anspar a 1 and the Urban Environment

op \ rt'port on the Seminar on l rhan Transport and the n man.r older European Emironment. held July I 0-1.!. ouw; and cith!s. u·here 19~9. hy the Organi7.ation for ·/reels are narrou· and Economk Cooperation and l'inding. priori~l' lanes and Dnt'lopment and the Eunipean ·pecial~l' designed t•ehic/es Conferem·e of \tinisters of ake the use of transit an Transport. ttractfre and enJo.rable lternatfre to the auto. Published by the 'iational Leagu \'f>ecial accommodatums for of Cities. 16.?0 Eye St. 'i\\. \\ashington. D.C. l0006. Juh assengers and coordinated 1980 raffle SJ'Slem.'i allou· the ransil rehicle to skirt Project rnordinated hy Diane ongested auto lanes. and Enos. \tanager. Spedal Projt·cts. educe trip time for transit Otlke of Public Affairs. lrban .'iers. .\tass Transportation Administration. of the l.S. ffiddle Department of Transportation. and Rette Treadwell. Special 4/though a ci~l' of narrou· Assistant to the Ewcutiw l'inding streets and canals. Din.-ctor of the 'iational League 4msterdam has closed manJ' of Cities. ·/reels to all but pedestrian raffle. allou·ing delfrerh!s Cmer and inlt'rior photography uring non-shopping hours. by Diane Enos except as follows: nd making a pleasant p. 14. hottom. hy Howard ,-etting for the famous Simkowitz. p. 40 top and lower ou·ers of Holland. right courtesy of French Government fourist Office. p.-½0 middle courtesy of Belgian ottom Institute of Information. and p. he OEC'D delegatum l'isiled lower left courtesy of Canadian elfl. a small tou·n in the Gm·ernment Tr.nel Bureau. ·ether/ands u·hich has taken Prepared under project number dl'antage of the 1rnonerf DC-96-000~ from the lnited J'slem and has succeeded in States Department of ringing human srnl<• hack to Transportation. l'rhan \tass cil)' that u·as being engulfed Transportation Administration 1 1 · lhl automohill • and a grant from the German \tarshall Fund of the lnited States. Tht· contents of this publication reflect the ,iews of the authors. who are responsibl for the facts and accuracy of the data presented herein. The rnntents do not necessarily reflect the ,iews of the 'iation· League of Cities. the German \tarshall Fund or the official ,iews or policy of the l.S. Department of Transportatio This puhlication does not constitute a standard. ilili National League al Cities

Transparlalian andlhe Urban Environment

S. C.R. T. 0. LIBRARY

rJ United Stales Department al Transparlalian

The German Marshall Fund al the United Stales 00684

HE Contents

Transportation Here and Abroad Innovative Management of Urban Transport by Jessie Rattley for a Better Environment by Ariel Alexandre and Christian Averous Page/V Noise, fumes, the dangers of walking, the irregularity of bus services and other pinch A Starting Point for the 1980s points of city life are increasingly the subject of by Ronald). Fisher complaints on the part of city dwellers. This rising tide of concern, added to increased PageV pressures to hold down the consumption of energy and the rising cost ofpublic services, has led Ariel Alexandre and Christian Averous of ARTICLES OECD's Environment Committee to focus on low-cost urban transport policies. Urban Transport Today: A Global View by Neal Peirce Page29 The automobile for years has been the unofficial symbol of independence and mobility for A Personal View of the Seminar on Urban Americans of all ages. Is its place in our society Transport and the Environment changing? Officials in cities in other countries by David Bayliss are focusing on restraining auto traffic and Policy, economic, political, civic and business encouraging almost any other mode of considerations come into play in any study of transport. Urban affairs columnist Neal Peirce either transportation or the environment. David examines the subject of "automobility" and Bayliss, Chairman of the Seminar, sums up suggests alternatives to the American these factors as they were presented during the (automotive) way of life. course of the Seminar. Page2 Page34

Reflections on a European Study Tour Overview of 16 City Case Studies by Ted Lutz Participants at the Seminar examined Finding technical solutions to transportation innovative urban transport schemes of 16 and environmental problems is only half the cities in depth. The objectives, key policy task; ways must also be found to finance and elements of the plans, general results, and manage the solutions on the 1-0cal level. Ted environmental aspects are set forth here, in Lutz, former General Manager of the public chart form, for easy reference. transit system of Washington, D.C. , looks at how local officials in other countries are handling Page40 these issues. PageJ5 Appendix List of Participants at the Seminar on Urban The Changing Role of Automobile and Public Transport and the Environment Transportation by C. Kenneth Orski Page45 Kenneth Orski, Vice President, German Marshall Fund, was general rapporteur for the Seminar on Urban Transport and the Environment. In The Organization for Economic Cooperation this article he summarizes the general and Development by Howard Simkowitz conclusions of the special sessions, with attention to the cl-Ose relationship between energy and transportation. Page22 PagejJ

TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT Iii Transparlalian Here and Ahraad

BY JESSIE M. RATILEY, PRESIDENT, NATIONAL LEAGUE OF cmES

Transportation has become one of cesses. We are still discovering alter­ from a number of different perspec­ the chief factors affecting the quality natives to conventional transit, in­ tives and summary data on the 16 of the urban environment. As the creasing our reliance on public cities examined as case studies for economy of America's cities comes to transport and, in many cities, making the seminar. Also included is a list of depend less on industry and more on a significant investment in bicycle participants in the seminar, along services, transportation-automo­ and pedestrian thoroughfares. with addresses, so that the vital ex­ biles, trucks, utility and maintenance City officials in the United States change of information between city vehicles, pedestrians and even bicy­ can take pride in many native innova­ officials of the U.S. and other coun­ cles-assumes a greater importance tions, but we should also look with tries on this important subject can in environmental considerations. The respect and interest at the successes continue on an individual basis. pollution one notices on a city street of other cities in other countries. Dif­ today is more likely to be automobile ferent historical, economic, and cul­ exhaust than factory smoke; car tural forces have shaped solutions horns, trucks and motorcycles make very different than-and perhaps continuous noise; and clogged inter­ superior to-our own. sections create visual and physical The Seminar on Urban Transport barriers in downtowns across the and the Environment, jointly spon­ country. sored by the Organization for Eco­ At the same time that unrestrained nomic Cooperation and Development urban congestion and resulting and the European Conference of Min­ transportation problems threaten to isters of Transport, July HH2, 1979, strangle our cities, we have learned gave a group of U.S. officials an op­ how to control transportation and portunity to take just such a look at use it creatively to defeat its own transport solutions in other countries worst tendencies. We have learned and to share American solutions with new ways to handle traffic: traffic col­ their counterparts. lars and zones to keep the worst This volume, published by the Na­ congestion out of the downtown, tional League of Cities with funds restraints on parking, pedestrian from the Urban Mass Transportation malls and transit malls, and preferen­ Administration , U.S. Department of tial networks for certain kinds of traf­ Transportation, is intended to make fic. We have learned how to combine that information available to city offi­ environmefltal concerns with traffic cials across the nation. It includes control to protect neighborhoods, several overviews of the seminar open up safe areas for non­ automotive use, reduce noise and air pollution, and create alternatives to destructive freeway construction. City officials can now choose from an ar­ senal of economic means to achieve these goals, using special fares as an incentive for transit riders, special taxes on certain kinds of downtown traffic and on downtown merchants to make sure that those who benefit from traffic improvement pay for it, and land-use policies to increase tax bases while controlling transit ex-

iv TRANSPORTATION AND THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT A Starling Paint lar the 1980s

BY RONALD J. FISHER, CHAIRMAN, GROUP ON TRAFFIC POLICY

Whatever their differences, cities decisionmaking process. Because of Ideally, the interchange of around the world share a common scarce resources, most innovations information that took place during problem: how best to transport their involve low-cost transportation the Paris seminar will continue into citizens in and around urban areas management improvements. At the the 1980s. It is certain that without destroying vital residential same time, putting management­ continuing energy constraints and and commercial areas. Attendance at oriented policies into effect has environmental pressures will the July 1979 Seminar on Urban become increasingly difficult because heighten the need for public policies Transport and the Environment of the unstructured and sometimes that influence transportation supply testified to the growing worldwide elusive nature of citizen support and demand as well as for better search for solutions to urban groups. management of existing resources. problems. More than 300 Delegates stressed repeatedly that representatives of 24 member increased citizen interest and countries of the Organization for involvement make it essential that Economic Cooperation and objectives for an intended traffic Development (OECD) met in Paris to policy be well defined and that the share their experiences and study policy be understood and supported successful innovations in urban by the public and political leaders. A transport. close technical/ political alliance is U.S. delegates found it especially necessary, therefore, for the success valuable to study the successful and of innovations in transportation not-so-successful schemes tried by systems management. other countries; only recently has the United States recognized that the automobile is strangling its cities and that something must be done to relieve the situation. The United States thus had the benefit of other countries' longer experiences in dealing with the problems of urban blight, scarce resources, and high energy costs. The results of innovative schemes employed in other countries can be of inestimable value to U.S. planners and government officials. These individuals must recognize, however, that what works in one country cannot be transplanted into another country with a different political, social, and economic climate. A common theme ran through the 16 case studies of cities considered as outstanding examples of urban transport innovations: all are experiencing slower urbanization, growing economic uncertainty, scarce resources, and increased citizen participation in the

TRANSPORTATION AND TIIE URBAN ENVIRONMENT v ransparlal1a ndthe rhan • Top In addition to hea1:r fint•s fi Urban Transport illegal parking that int,•rfer u·ith transit. French official. re~v hea,•i~r on th<• use of limit,•d underground parkin Today: to reduce the l'isua/ polluti<. of the auto parked on a cilJ' .-.tree/. This opens up additional /ant's to re/ie,•e A Global View cong,•slion tlS u·,•/1. Pedestrian zont's lhlll lire u·e/1 mllrked tlnd lllndsrnpe are bringing peopf,, hack to the streets of Ptlris.

