exists “psychotherapy” in our time, albeit in more traditional form). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the cognitiveness-noncognitiveness principle, if there is cognitiveness (e.g., a view of things on the basis of reason and evidences, as shown in the finding that psychotherapy can be pseudo-effective [that is, effective for the wrong reasons] and that psychotherapy is often not effective [not just pseudo-effective]), there is noncognitiveness (e.g., a view of things on the basis of non-cognitive factors like envy, jealousy, power, nationality, race, gender, age, class, greed, lust, status, faith, anger, 210 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

sadness, joy, fear, wish, etc.—as shown in the continued interest in dream therapy with the use of technology in Zelazny's novel, in spite of the criticisms that psychotherapy can be pseudo-effective [that is, effective for the wrong reasons] and that psychotherapy is often not effective [not just pseudo-effective]). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the finiteness-transfiniteness principle, if there is finiteness (e.g., the finite number of the different ways to get into someone;s dream, like the 2 ways in the film Dreamscape, that is, with the use of one’s psychic ability and with the use of a machine), there is transfiniteness (e.g., the transfinite number of all the individual dreams that have ever existed in history and that involve the interaction between two minds, regardless of how this can be done, be it due to the use of someone’s psychic ability, the use of a machine, the illusion in the dream, and so on). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the preciseness-vagueness principle, if there is preciseness (e.g., the precise identification of 2 different ways to get into someone’s dream in the film Dreamscape, that is, with the use of one’s psychic ability and with the use of a machine, in the article aforecited), there is vagueness (e.g., the vagueness in the identification of the 2 different ways to get into someone’s dream in the film Dreamscape, that is, with the use of one’s psychic ability and with the use of a machine, in the article aforecited, since it is not clear why there must be only 2, not 3, 4 , 5, 6, and so on). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the simpleness-complicatedness principle, if there is simpleness (e.g., the relatively simple analysis of “psychotherapeutic innovations” in the novel The Dream Master), there is complicatedness (e.g., the relatively more complicated analysis of “psychotherapeutic innovations” in the novel The Dream Master, by challenging the claims and assumptions, as shown in the problems pointed out by the critics as cited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the openness-hiddenness principle, if there is openness (e.g., the open exploration of “Novotny’s project…to diagnose and treat sleep disorders, particularly in the form of nightmares”), there is hiddenness (e.g., the hidden bias in “Novotny’s project…to diagnose and treat sleep disorders, particularly in the form of nightmares,” because “the project has been hijacked by Bob Blair…to use this dream-linking technique for assassination’). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the denseness-emptiness principle, if there is denseness (e.g., the relatively denser concentration of concerns with the use of the “dream-linking technique for assassination” by Blair), there is emptiness (e.g., the relatively less dense, or more empty, concentration of concerns Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 211

with the use of the “dream-linking technique…to diagnose and treat sleep disorders” by Blair). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the rule-exception principle, if there are rules (e.g., the usual generalization, procedure, habit, or tendency that sci-fi novels like The Dream Master are fictional), there are exceptions (e.g., a case to which a rule does not apply, such as the exceptional situation when science fiction can become science fact and can contain some scientific reality, like the phenomenon of “psychotherapy” in our time, of which the novel makes good use, though with some futuristic revisions). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the indispensability-dispensability principle, if there is indispensability (e.g., the need for something or someone, like the necessary use of the film Dreamscape for “entertainment,” because it was made for that purpose), there is dispensability (e.g., the superfluity of something or someone, like the dispensable use of the film Dreamscape for “science education,” because it was made for a different purpose, that is, for popular entertainment). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the prototypicality-variation principle, if there is prototypicality (e.g., the prototype, like the example about the original novel The Dream Master), there is variation (e.g., different variants of the protoptye, as shown in many works since the original novel The Dream Master—like the later ones such as the film Dreamscape, which was based in part upon the novel The Dream Master, though with its own variation, contribution, and disagreement). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the change-constancy principle, if there is change (e.g., the ever new ways to study dreaming, as shown in The Dream Master), there is constancy (e.g., the ever constant existence of different problems with the ever new ways to study dreaming, as shown in the problems with The Dream Master pointed out by the critics). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the order-chaos principle, if there is order (e.g., the more or less orderly view on reality, if looked from the sole vantage point of separating “dreaming” from “wakefulness,” as common sense suggests in everyday life), there is chaos (e.g., the more or less chaotic view on reality, if looked from the sole vantage point of the thinking of “Senoi, who believes the dream world is just as real as reality,” which becomes the intellectual basis for the film Dreamscape, together with different problems by the critics aforecited, such that they do not add up to much of anything coherent). And the reverse direction also holds true. 214 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

use by Blair of the “dream-linking technique for assassination”), there is otherness (e.g., the tendency to be mostly centered on others, as shown in the academic analysis of both sides of the debate on technology and dream therapy, as an advancement in the knowledge of psychotherapy, for humanity). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the regression-progression principle, if there is regression (e.g., the regression made by the film Dreamscape, as shown in the problems pointed out by the critics), there is progression (e.g., the progress made by the film Dreamscape, as shown in the contribution to popular entertainment aforecited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the same-difference principle, if there is similarity in outcome (e.g., the contribution to the molding and control of beliefs, values, and behaviors, regardless of whether this be done by way of traditional psychotherapy in a one-to-one individual setting, or by way of the use of machines for dream therapy), there is difference in outcome (e.g., the contribution to the molding and control of beliefs, values, and behaviors by way of traditional psychotherapy in a one-to-one individual setting for a relatively more personal low-tech lifeworld—but the contribution to the molding and control of beliefs, values, and behaviors by way of the use of machines for dream therapy for a relatively more hi- tech lifeworld). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the stability-reaction principle, if there is stability (e.g., the relatively more stable condition of traditional psychotherapy in a one- to-one individual setting in the older days), there is reaction (e.g., the relatively more stable condition of traditional psychotherapy in a one-to- one individual setting in the older days then led to further changes later on, when nowadays, there is the proposal of using machines and psychic ability for psychotherapy, as in the film Dreamscape). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the functionality-nonfunctionality principle, if there is functionality (e.g., the presence of action for which something or someone is fitted, as shown in the film Dreamscape, which serves the function of providing an entertainment with the message about the use of psychic ability and of machines for dream therapy), there is nonfunctionality (e.g., the relative lack of action for which something or someone is fitted, as shown in the problems with the message in the film Dreamscape, as discussed earlier, such that it is not as functional as the advocates would like us to believe). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the intentionality-nonintentionality principle, if there is intentionality (e.g., the planning or design of something for a certain Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 215

outcome, as shown in the intended consequences in regard to the “dream- linking technique” in the film Dreamscape, as those like Novotny who used it intended “to diagnose and treat sleep disorders”), there is nonintentionality (e.g., the relative absence of planning or design of something for a certain outcome, such that the outcome can even be counter-intentional in being the opposite of what was originally planned, as shown in the use of the “dream-linking technique for assassination” by Blair—contrary to the original intention of those like Novotny who used it “to diagnose and treat sleep disorders”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the survivability-nonsurvivability principle, if there is survivability (e.g., the relative survival of Alex in the end, in the film Dreamscape), there is non-survivability (e.g., the relative non-survival of Blair in the end, in the film Dreamscape). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the materiality-nonmateriality principle, if there is materiality (e.g., the material outcome in relation to space-time, matter- energy, Having, etc., like the use of the “dream-linking technique” in the film Dreamscape, by Novotny, “to diagnose and treat sleep disorders”), there is non-materiality (e.g., the nonmaterial outcome in relation to the quest for Being, Belonging, etc., like the attempt to use the “dream-linking technique…to assassinate the President,” by Blair, who “considers the President a threat to national security due to the President's nightmares of a post-apocalyptic world, which represent his fears and becomes cause for his wishing to enter unfavorable negotiations for nuclear disarmament”). And the reverse direction also holds true. And in relation to the proaction-adjustment principle, if there is proaction (e.g., the detailed, long-term planning for an outcome, such as the well-planned research project “documenting his [Alex]s] psychic ability” in the film Dreamscape), there is adjustment (e.g., the ad-hoc, spontaneous dealing with a contingent outcome, such as the contingent, abrupt, decision by Alex, who, “in the midst of the study…disappeared and has since been using his talents solely for personal gain, which lately consists mainly of gambling and womanizing” in the film Dreamscape). And the reverse direction also holds true.

