Durham E-Theses CULTURE, POWER AND RESISTANCE: POST-COLONIALISM, AUTOBIOGRAPHY AND MALAYSIAN INDEPENDENCE WAN-AHMAD, SHARIFAH,SOPHIA How to cite: WAN-AHMAD, SHARIFAH,SOPHIA (2010) CULTURE, POWER AND RESISTANCE: POST-COLONIALISM, AUTOBIOGRAPHY AND MALAYSIAN INDEPENDENCE, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/176/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 Culture, Power and Resistance: Post-Colonialism, Autobiography and Malaysian Independence Sharifah Sophia W. Ahmad A thesis submitted to Durham University as a requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Applied Social Sciences Durham University 2010 Declaration None of the material contained in this thesis has previously been submitted for a degree in the University of Durham or any other university. None of the material contained in this thesis is based on joint research. The content of this thesis consists of the author‟s original individual contribution with appropriate recognition of any references being indicated throughout. Statement of Copyright The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would not have completed this thesis if Professor Roy Boyne, my research supervisor, had not offered such infinite patience, critical commentaries and productive arguments. It was my good fortune to have benefited greatly from his excellent supervision. Ms. Louise Greener, of the Language Centre, helped enormously to introduce me to academic writing, also gave me counsel and encouragement when desperately wanting. I also had the support of Dr. Catherine Palmer, especially her guidance on fieldwork and methods. Having tried to save me from errors, they cannot be held accountable for them. I must thank the wonderful people I had the pleasure to meet and interview. They were so generous with their times and recollections. Mr. John Norton was warm and supportive in many ways. I am greatly indebted to Dr. Abdul Mutalip Abdullah, the former Dean of Faculty of Social Sciences in UNIMAS, for his unwavering trust and support, without which this research would be impossible in the first place. My Mother, Kak Ina, Didi, Tajol and Ratna, for graciously letting me pursued my ambition thousands of miles away from home. I offer deepest appreciation and love for a lifetime. ABSTRACT This research examines the relationship between the representation of colonial history and the elite claim of authority in Malaysia. Specifically, it investigates the claim that Malayan independence was achieved through a peaceful struggle. In order to address this claim, it was important to examine: 1. The representation of the colonial period in national history 2. UMNO1 dominance in politics, economy and culture, and its claim of almost total authority for the achievement of Malaysian independence. 3. The extent to which the UMNO claim has hindered the development of democratic forces. The excavation of supplementary and alternative narratives of Malaysian history has been central for this research. In particular, the mainstream representation of history is challenged through autobiographical revelation. The thesis focuses on the formation of the dominant representation during the colonial era, showing how the process suppressed other perspectives. „Radical‟ nationalism during anti- colonial struggle in the period after the Second World War, from 1945 to 1957, is explored. The perspectives and experiences of radical nationalists are used as the basis for a critique of the dominant discourse of the post-independence political elites. In particular, the emergence of autobiographical fragments has enabled exploration of mundane but abiding resistance. While some notable differences are found in the character of resistance, there remains a persistent theme of democratic aspiration in the counter-narratives of Malaysian politics and society, alongside the persisting elite structures of politics and culture extending from the colonial through to the post-colonial eras. The analysis of the autobiographical reflections of radical nationalists demonstrates levels of cultural resistance which have not been recognised until now. 1 The United Malay National Organisation (UMNO) was founded in March 1946 by Onn Jaafar, a son of Johor‟s Chief Minister and an adopted son of the Raja of Johor. He was Johor‟s Chief Minister from 1946-1949. The party‟s leadership was drawn from the aristocratic