BY NEAL PEIRCE

A powerful idea and a grave reality came together The grave reality that may give impetus to efforts when delegations from the 24 nations of the Organi­ to restrain the automobile is that of limited re­ zation for Economic Cooperation and Development sources-limited supplies of capital, limited tax re­ met in Paris in July 1979 to consider "Urban Trans­ sources, and above all limited petroleum supplies. port and the Environment. " The Paris seminar came directly in the wake of the Bottom Out of the merger of the idea and reality may come latest-and massive--OPEC oil price increase, sure a synthesis that will profoundly affect the movement to represent a major economic burden for nations in .b "pllrl of its traffu: of peoples and the physical face of the world's cities. all continents. Americans came with fresh memories mllnagement pllln. RATP The idea is one that has been gathering momen­ of severe spot gasoline shortages, and long lines at ( Regie Autonom,, d,, tum through the 1970s-that the automobile, how­ service stations. And the delegates at Paris-like 1'ransports Ptlri.-.iens) hlls ever great its advantages for personalized, direct national leaders in virtually all countries-were imposed h<'lll'.l' fines fi,r transport, has monopolized so much space in cities, aware that whether or not their own lands had yet pllrking l'iollllions. especitll has created such a profusion of environmental prob­ suffered shortages, most predictions are for severe th<1.-.e inl'Ofring tlulos parke lems, and indeed has disrupted the whole fabric of curtailment of world oil production by the 1990s if in reserl'ed lrllffi,· zom•.-. or urban life to such a degree that it must be restrained not the mid- or later 1980s. The problem of the ltmes. Fim•s <"lln rung<' tlS hi for the benefit of society. Western world's "debilitating dependence" on petro­ llS $50 in th,, Ptlris region. There was no official place on the Paris agenda for leum, it was suggested at the final session, will be a consideration of the automobile's future. Yet at the primary challenge for the remainder of this century. seminar's conclusion the general rapporteur, The fact that "time is now short to manage our C. Kenneth Orski, reported that "deliberately or not, cities for a low oil diet," according to conference our discussions ... have been a wide-ranging explo­ chairman David Bayliss, of the Greater London Coun­ ration of alternatives to a life style based on the cil, was the fact which most significantly distin­ unconstrained use of the private automobile." guished the 1979 seminar from the OECD's only prior As the Paris discussions made clear, the world's conference on urban transportation-a 1975 meet­ initial efforts to restrain auto usage are already ap­ ing on "Better Towns with Less Traffic." parent in the growing number of inner cities reserved chiefly or entirely for pedestrians, in major efforts to revive and expand public transportation, in a fresh Thrift, Management interest in "foot-borne" and bicycle movement, and an array of small-scale transit innovations summed and Caution up under the title of "paratransit." It was clear from Energy and public tax resources, noted Jean Costet, the delegates' comments and the case studies pre­ France's Director-General of Inland Transport, at the sented that these innovations represent a fledgling opening session, "are becoming rare and valuable movement and are still subordinate to the over­ assets in the same way as space, air, silence, or whelming presence of motorized vehicles. Yet from nature." The question of the conference, he sug­ virtual ground zero in the late 19.60s, the alternative gested, was quite simply: "Can one shape the devel­ transport efforts have spread to virtually all devel­ opment of the urban transport system in such a way oped and many underdeveloped countries. as to ensure at the same time more thrifty manage-