Illusion, Social Groups, and Dream Control

Another good way to evaluate the possibility (or impossibility) and desirability (or undesirability) of illusion from the perspective of society is to explore illusion, social groups, and dream control. 216 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

An argument in the literature is the “Senoi Dream Theory,” which refers to “a set of claims about how people can learn to control their dreams [with the help of social groups] to reduce fear and increase pleasure….It was a key element in a whole new orientation toward dreams that first became popular as one small strand of the human potential movement in the 1960s”; and Kilton Stewart “traveled among the Senoi before the Second World War” and “wrote about the Senoi in his 1948 doctoral thesis and his 1954 popular book 'Pygmies and Dream Giants.'” (WK 2014jj; G. Domhoff 2003)

Historical Origins of the Senoi The term “Senoi” (also spelled “Sengoi” and “Sng'oi”) refers to “a set of Malaysian hunting and gathering Orang Asli peoples. The Senoi tribes live in the central part of the Malaya Peninsula, and consist of six different groups, the Semai, Temiar, Mah Meri, Jah Hut, Semaq Beri and the Che Wong, all of who speak Senoic languages and have a total population of about 60,000.” (WK 2014jj) Historically, “their ancestors are believed to have arrived from southern Thailand about 4,500 years ago. During the Malayan Emergency, the guerrilla war fought from 1948 to 1960 a small fighting force,” and “the Senoi Praaq was created, which is now part of the General Operations Force of the Royal Malaysia Police.” (WK 2014jj)

Aspects of the Senoi Dream Theory The main idea of the Senoi Dream Theory is that “dreams can be shared and shaped in groups in a positive and supportive fashion for the benefit of everyone, not just specific individuals with problems,” as the now-defunct Jungian-Senoi Institute in Berkeley promoted the idea (in the early 1980s) that “Senoi dreamwork emphasizes the deliberate alteration of dream states, the resolution in dreams of problems encountered in waking consciousness, dream 'rehearsal' for activity while awake, and the application of dreams to creative individual and community projects.” (G. Domhoff 2003) (a) The Role of K. Steward and P. Garfield Kilton Stewart (1902-1965) claimed that “the people who were said to first practice this new way of thinking about and using dreams, the Senoi, are an aboriginal people who live in the jungle highlands of Malaysia. Numbering between 30,000 and 45,000 for the past 50 years, they live near rivers in loose-knit settlements of fifteen to 100 people. The Senoi are characterized by the dreamwork movement as an easygoing and 218 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

In other words, “life” among the Senoi “is a veritable dream clinic. The concern with dreams begins at the break of day,” as Steward (1954) wrote: “The Senoi parent inquires of his child's dream at breakfast, praises the child for having the dream, and discusses the significance of it. He asks about past incidences and tells the child how to change his behavior and attitude in future dreams. He also recommends certain social activities or gestures which the dream makes necessary or advisable.” (G. Domhoff 2003) After breakfast, “here the serious work of dream discussion continues,….The men, adolescent boys, and some of the women share their dreams with the larger group. They discuss the significance of each dream symbol and situation. Each council member expresses his opinion of its meanings. Those of the tribe who agree on the meaning of a dream will adopt it as a group project,” as Garfield (1974) continued. (G. Domhoff 2003) This open discussion of dreams serves the function of “the promotion of social harmony. Negative actions in dreams are discussed with the people who were part of these interactions in order to resolve the problems that might have caused these images. 'If the dreamer injures the dream images of his fellows or refuses to cooperate with them in dreams,' writes Stewart [1951], 'he should go out of his way to express friendship and cooperation on awakening, since hostile dream characters can only use the image of people for whom his good will is running low.' By the same token, 'if the image of a friend hurts him in a dream, the friend should be advised of the fact, so he can repair his damage or negative dream image by friendly social intercourse.'” (G. Domhoff 2003) (c) Dream Control And the second main idea of the Senoi dream theory has to do with “dream control.” Besides dream control, there is also dream control because “the Senoi…not only share and interpret their dreams. Even more significantly, they shape and control them. They are able to have the kinds of dreams they want to have, free of fearful chases and frightening falls, and full of sensuality and creativity. They do so through three basic principles that are taught to children as they report their dreams around the breakfast table. These principles, which are unique in the dream literature and greatly appeal to modern readers, can be paraphrased from Stewart and Garfield [1974] as follows”: (G. Domhoff 2003)

• “Always confront and conquer danger in dreams. If an animal looms out of the jungle, go toward it. If someone attacks you, fight back.” Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 221

and good examples include the formalness-informalness principle, the absoluteness-relativeness principle, the partiality-totality principle, the predictability-unpredictability principle, the explicability-inexplicability principle, the fiction-reality principle, the cognitiveness-noncognitiveness principle, the finiteness-transfiniteness principle, the preciseness- vagueness principle, the simpleness-complicatedness principle, the openness-hiddenness principle, the denseness-emptiness principle, the rule-exception principle, the indispensability-dispensability principle, the prototypicality-variation principle, the change-constancy principle, the order-chaos principle, the slowness-quickness principle, the expansion- contraction principle, the optimality-nonoptimality principle, the simultaneity-nonsimultaneity principle, the isolation-interaction principle, the theory-praxis principle, the convention-novelty principle, the evolution-transformation principle, the symmetry-asymmetry principle, the softness-hardness principle, the seriousness-playfulness principle, the activeness-inactivess principle, the selfness-otherness principle, the regression-progression principle, the same-difference principle, the stability-reaction principle, the functionality-nonfunctionality principle, the intentionality-nonintentionality principle: the survivability-non- survivability principle, the materiality-nonmateriality principle, and the proaction-adjustment principle. For instance, in relation to the formalness-informalness principle, if there is formalness (e.g., the formal logical requirement of soundness and completeness in a system of ideas, as in the argument on the Senoi dream theory), there is informalness (e.g., the non-formal existence of unsoundness and incompleteness in the argument on the Senoi dream theory, as shown in the criticisms that the theory does not really work in practice, that the idea of dream control reflects the leftist ideology of the 1960s in America, that there are alternative solutions to bad dreams, and that the account about the Senoi by Steward and Garfield is historically dubious). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the absoluteness-relativeness principle, if there is absoluteness (e.g., the absolute view on the Senoi dream theory by the advocates like Steward and Garfield), there is relativeness (e.g., what is true for the advocates like Steward and Garfield in regard to the Senoi dream theory is not necessarily so for the critics like Domhoff, as discussed earlier). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the partiality-totality principle, if there is partiality (e.g., the partial view on the Senoi dream theory by the advocates like Steward and Garfield), there is totality (e.g., the more holistic view on the Senoi dream theory, such that the whole is not the sum of its parts, that is, it 222 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