and traditional elite and this still remains true today. The party slogan was Hidup Melayu (Long live Malays) which was in contrast to its main competitor at the time, the Malay Nationalist Party (MNP) that advocated Merdeka (Freedom). ABBREVIATIONS ABIM Muslim Youth Movement of Malaysia (Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia) AMCJA All-Malaya Council for Joint Action API Youth Movement for Justice (Angkatan Pemuda Insaf) AWAS Women Progressive Corps (Angkatan Wanita Sedar) CO Colonial Office DAP Democratic Action Party HICOM Heavy Industries Corporation ISA Internal Security Act KEADILAN People‟s Justice Party KMM Young Malay Nationalist Party (Kesatuan Melayu Muda) MARA People‟s Trust Council (Majlis Amanah Rakyat) MAS Malayan Administrative Service MATA Supreme Religious Council of Malaya (Majlis Agama Tertinggi Malaya) MCA Malaysian Chinese Association MCP Communist Party of Malaya MCS Malayan Civil Service MIC Malaysian Indian Congress MNP Malay Nationalist Party MPAJA Malayan People‟s Anti Japanese Army (communist guerrilla group) MU Malayan Union proposal NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (formed in 1949) NEP New Economic Policy NOC National Operation Council PAS Islamic Party of Malaya/Malaysia (Parti Islam Se-Malaya) PERNAS National Trust Agency (Perbadanan Nasional) PETRONAS National Petroleum Corporation (Petroliam Nasional Berhad) PKM Communist Party of Malaya (Parti Komunis Malaya) PUTERA Central Force of the Malay People (Pusat Tenaga Rakyat) RIDA Regional Industrial Development Assistance SEDC State Economic Development Corporation Suhakam Human Rights Commission of Malaysia (Suruhanjaya Hak Asasi Manusia) TELECOM National Telecommunication (Telekom Malaysia Berhad) TNB National Energy Corporation (Tenaga Nasional Berhad) UMNO United Malay National Organisation GLOSSARY Adat custom Bumiputera „son of soil‟. A reference to Malay and native communities in Sarawak and Sabah Dakwah missionary activity Hidup Melayu Long Live Malay Imam expert/authority in religion Kerajaan a polity based on the sovereignty of a raja Kesateria warrior/fighter Kaum Ibu Women‟s Section (of UMNO) Madrassah religious school Malaya A pre-1963 name for Malaysia; before Sarawak, Sabah and Singapore joined in the Federation. Merdeka freedom or independent Mufti a scholar in jurisprudence Penghulu district chief Rakyat common people from ordinary class Tanah Melayu Land of the Malays (i.e. Malaya/Malaysia) Ulama religious expert TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements i Abstract ii Abbreviations iii Glossary v INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 1 Culture, Power and Politics in Colonial and Post-Colonial Malaysia 1.1 Introduction 7 1.2 Decolonisation and the End of Empire 7 1.3 Economy 11 1.3.1 Colonial Economy 12 1.3.2 Post-Independence Economy (New Economic Policy) 14 1.4 Politics 20 1.4.1 Colonial Politics 21 1.4.2 Post-Independence Politics 25 1.5 Plural Society 28 1.5.1 Plural Society in the Pre-War Period (1880s-1941) 29 1.5.2 Plural Society in the Post-War Period (1945-1957) 34 1.5.3 Plural Society in the Post-Independence Period 38 1.6 Religion and State Control 42 1.6.1 Religion in Colonial Period 44 1.6.2 Religion in the Post-Independence Period 50 1.7 Theme of „Peaceful‟ Independence 56 1.7.1 Debate on Peaceful Independence 59 CHAPTER 2 Theorising Cultural Resistance: Edward Said’s Orientalism and Post-Colonial Studies 2.1 Introduction 63 2.2 Orientalism (1978) 63 2.2.1 Ground of Emergence 65 2.3 Overview 68 2.3.1 Definitions and Main Argument 72 2.3.2 Power-Knowledge Nexus 75 2.3.3 Resistance 78 2.3.4 Culture 81 2.3.5 Developing Framework for Analysis 87 2.4 Orientalism and Post-Colonial Studies 88 2.4.1 Defining Post-Colonialism 90 2.4.2 Post-Colonial Theories of Resistance 92 2.5 Post-Colonialism from Malaysian Perspective 95 2.5.1 The Myth of the Lazy Native (1977) 97 2.6 Cultural Resistance: A Conceptual Framework 104 2.6.1 Culture as Resistance 104 2.6.2 History as Field of Struggle 112 2.6.3 Agency and Subaltern 119 CHAPTER 3 Research Methodology 3.1 Research Aims 128 3.2 Epistemology 129 3.3 Data Gathering 128 3.4 Definitions of Memoir / Autobiography 135 3.4.1 Biographical Research and Approaches to Biography 136 3.5 Cultural Resistance in Memoir 139 3.5.1 Autobiography and Society 138 3.5.2 Resistance in Autobiography 140 3.5.3 History in Autobiography