cannot be reduced to the sum of opposing views by Steward, Domhoff, etc., since there will emerge new views in the future not yet known today, just as there are already alternative views nowadays which do not side exclusively with any of them, as is the analysis here). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the predictability-unpredictability principle, if there is predictability (e.g., the predictable tendency that the advocates like Kaplan-Williams [2004] will continue to defend the Senoi Dream Theory), there is unpredictability (e.g., the more difficult task to predict exactly the extent to which the Senoi Dream Theory will remain influential in a particular distant future era). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the explicability-inexplicability principle, if there is explicability (e.g., the explanation, by those advocates of the Senoi Dream Theory, of its desirability on the basis of dream sharing and dream control to combat nightmares), there is inexplicability (e.g., the lack of sufficient explanation, by those advocates of the Senoi Dream Theory, of why it is necessarily desirable, since the critics pointed out the different problems aforecited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the fiction-reality principle, if there is fiction (e.g., the fictional aspect of the Senoi Dream Theory, insofar as the account by Steward and Garfield is not historically accurate, as discussed earlier), there is reality (e.g., the realistic aspect of the Senoi Dream Theory, insofar as the Senoi did practice some kinds of dream sharing and control, although not necessarily in the way as Steward and Garfield wrote). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the cognitiveness-noncognitiveness principle, if there is cognitiveness (e.g., a view of things on the basis of reason and evidences, as shown in the finding that the Senoi Dream Theory continues to have its supporters like Kaplan-Williams and others), there is noncognitiveness (e.g., a view of things on the basis of non-cognitive factors like envy, jealousy, power, nationality, race, gender, age, class, greed, lust, status, faith, anger, sadness, joy, fear, wish, etc.—as shown in the continued faith on the Senoi Dream Theory by its supporters, in spite of the criticisms that the theory does not really work in practice, that the idea of dream control reflects the leftist ideology of the 1960s in America, that there are alternative solutions to bad dreams, and that the account about the Senoi by Steward and Garfield is historically dubious). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the finiteness-transfiniteness principle, if there is finiteness (e.g., the finite number of the main ideas in the Senoi Dream Theory, like “dream sharing” amd “dream control”), there is Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 223

transfiniteness (e.g., the transfinite number of all the individuals, be they humans or animals, in history that have ever shared and controlled their dreams, regardless of whether they have anything to do with the Senoi Dream Theory or not). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the preciseness-vagueness principle, if there is preciseness (e.g., the precise identification of 2 main ideas in the Senoi Dream Theory, that is, “dream sharing” and “dream control,” in the article aforecited), there is vagueness (e.g., the vagueness in the identification of the 2 main ideas in the Senoi Dream Theory, that is, “dream sharing” and “dream control,” in the article aforecited, since it is not clear why there must be only 2, not 3, 4, 5, 6, and so on). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the simpleness-complicatedness principle, if there is simpleness (e.g., the relatively simple analysis of the Senoi Dream Theory by the advocates), there is complicatedness (e.g., the relatively more complicated analysis of the Senoi Dream Theory, by challenging the claims and assumptions, as shown in the problems pointed out by the critics as cited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the openness-hiddenness principle, if there is openness (e.g., the open exploration of the use of “dream sharing” and “dream control,” in the Senoi Dream Theory, “to reduce fear and increase pleasure”), there is hiddenness (e.g., the hidden bias in the use of “dream sharing” and “dream control,” in the Senoi Dream Theory, “to reduce fear and increase pleasure,” because the ideas of dream sharing and dream control reflect the leftist ideology of the 1960s in America, together with other problems aforecited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the denseness-emptiness principle, if there is denseness (e.g., the relatively denser concentration of concerns with “dream sharing” and “dream control” by the advocates of the Senoi Dream Theory), there is emptiness (e.g., the relatively less dense, or more empty, concentration of concerns with “dream rehearsal” by the advocates of the Senoi Dream Theory). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the rule-exception principle, if there are rules (e.g., the usual generalization, procedure, habit, or tendency that the Senoi Dream Theory and the Dreamwork Movement, in general, have much in common, in that both accept that “dreams contain wisdom in esoteric symbolic form” and that “they can be used in an aggressive fashion in therapy groups to deal with personal problems”), there are exceptions (e.g., a case to which a rule does not apply, such as the exceptional situation when the Senoi Dream Theory add something new, that is, the 2 main ideas of 226 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

studies, when it is built into the Senoi Dream Theory, according to Domhoff). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the convention-novelty principle, if there is convention (e.g., the conventional wisdom about the use of dream control “to reduce fear and increase pleasure” in the Senoi Dream Theory), there is novelty (e.g., the alternative novel challenge to the conventional wisdom about the use of dream control “to reduce fear and increase pleasure” in the Senoi Dream Theory—by the new idea of “imagery rehearsal” by Barry Krakow). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the evolution-transformation principle, if there is evolution (e.g., the natural evolution of humans to experience fear and pleasure in the state of nature in a primitive way), there is transformation (e.g., the technical transformation of human ability to cope with fear and pleasure by the invention of the Senoi Dream Theory). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the symmetry-asymmetry principle, if there is symmetry (e.g., the co-existence of the Senoi and the government in Malaysia), there is asymmetry (e.g., “the Senoi used to practice the theory Stewart put forth, but…they abandoned it or hid it from Western view due to being put in stockades during World War II” by the government, according to Taylor). (G. Domhoff 2003) And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the softness-hardness principle, if there is softness (e.g., the defense of the Senoi Dream Theory by the advocates like Kaplan- Williams aforecited), there is hardness (e.g., the critique of the Senoi Dream Theory, as shown in the problems pointed out by the critics aforecited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the seriousness-playfulness principle, if there is seriousness (e.g., the serious business of those who try to understand how to reduce fear and increase pleasure), there is playfulness (e.g., the playful part of those who try to understand how to reduce fear and increase pleasure, when they play around with different options over the decades, like “dream sharing,” “dream control,” “dream rehearsal,” “dream therapy,” etc.). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the activeness-inactivess principle, if there is activeness (e.g., the relative activeness of those who can successfully cope with nightmares so that they can actively engage in everyday life activities in a healthy way), there is inactiveness (e.g., the relative inactiveness of those who suffer from nightmares in dreams, so that they cannot actively engage in everyday life activities in a healthy way). And the reverse direction also holds true. Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 227

In relation to the selfness-otherness principle, if there is selfness (e.g., the tendency to be mostly centered on one’s self or group, as shown in the criticisms against Steward’s dubious account of the Senoi, as “Ann Faraday, the author of popular dream books in 1972 and 1974, visited a Senoi group with her husband in 1982-1983 and…realized that everything she had written on the basis of Stewart's account was wrong” and “Jeremy Taylor, the author of several pop psychology books on dreams and a frequent leader at dream workshops,…says there is 'justification for reasonable doubt' on the issue of whether Senoi ever practiced Senoi Dream Theory,” because of Stewart’s “very dubious anecdotal sources”), there is otherness (e.g., the tendency to be mostly centered on others, as shown in the academic analysis of both sides of the debate on the Senoi Dream Theory, as an advancement in the knowledge of dreams, for humanity). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the regression-progression principle, if there is regression (e.g., the regression made by the Senoi Dream Theory, as shown in the problems pointed out by the critics), there is progression (e.g., the progress made by the Senoi Dream Theory, as shown in the contribution to the understanding of dream control aforecited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the same-difference principle, if there is similarity in outcome (e.g., the contribution to the molding and control of beliefs, values, and behaviors, regardless of whether this be done by way of Stewart’s defense of dream control, or by way of Domhoff’s critique of dream control), there is difference in outcome (e.g., the contribution to the molding and control of beliefs, values, and behaviors by way of Stewart’s defense of dream control for a relatively more positive worldview—but the contribution to the molding and control of beliefs, values, and behaviors by way of Domhoff’s critique of dream control for a relatively more negative worldview). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the stability-reaction principle, if there is stability (e.g., the relatively more stable condition of the work on dreams by Carl Jung to claim that “dreams are a source of wisdom and personal growth” in the older days), there is reaction (e.g., the relatively more stable condition of the work on dreams by Carl Jung to claim that “dreams are a source of wisdom and personal growth” in the older days then led to further changes later on, when it was refined by Stewart to propose “dream control” for his Senoi Dream Theory). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the functionality-nonfunctionality principle, if there is functionality (e.g., the presence of action for which something or someone is fitted, as shown in the Senoi Dream Theory, which serves the function 228 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

“to reduce fear and increase pleasure”), there is nonfunctionality (e.g., the relative lack of action for which something or someone is fitted, as shown in the problems with the Senoi Dream Theory, such that it is not as functional as the advocates would like us to believe). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the intentionality-nonintentionality principle, if there is intentionality (e.g., the planning or design of something for a certain outcome, as shown in the intended consequences in regard to “the spirit of 'can-do,'” as those who used it intended to explain “the idea that everything can be shaped and controlled” in American culture aforediscussed), there is nonintentionality (e.g., the relative absence of planning or design of something for a certain outcome, such that the outcome can even be counter-intentional in being the opposite of what was originally planned, as shown in the appropriation of “the spirit of 'can-do'” by those for the Senoi Dream Theory to comprehend “dream control” among Malaysian hunting and gathering peoples—contrary to the original intention of those who used it to explain “the idea that everything can be shaped and controlled” in American culture). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the survivability-nonsurvivability principle, if there is survivability (e.g., the relative survival, before WWII, of the practice of the Senoi Dream Theory by the Senoi, according to Taylor), there is non- survivability (e.g., the relative non-survival, during WWII, of the practice of the Senoi Dream Theory by the Senoi, because “they abandoned it or hid it from Western view due to being put in stockades during World War II,” according to Taylor) And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the materiality-nonmateriality principle, if there is materiality (e.g., the material outcome in relation to space-time, matter- energy, Having, etc., like the use of “the spirit of 'can-do'” by those for the Senoi Dream Theory to practice “dream control,” so as to reduce fear and increase pleasure), there is non-materiality (e.g., the nonmaterial outcome in relation to the quest for Being, Belonging, etc., like the use of “the spirit of 'can-do'” in American culture, for the freedom from fear, so as to pursuit maximal human potential). And the reverse direction also holds true. And in relation to the proaction-adjustment principle, if there is proaction (e.g., the detailed, long-term planning for an outcome, such as the elaborated inquiry about sleep and dreams by the Dreamwork Movement over the years, with the Senoi Dream Theory as “the crucial final ingredient”), there is adjustment (e.g., the ad-hoc, spontaneous dealing with a contingent outcome, such as the contingent decision by Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 229

Domhoff, upon detecting something fundamentally wrong with the Senoi Dream Theroy by Stewart, to use “the spirit of 'can-do'” in American culture as a way to explain the puzzle, “Why did so many people uncritically accept the claims by Stewart and Garfield…despite all the contradictory evidence?”). And the reverse direction also holds true.

Illusion and Culture

Ilusion, when examined from the perspective of culture, can cast an illuminating light on its possibility (or impossibility) and desirability (or undesirability), and this can be shown by way of two case studies, namely, (2.5.1) illusion, art, and dreams, and (2.5.2) illusion, religion, and dreams—to be addressed hereafter, in that order.

Illusion, Art, and Dreams

An excellent case study here to understand illusion from the perspective of culture has to do with illusion, art, and dreams. An argument in the literature is that an art work can be “directly based on material from dreams, or…employ…dream-like imagery.” (WK 2014y)

History of Dream Art The history of dream art is old indeed, as “the story of Gilgamesh, the Bible, and the Iliad,” for instance, “all describe dreams of major characters and the meanings thereof.” (WK 2014y) Later, “in European literature, the Romantic movement emphasized the value of emotion and irrational inspiration. 'Visions,' whether from dreams or intoxication, served as raw material and were taken to represent the artist's highest creative potential.” (WK 2014y) Then, “in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Symbolism and Expressionism introduced dream imagery into visual art. Expressionism was also a literary movement, and included the later work of the playwright August Strindberg, who coined the term 'dream play' for a style of narrative that did not distinguish between fantasy and reality.” (WK 2014y) At that time, “discussion of dreams reached a new level of public awareness in the Western world due to the work of Sigmund Freud, who introduced the notion of the subconscious mind as a field of scientific inquiry. Freud greatly influenced the 20th-century Surrealists, who 232 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

story find Nyarlathotep brooding over his defeat within the halls of Kadath, mocking in anger the 'mild gods of earth' whom he has snatched back from the sunset city.” (WK 2014ll)

3rd Case Study of Dream Art—Non-Fiction by Carlos Castaneda And the third case study of dream art is the non-fiction titled The Art of Dreaming (1993) by Carlos Castaneda (as summarized in Table 2.4). (WK 2014kk) In this book, Castaneda “describes the events that took place during an apprenticeship with a self-proclaimed Yaqui Indian Sorcerer, don Juan Matus, between 1960 and 1973” (in Mesoamerica, between what is now known as Mexico and Central America). to undersand “the steps needed to master the control and consciousness of dreams. The Toltecs of Don Juan Matus' lineage believed that there are seven barriers to awareness, which they termed The Seven Gates of Dreaming,…which when overcome yield total awareness.” (WK 2014mm) But only four of the Gates of Dreaming are discussed in The Art of Dreaming. as summarized below: (WK 2014mm)

• “1st Gate of Dreaming (Stabilization of the Dreaming Body)”— “Arrived at when one perceives one's hands in a dream. Solved when one is able to shift the focus from the hands to another dream object and return it to the hands, all repeated a few times. Crossed when one is able to induce a state of darkness and a feeling of increased weight while falling asleep. Location in the body—in the area at the base of the V formed by pulling the big and second toes of one foot to the sides.” • “2nd Gate of Dreaming (Utilizing the Dreaming Body)”—“Arrived at when one's dream objects start changing into something else. Solved when one is able to isolate a Scout and follow it to the realm of Inorganic Beings. Crossed when one is able to fall asleep without losing consciousness. It is also referred to the activity of dreaming together with other practitioners. Location in the body—in the inside area of the calf.” • “3rd Gate of Dreaming (Traveling)”—“Arrived at when one dreams of looking at oneself. Solved when the dreaming and physical bodies become one. Crossed when one is able to control the dreaming body in the physical realm and move around at ease. Location in the body—at the lowest part of the spinal column”; and “this is what is often known as an 'Out of body experience.'” 234 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

because “some…find…it almost unreadable and others...compare…it to the Alice books and the fantasies of George MacDonald.” (WK 2014ll; S. Joshi 2001) Fifthly, another additional main criticism of the argument on illusion, art, and dreams is that the veracity of the content of dream art can be questionable. For instance, as the critics are quick to point out, in regard to the non- fiction titled The Art of Dreaming by Castaneda, “the veracity of The Art of Dreaming, as with the rest of his books, has been debated.” (WK 2014mm) And sixthly, still another additional main criticism of the argument on illusion, art, and dreams is that the messages in dream art can be misleadingly utopian. For instance, in regard to the non-fiction titled The Art of Dreaming by Castaneda, the message about overcoming the Seven Gates of Dreaming to achieve “total awareness” is considered as “a way of “Sorcery” that can lead to “Paradise” or “a return to Paradise” in Toltec culture. (WK 2014mm) But is this promise of “Paradise” through sorcery too utopian as an idea?

Beyond Art and Dreams These criticisms of the argument on illusion, art, and dreams do not mean a total rejection of its usefulness but serve to show us the two opposing sides of the debate, such that the possibility (or impossibility) and desirability (or undesirability) of illusion (from the perspective of culture with illusion, art, and dreams as a case study here) are not to the extent that the respective defenders would like us to believe. In fact, the analysis of the argument on illusion, art, and dreams is to teach us an important lesson on the ontological principles in existential dialectics, and good examples include the formalness-informalness principle, the absoluteness-relativeness principle, the partiality-totality principle, the predictability-unpredictability principle, the explicability- inexplicability principle, the fiction-reality principle, the cognitiveness- noncognitiveness principle, the finiteness-transfiniteness principle, the preciseness-vagueness principle, the simpleness-complicatedness principle, the openness-hiddenness principle, the denseness-emptiness principle, the rule-exception principle, the indispensability-dispensability principle, the prototypicality-variation principle, the change-constancy principle, the order-chaos principle, the slowness-quickness principle, the expansion-contraction principle, the optimality-nonoptimality principle, the simultaneity-nonsimultaneity principle, the isolation-interaction Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 237

the “7 Gates of Dreaming” to overcome before “total awareness” can be realized in The Art of Dreaming, since it is not clear why there must be only 7, not 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, and so on). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the simpleness-complicatedness principle, if there is simpleness (e.g., the relatively simple analysis of dream art by the advocates), there is complicatedness (e.g., the relatively more complicated analysis of dream art, by challenging the claims and assumptions, as shown in the problems pointed out by the critics as cited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the openness-hiddenness principle, if there is openness (e.g., the open exploration of “total awareness” that can lead to “Paradise” in The Art of Dreaming by Castaneda), there is hiddenness (e.g., the hidden bias in the open exploration of “total awareness” that can lead to “Paradise” in The Art of Dreaming by Castaneda, since the critics regard this as too utopian or its veracity is questionable). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the denseness-emptiness principle, if there is denseness (e.g., the relatively denser concentration of concerns with sorcery by those in Toltec culture in their quest for “total awareness,” as reflected in The Art of Dreaming), there is emptiness (e.g., the relatively less dense, or more empty, concentration of concerns with science by those in Toltec culture in their quest for “total awareness,” as reflected in The Art of Dreaming). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the rule-exception principle, if there are rules (e.g., the usual generalization, procedure, habit, or tendency that “references to dreams in art are as old as literature itself”), there are exceptions (e.g., a case to which a rule does not apply, such as the exceptional case when “there is no way to know whether many premodern works were dream- based” or not, or whether they were really dream art in the strict sense of the word). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the indispensability-dispensability principle, if there is indispensability (e.g., the need for something or someone, like the necessary inclusion of “7 Gates of Dreaming” in Toltec culture), there is dispensability (e.g., the superfluity of something or someone, like the dispensable inclusion of the “7 Gates of Dreaming” in the work The Art of Dreaming, since only 4 of the 7 gates were discussed and analyzed). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the prototypicality-variation principle, if there is prototypicality (e.g., the prototype, like the example about the original work by Yaqui Indian Sorcerer, don Juan Matus, on the gates of dreaming Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 239

optimality, like the argument for more realistic studies by the critics, who pointed out different problems with the idea about “total awareness” on the way to “return to Paradise” as reflected in The Art of Dreaming). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the simultaneity-nonsimultaneity principle, if there is simultaneity (e.g., the occurrence of different things more or less at the same time, such as the simultaneous co-existence of different historical legacies of the works on total awareness by don Juan Matus and Carlos Castaneda), there is nonsimultaneity (e.g., the occurrence of something after something else, such as the historical development of the work on total awareness by don Juan Matus long before the historical development of the work by Carlos Castaneda). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the isolation-interaction principle, if there is isolation (e.g., the state of a situation that is separated from others, such as the separation of dreams as art from “a 'real' frame story” in some modern dream art, because “dreams as art, without a 'real' frame story, appear to be a later development”), there is interaction (e.g., the influence of entities on one another, such as the interaction between dreams as art and “a 'real' frame story” in many works of dream art in antiquity). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the theory-praxis principle, if there is theory (e.g., the theoretical construction of “the dream-quest of unknown Kadath” by Lovecraft in his novel), there is praxis (e.g., the practical application of “the dream-quest of unknown Kadath” by Lovecraft in his novel to the realm of videogames, when in 1988, “a videogame adaptation for ZX- Spectrum titled The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath was released). (WK 2014ll) And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the convention-novelty principle, if there is convention (e.g., the conventional wisdom about the painting by Dalí as an interpretation of Freud's discovery of the unconscious in dreams), there is novelty (e.g., the alternative novel challenge to the conventional wisdom about the painting by Dalí as an interpretation of Freud's discovery of the unconscious in dreams—by the new idea that the painting by Dalí “is 'a surrealist interpretation of the Theory of Evolution'” instead). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the evolution-transformation principle, if there is evolution (e.g., the natural evolution of humans to have dreams in sleep in the state of nature), there is transformation (e.g., the technical transformation of human ability to deal with dreams in sleep by the Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 241

made by dream art, as shown in the contribution to the understanding of “awareness” aforecited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the same-difference principle, if there is similarity in outcome (e.g., the contribution to the molding and control of beliefs, values, and behaviors, regardless of whether this be done by way of the belief in “a return to Paradise” in The Art of Dreaming, or by way of a critique of The Art of Dreaming as utopian), there is difference in outcome (e.g., the contribution to the molding and control of beliefs, values, and behaviors by way of the belief in “a return to Paradise” in The Art of Dreaming for a relatively more mythical lifeworld—but the contribution to the molding and control of beliefs, values, and behaviors by way of a critique of The Art of Dreaming as utopian for a relatively more realistic lifeworld). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the stability-reaction principle, if there is stability (e.g., the relatively more stable condition of “the theory of evolution” in the older days), there is reaction (e.g., the relatively more stable condition of “the theory of evolution” in the older days then led to further changes later on, when nowadays, “it has also been suggested that the painting [by Dali] is 'a surrealist interpretation of the Theory of Evolution'”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the functionality-nonfunctionality principle, if there is functionality (e.g., the presence of action for which something or someone is fitted, as shown in The Art of Dreaming, which serves the function of providing the essential steps for “total awareness” on the way to “return to Paradise”), there is nonfunctionality (e.g., the relative lack of action for which something or someone is fitted, as shown in the problems with The Art of Dreaming, such that it is not as functional as the advocates would like us to believe). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the intentionality-nonintentionality principle, if there is intentionality (e.g., the planning or design of something for a certain outcome, as shown in the intended consequences in regard to the novel “The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath” by Lovecraft, as those who enjoy reading it appreciate it as a dream art), there is nonintentionality (e.g., the relative absence of planning or design of something for a certain outcome, such that the outcome can even be counter-intentional in being the opposite of what was originally planned, as shown in 1988, when “a videogame adaptation for ZX-Spectrum titled The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath was released,” solely for fun—contrary to the original intention of those who enjoy reading it as a dream art). And the reverse direction also holds true. 242 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

In relation to the survivability-nonsurvivability principle, if there is survivability (e.g., the relative survival, during 1997-1999, of “a five-issue comic book adaptation” by Jason Thompson, of the work “The Dream- Quest of Unknown Kadath”), there is non-survivability (e.g., the relative non-survival, nowadays, of the five-issue comic book adaptation” by Jason Thompson, of the work “The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath,” since it has been discontinued since 1999). (WK 2014ll) And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the materiality-nonmateriality principle, if there is materiality (e.g., the material outcome in relation to space-time, matter- energy, Having, etc., like the “videogame adaptation for ZX-Spectrum titled The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath,” solely for fun), there is non- materiality (e.g., the nonmaterial outcome in relation to the quest for Being, Belonging, etc., like the use of The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath” by Lovercraft to “illustrate…the scope and wonder of humankind's ability to dream”). (WK 2014ll) And the reverse direction also holds true. And in relation to the proaction-adjustment principle, if there is proaction (e.g., the detailed, long-term planning for an outcome, such as the persistent efforts over the years by Lovercraft in his books to “illustrate…the scope and wonder of humankind's ability to dream”), there is adjustment (e.g., the ad-hoc, spontaneous dealing with a contingent outcome, such as the contingent decision by Lovercraft, upon failing to write a previous novel “Azathoth,” to attempt again for the second time, which then led to the completion of a different novel now known as “The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath,” according to Will Murray and David E. Schultz). (WK 2014ll) And the reverse direction also holds true.

Illusion, Religion, and Dreams

Another way to evaluate the possibility (or impossibility) and desirability (or undesirability) of illusion from the perspective of culture concerns illusion, religion, and dreams. An argument in the literature is that religion plays an importnat role in dream interpretation in different cultures for millennia. For illustration, consider two main religious traditions below, namely, (a) religion and dreams in the Eastern tradition and (b) religion and dreams in the Western traditon.

Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 243

1st Case Study—Religion and Dreams in the Eastern Tradition The first case study of religion and dreams has to do with the Eastern tradition, and a good example concerns “dream yoga” in Buddism (as summarized in Table 2.5). “Dream yoga” is also known as “Milam (Standard Tibetan: rmi-lam or nyilam; Sanskrit: वनदशनर् , svapnadarśana)” or “the Yoga of the Dream State” and refers to “a suite of advanced tantric sadhana of the entwined Mantrayana lineages of Dzogchen (Nyingmapa, Ngagpa, Mahasiddha, Kagyu and Bönpo). Dream Yoga are tantric processes and techniques within the trance Bardos of Dream and Sleep (Tibetan: mi-lam bardo) and are advanced practices similar to Yoga Nidra. Aspects of Dream Yoga sadhana are subsumed within the practice suite of the Six Yogas of Naropa.” (WK 2014oo) According to Padma Shugchang (2000) and others, “the importance of dreams and dream yoga in relation to maya and gyulu of the buddhist tradition” originated from “Buddha Shakyamuni,” because, as they wrote: “Buddha Shakyamuni often told his disciples to regard all phenomena as dreams. He used many examples, like an echo, a city in the clouds or a rainbow to illustrate the illusory nature of the phenomenal world. Dreams represent just one type of illusion. The whole universe arises and dissolves like a mirage. Everything about us, even the most enlightened qualities, are also dreamlike phenomena. There's nothing that is not encompassed within the dream of illusory being; so in going to sleep, you're just passing from one dream state to another.” (WK 2014oo) Later, “Padmasambhava (c. 8th century) received the transmission he codified as 'The Yoga of the Dream State' from the mindstream of the mysterious siddha-yogi Lawapa (c. 10th century).” (WK 2014oo; A. Ouzounian 2003). (a) Dream Yoga Lineages One important dream yoga lineage is “the Kagyu 'Lineage of the Four Commissioners' (Tibetan: Ka-bab-shi-gyu-pa),” which originated “from the Dharmakaya Buddha Vajradhara. The Dharmakaya, synonymous with Vajradhara Buddha, is the source of all the manifestations of enlightenment. From Caryapa, Tilopa (988–1069 CE) of the Dzogchen Kham lineage 'received the oral instructions on Dream yoga according to the method of the Mahamaya-tantra.' From Nagarjuna (c. 150–250 CE), Tilopa received the radiant light (Sanskrit: prabhasvara) and Illusory Body (Sanskrit: maya deha) teachings. The Illusory Body, Clear Light and Dream Yoga sadhana are entwined. Düsum Khyenpa, the First Karmapa, 246 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

2nd Case Study—Religion and Dreams in the Western Tradition And the second case study of religion and dreams has to do with the Western tradition, and a good example concerns the religious story of “Jacob's Ladder,” which refers to “a staircase to heaven that the biblical Patriarch Jacob dreams about during his flight from his brother Esau. It is described in the Book of Genesis.” (WK 2014pp) (a) In Judaism The first version of the story about “Jacob’s Ladder” appears in Judaism (as summarized in Table 2.5). In Judaism, “the classic Torah commentaries offer several interpretations of Jacob's ladder. According to the Midrash, the ladder signified the exiles which the Jewish people would suffer before the coming of the Messiah. First the angel representing the 70-year exile of Babylonia climbed 'up' 70 rungs, and then fell 'down.' Then the angel representing the exile of Persia went up a number of steps, and fell, as did the angel representing the exile of Greece. Only the fourth angel, which represented the final exile of Rome/Edom (whose guardian angel was Esau himself), kept climbing higher and higher into the clouds. Jacob feared that his children would never be free of Esau's domination, but God assured him that at the End of Days, Edom too would come falling down.” (WK 2014pp) A different (second) interpretation of the story is that “the angels first 'ascended' and then 'descended.' The Midrash explains that Jacob, as a holy man, was always accompanied by angels. When he reached the border of the land of Canaan (the future land of Israel), the angels who were assigned to the Holy Land went back up to Heaven and the angels assigned to other lands came down to meet Jacob. When Jacob returned to Canaan he was greeted by the angels who were assigned to the Holy Land.” (WK 2014pp) Other interpretations emerged over the ages. For instance, “the Hellenistic Jewish Biblical philosopher Philo Judaeus, born in Alexandria, (d. ca. 50 CE) presents his allegorical interpretation of the ladder in the first book of his De somniis. There he gives four interpretations, which are not mutually exclusive,” as shown below: (WK 2014pp; M. Verman 2005)

• 1st Interpretation—“The angels represent souls descending to and ascending from bodies (some consider this to be Philo's clearest reference to the doctrine of reincarnation).” Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 247

• 2nd Interpretation—“The ladder is the human soul and the angels are God's logoi, pulling the soul up in distress and descending in compassion.” • 3rd Interpretation—“The dream depicts the ups and downs of the life of the 'practiser' (of virtue vs. sin).” • 4th Interpretation—“The angels represent the continually changing affairs of men.”

Besides Judaism, there is also Christianity with its version of the story about “Jacob’s Ladder.” (b) In Christianity So, the second version of the story about “Jacob’s Ladder” appears in Christianity, with different interpretations over the centuries, as shown below (and summarized in Table 2.5): (WK 2014pp)

• 1st Interpretation—For instance, “the theme of a ladder to heaven is often used by the Early Church Fathers. Saint Irenaeus in the 2nd century describes the Christian Church as the 'ladder of ascent to God.'” • 2nd Interpretation—“In the 3rd century, Origen explains that there are two ladders in the life of a Christian, the ascetic ladder that the soul climbs on the earth, by way of—and resulting in—an increase in virtue, and the soul's travel after death, climbing up the heavens towards the light of God.” • 3rd Interpretation—“In the 4th century, Saint Gregory of Nazianzus speaks of ascending Jacob's Ladder by successive steps towards excellence, interpreting the ladder as an ascetic path, while Saint Gregory of Nyssa narrates that Moses climbed on Jacob's Ladder to reach the heavens where he entered the tabernacle not made with hands, thus giving the Ladder a clear mystical meaning. The ascetic interpretation is found also in Saint John Chrysostom….” • 4th Interpretation—“Jacob's Ladder as an analogy for the spiritual ascetic of life had a large diffusion through the classical work The Ladder of Divine Ascent by St. John Climacus.” • 5th Interpretation—“Jesus can be seen as being the ladder, in that Christ bridges the gap between Heaven and Earth. Jesus presents himself as the reality to which the ladder points; as Jacob saw in a dream the reunion of Heaven and Earth, Jesus brought this reunion, metaphorically the ladder, into reality. Adam Clarke, an early 19th- century Methodist theologian and Bible scholar,” defended this view.

250 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

interpretations are often not compatible with scientific ones). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the absoluteness-relativeness principle, if there is absoluteness (e.g., the absolute view on the presumption of creation by the advocates of the Jewish and Christian interpretations about “Jacob’s Ladder”), there is relativeness (e.g., what is right for the advocates of the Jewish and Christian interpretations about “Jacob’s Ladder” in regard to the presumption of creation is not necessarily so for the advocates of the theory of evolution in science). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the partiality-totality principle, if there is partiality (e.g., the partial view on “Jacob’s Ladder” by the advocates of a specific Jewish or Christian interpretation), there is totality (e.g., the more holistic view on “Jacob’s Ladder,” such that the whole is not the sum of its parts, that is, it cannot be reduced to the sum of opposing interpretations among different Jewish and Christian groups aforecited, since there will emerge new views in the future not yet known today, just as there are already alternative views nowadays which do not side exclusively with any of them, as is the analysis here). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the predictability-unpredictability principle, if there is predictability (e.g., the predictable tendency that there are two main dream yoga lineages, namely, the “Kagyu 'Lineage” and the “Nyingma lineage”), there is unpredictability (e.g., the more difficult task to predict exactly which new dream yoga lineages will emerge in a particular distant future era). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the explicability-inexplicability principle, if there is explicability (e.g., the explanation, by Shugchang, of dream yoga on the basis of “four stages”), there is inexplicability (e.g., the lack of sufficient explanation, by Shugchang, of why the claim about dream yoga on the basis of “four stages” is necessarily correct, since Evans-Wentz explains dream yoga in terms of “six stages” instead). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the fiction-reality principle, if there is fiction (e.g., the fictional aspect of the world according to the advocates of dream yoga, insofar as “Namkhai Norbu gives advice, that...the life is only a big dream”), there is reality (e.g., the realistic aspect of the world according to the advocates of dream yoga, insofar as “Namkhai Norbu gives advice, that the realization that the life is only a big dream can help us finally liberate ourselves from the chains of emotions, attachments, and ego and then we have the possibility of ultimately becoming enlightened”). And the reverse direction also holds true. Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 251

In relation to the cognitiveness-noncognitiveness principle, if there is cognitiveness (e.g., a view of things on the basis of reason and evidences, as shown in the finding that there are different religious interpretations of dreams), there is noncognitiveness (e.g., a view of things on the basis of non-cognitive factors like envy, jealousy, power, nationality, race, gender, age, class, greed, lust, status, faith, anger, sadness, joy, fear, wish, etc.—as shown in the continued faith by the believers in their respective different interpretations of religion and dreams, in spite of the criticisms that there is no standardized method to learn “dream yoga,” that the religious interpretations of dreams often depend on questionable sources, that there are hermeneutic disagreements even among the religious lineages themselves, that there exist opposing religious exegeses, and that religious interpretations are often not compatible with scientific ones). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the finiteness-transfiniteness principle, if there is finiteness (e.g., the finite number of different stages of dream yoga, be they Shugchang’s “four stages” or Evans-Wentz’s “six stages” instead), there is transfiniteness (e.g., the transfinite number of all the individual instances of dreams that have ever existed in history, regardless of whether they can be understood in terms of Shugchang’s “four stages,” Evans- Wentz’s “six stages,” or something else instead). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the preciseness-vagueness principle, if there is preciseness (e.g., the precise identification of 4 stages of dream yoga by Shugchang), there is vagueness (e.g., the vagueness in the identification of the 4 stages of dream yoga by Shugchang, since it is not clear why there must be only 4, not 6 as Evans-Wentz had suggested, or another number like 5, 7, 8, 9, and so on). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the simpleness-complicatedness principle, if there is simpleness (e.g., the relatively simple analysis of the role of religion in dream interpretation by the advocates), there is complicatedness (e.g., the relatively more complicated analysis of the role of religion in dream interpretation, by challenging the claims and assumptions, as shown in the problems pointed out by the critics as cited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the openness-hiddenness principle, if there is openness (e.g., the open exploration of using Judaism and Christianity to understand dreams in relation to the story about “Jacob’s Ladder”), there is hiddenness (e.g., the hidden bias in using Judaism and Christianity to understand dreams in relation to the story about “Jacob’s Ladder,” since, to the critics, the Judeo-Christian hermeneutics presupposes “the theory of 252 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

creation” which clashes head-on with “the theory of evolution” in science). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the denseness-emptiness principle, if there is denseness (e.g., the relatively denser concentration of concerns with the “Four Commissioners” by those in the “Kagyu 'Lineage”), there is emptiness (e.g., the relatively less dense, or more empty, concentration of concerns with the “Seven transmissions” by those in the “Kagyu 'Lineage”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the rule-exception principle, if there are rules (e.g., the usual generalization, procedure, habit, or tendency that, as “Namkhai Norbu gives advice, “life is only a big dream”), there are exceptions (e.g., a case to which a rule does not apply, such as the exceptional situation when we are finally liberated “from the chains of emotions, attachments, and ego and then we have the possibility of ultimately becoming enlightened,” which is no longer a dream). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the indispensability-dispensability principle, if there is indispensability (e.g., the need for something or someone, like the necessary inclusion of 6 stages of dream yoga in Evans-Wentz’s interpretation), there is dispensability (e.g., the superfluity of something or someone, like the dispensable inclusion of 6 stages of dream yoga in Evans-Wentz’s interpretation, since only 4 stages are needed instead). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the prototypicality-variation principle, if there is prototypicality (e.g., the prototype, like the example about the original interpretation about “Jacob’s Ladder” by “the Early Church Fathers”), there is variation (e.g., different variants of the protoptye, as shown in many studies since the original interpretation about “Jacob’s Ladder” by “the Early Church Fathers”—like the later one by Adam Clarke, an early 19th-century Methodist theologian and Bible scholar,” though with its own variation, contribution, and disagreement). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the change-constancy principle, if there is change (e.g., the ever new ways to study dreams, as shown in the work on “dream yoga”), there is constancy (e.g., the ever constant existence of different problems with the ever new ways to study dreams, as shown in the problems with the work on “dream yoga” pointed out by the critics). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the order-chaos principle, if there is order (e.g., the more or less orderly view on “Jacob’s Ladder,” if looked from the sole vantage point of Saint Irenaeus in the 2nd century, who “describes the Christian 254 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

any analysis of yoga), there is interaction (e.g., the influence of entities on one another, such as the interaction between yoga and dreams in the practice of dream yoga in the Eastern tradition, as discussed earlier). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the theory-praxis principle, if there is theory (e.g., the theoretical construction of “enlightenment” in the field of theology, as in Buddhism), there is praxis (e.g., the practical application of “enlightenment” in the field of theology to the realm of practice, like “the practice of dream yoga” for “enlightenment” aforediscussed). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the convention-novelty principle, if there is convention (e.g., the conventional wisdom about Jacob’s Ladder by Saint Irenaeus in the 2nd century, who “describes the Christian Church as the 'ladder of ascent to God'”), there is novelty (e.g., the alternative novel challenge to the conventional wisdom about Jacob’s Ladder by Saint Irenaeus in the 2nd century, who “describes the Christian Church as the 'ladder of ascent to God'”—by the new idea by Adam Clarke in the 19th-century that “Jesus can be seen as being the ladder, in that Christ bridges the gap between Heaven and Earth”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the evolution-transformation principle, if there is evolution (e.g., the natural evolution of humans to dream at night in the state of nature), there is transformation (e.g., the technical transformation of human ability to understand dreams by the invention of “Jacob’s Ladder” and “dream yoga”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the symmetry-asymmetry principle, if there is symmetry (e.g., the co-existence of different entities, like human soul and God, in the story about “Jacob’s ladder”), there is asymmetry (e.g., according to Origen in regard to the story about “Jacob’s ladder,” the ladder refers to “the soul's travel after death, climbing up the heavens towards the light of God”—but God does not climb up the heavens towards the light of human soul). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the softness-hardness principle, if there is softness (e.g., the defense of “dream yoga” by the advocates aforecited), there is hardness (e.g., the critique of “dream yoga,” as shown in the problems pointed out by the critics aforecited). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the seriousness-playfulness principle, if there is seriousness (e.g., the serious business of those who try to understand the role of religion in dream analysis), there is playfulness (e.g., the playful part of those who try to understand the role of religion in dream analysis, when they play around with different interpretations over the millennia, 256 The Future of Post-Human Oneirology

as the 'ladder of ascent to God'” then led to further changes later on, when Adam Clarke in the 19th-century suggested instead that “Jesus can be seen as being the ladder, in that Christ bridges the gap between Heaven and Earth”). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the functionality-nonfunctionality principle, if there is functionality (e.g., the presence of action for which something or someone is fitted, as shown in the idea of dream yoga, which serves the function of providing basic steps toward the state of enlighenment), there is nonfunctionality (e.g., the relative lack of action for which something or someone is fitted, as shown in the problems with dream yoga, such that it is not as functional as the advocates would like us to believe). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the intentionality-nonintentionality principle, if there is intentionality (e.g., the planning or design of something for a certain outcome, as shown in the intended consequences in regard to the invention of ladders, as those who used them intended to climb up to places not far from the ground), there is nonintentionality (e.g., the relative absence of planning or design of something for a certain outcome, such that the outcome can even be counter-intentional in being the opposite of what was originally planned, as shown in the use of the idea of ladders in the story about “Jacob’s Ladder” for religious purposes—contrary to the original intention of those who used them to climb up to places not far from the ground). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the survivability-nonsurvivability principle, if there is survivability (e.g., the relative survival of “the chains of emotions, attachments, and ego” when one is not liberated from them towards the higher state of “enlightenment,” according to Namkhai Norbu), there is non-survivability (e.g., the relative non-survival of “the chains of emotions, attachments, and ego” when one is finally liberated from them towards the higher state of “enlightenment,” according to Namkhai Norbu). And the reverse direction also holds true. In relation to the materiality-nonmateriality principle, if there is materiality (e.g., the material outcome in relation to space-time, matter- energy, Having, etc., like the construction of ladders to climb up to places not far from the ground by humans), there is non-materiality (e.g., the nonmaterial outcome in relation to the quest for Being, Belonging, etc., like the use of “ladder” as a metaphor for ascending to “heaven” in the story about “Jacob’s Ladder” in Jewish and Christian interpretations, as discussed earlier). And the reverse direction also holds true. And in relation to the proaction-adjustment principle, if there is proaction (e.g., the detailed, long-term planning for an outcome, such as Chapter 2: Illusion and its Doubleness 257

the deliberate, persistent search for religious interpretations about “Jacob’s Ladder,” for the ultimate state of salvation, as discussed earlier), there is adjustment (e.g., the ad-hoc, spontaneous dealing with a contingent outcome, such as the contingent decision by those living on “a hilltop overlooking the Israeli settlement of Beit El north of Jerusalem that is believed by some to be the site of Jacob's dream” to convert the hilltop into “a tourist destination during the holiday of Sukkoth”). (WK 2014pp; B. Bresky 2012) And the reverse direction also holds true.

The Realisticness of Illusion

This comprehensive analysis of the possibility (or impossibility) and desirability (or undesirability) of illusion in the context of dream studies, from the perspectives of the mind, nature, society, and culture, is important to show us the different ways in which illusion is both possible and desirable, but not to the extent that the spokespersons from each side would like us to believe. Illusion thus has its fancifulness, just as it has its realisticness too, as the other side of the same coin. But this is only one part of a larger story, since there is the other side of the story, which concerns reality, the opposite of illusion. Since this chapter already deals with illusion, the next chapter will therefore address the issue of reality. These dual analyses should not be underestimated, because those on the side of reality often downgrade illusion merely as the other side without really appreciating it from the vantage point of illusion too—and vice versa. With this in mind, let’s now turn to Chapter Three for the study of reality and its dualness—for which we now turn to Chapter Three.

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Table 2.1. Illusion and its Doubleness ______

• Illusion and the Mind —Ex: illusion, the senses, and the dream argument —Ex: illusion, subjectivity, and dreamwork

• Illusion and Nature —Ex: illusion, animal deception, and REM sleep —Ex: illusion, uncreated creation, and the Dreaming

• Illusion and Society —Ex: illusion, technology, and dream therapy —Ex: illusion, social groups, and dream control

• Illusion and Culture —Ex: illusion, art, and dreams —Ex: illusion, religion, and dreams ______Notes: The examples in the categories are solely illustrative (not exhaustive), and the comparison is relative (not absolute), nor are they necessarily mutually exclusive. And some can be easily re-classified elsewhere. As generalities, they allow exceptions. Source: A summary of Ch.2 of FPHDREAM

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Table 2.3. Illusion, Social Groups, and Dream Control ______

• Aspects of the Senoi Dream Theory —Ex: the role of K. Steward and P. Garfield —Ex: dream sharing —Ex: dream control

• Problems with the Senoi Dream Theory —Firstly, one main criticism of the argument on illusion, social groups, and dream control is that the theory does not really work in practice. —Secondly, another main criticism of the argument on illusion, social groups, and dream control is that the idea of dream control reflects the leftist ideology of the 1960s in America. —Thirdly, still another main criticism of the argument on illusion, social groups, and dream control is that there are alternative solutions to bad dreams. —And fourthly, an additional main criticism of the argument on illusion, social groups, and dream control is that the account about the Senoi by Steward and Garfield is historically dubious (questionable). ______Notes: The examples in the categories are solely illustrative (not exhaustive), and the comparison is relative (not absolute), nor are they necessarily mutually exclusive. And some can be easily re-classified elsewhere. As generalities, they allow exceptions. Source: From Sec. 2.4.2 of FPHDREAM. See book for citations.

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Table 2.5. Illusion, Religion, and Dreams ______

• 1st Case Study—Religion and Dreams in the Eastern Tradition —Ex: dream yoga lineages —Ex: dream yoga exegesis

• 2nd Case Study—Religion and Dreams in the Western Tradition —Ex: in Judaism —Ex: in Christianity

• Problems with the Argument on Religion and Dreams —Firstly, one main criticism of the argument on illusion, religion, and dreams is that there is no standardized method to learn “dream yoga,” so it is subject to the contingent preference of a certain group. —Secondly, another main criticism of the argument on illusion, religion, and dreams is that the religious interpretations of dreams often depend on questionable sources. —Thirdly, still another main criticism of the argument on illusion, religion, and dreams is that there are hermeneutic disagreements even among the religious lineages themselves. —Fourthly, an additional main criticism of the argument on illusion, religion, and dreams is that there exist opposing religious exegeses. —And fifthly, another additional main criticism of the argument on illusion, religion, and dreams is that religious interpretations are often not compatible with scientific ones. ______Notes: The examples in the categories are solely illustrative (not exhaustive), and the comparison is relative (not absolute), nor are they necessarily mutually exclusive. And some can be easily re-classified elsewhere. As generalities, they allow exceptions. Source: From Sec. 2.5.2 of FPHDREAM. See book for citations.