2 TRANSPORTATION AND TIIE URBAN ENVIRONMENT TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 3 4 TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE IJllBAN ENVIRONMENT ment of the three major resources, that is, the human Western Europe from 18 million in 1950 to 231 environment, energy, and public money?" million in 1976 (a 1,183 percent increase) , in North Conservation, caution, careful management, a America from a fleet of 43 million to 119 million in go-slow approach to major capital investments­ the same time span. Automobile manufacture and these were the strong undercurrents of the seminar, servicing, they reported, account directly or indi­ whose participants included many of the chief actors rectly for up to 5 percent of employment and a like in urban transportation reform from nations around percentage of the gross national product in OECD the world. Why such extreme caution? Because, countries-scarcely a trifling economic force. In Bayliss suggested, so many failures had emerged most modern countries, the auto is a "sacred cow. " from the rapid economic growth and urban rede­ And cost factors, it was suggested, won't do much to velopment programs of the 1950s and 1960s. The change that. A Greek delegate noted that in his growing concern of our time with air pollution and country, even $3-a-gallon gasoline and $17 ,000 noise, neighborhood safety, energy scarcity and fiscal prices for new cars hadn't stopped the growth in austerity, he suggested, "point to policies of conserva­ automobile ownership. tion, rehabilitation, and more efficient use of existing Contrasted with public transport, automobile facilities coupled with highly selective change and usage was reportedly ever more popular because of development." suburban development, growing distances between Translating those principles into transportation home and work, the increasing tendency for women specifics, Ariel Alexandre and Christian Averous of to go out to work, increasing part-time work, and the OECD Environment Directorate suggested in a more leisure time. background study for the seminar that instead of But the urban transportation experts gathered in building expensive heavy rail mass transit systems or Paris appeared to have foreseen the drawbacks of the freeways , the new approach should be to make better automobile-dominated city. The auto, according to use of transport facilities that already exist-roads, research papers prepared for the seminar, "is a l.imited p11rking in buses, taxis, light rail, and the like. Better use, they bringer of traffic congestion, noise, air pollution, 11·oonerl'en . .'ilrict .'i/J('eti suggested, should come "through comprehensive highway accidents, and the segmentation of districts limit.'i. 11nd right of '""Y gfren and innovative management, building heavy infra­ by fast highways. " Society's subsidization of the pri­ lo fH•de.'ilriflm, a/1011· childrn, structure only as a last resort. " In present-day trans­ vate auto is immense, particularly in downtowns, it to pltl)' ne11r their home.'i in portation planning, they proposed, the emphasis was reported, "and results in gross misallocation of /)elf/. tl'ilhout fe11r of should be changed "from moving vehicles to moving society's resources." Abackground paper by Gabriel .'ipt•etling {IIIIO.'i. people." Bouladon, former director of programs at the Battelle Historically, the builders of cities and great eco­ Institute (Geneva) , placed conservative estimates on nomic enterprises-from the empire builders of the cost to society of the congestion (time wasted by ancient times to the automobile multinational firms road users) , accidents (not covered by insurance) , of our own-have manipulated transportation sys­ air and water pollution and noise, vibration and tems for their own purposes, constantly building, visual intrusion of automobiles and trucks. The costs paying little if any heed to the human or environmen­ of these disamenities, Bouladon concluded, are two tal consequences of their actions. Yet here, funded by to three times what auto users pay in taxes and fees their own governments, some of the world's noted and are 4 to 7 percent of the gross national product authorities in urban transportation were assembled of OECD nations. to offer radically unconventional counsel for the The greatest concern of the delegates relates, future . In place of constructing, they suggested recy­ naturally enough, to the auto's impact on the city. cle and reuse; in place of grand schemes for the city Dietrich Sperling, German Bundestag member and of power and prestige, they would make the city more Undersecretary of State in his country's Ministry for habitable for humans; in place of unfettered con­ Regional Planning, Building and Urban Development, sumption, they would conserve. expressed a rather general seminar sentiment in an Their counsel, if heeded, would profoundly affect opening address: patterns of human settlement and the human envi­ The car conquered the living space, it ronment. And the management of which they speak became a part-time occupation force, and seems to go further than normal measures of effi­ in one effect it forced the people out of the ciency, input and output, to a sensitive consideration city. Finally suburbs grew at the expense of resources, both humari and physical, and how of the "urbs" (cities) in a self-enforcing these can be combined, nurtured and balanced to vicious circle. . . . create a feasible, livable, as well as enjoyable What seemed to increase private and in­ urban existence. dividual wealth-possession of individual private cars-led into public and collective poverty, as soon as the massive use ofprivate Ramifications of cars produced traffic jams, destroyed the public green, (and) confined streets to driv­ Automobility ing and parking only . ... In earlier decades, much or all of the discussion Yet the city is an irreplaceable asset for civilized might have been viewed as nostalgia for some urban life, Sperling observed: "Even the most beautiful order hopelessly outmoded by the fact of the modern suburbs need the 'urbs.' They need central cities, automobile and consumers' overwhelming choice of 'downtown centers,' not 'central suburbs.' The shop­ that form of conveyance, whenever they find it afford­ ping center cannot replace the city. And the city is a able. Delegates to the seminar presented figures place which mixes the different activities of private showing the phenomenal expansion of "automobil­ and public life: retail trade and administration, rec­ ity" in the past two decades: in Japan from scarcely reation and housing, playgrounds. schools, window­ any private autos in 1950 to 20 million in 1977, in shopping. "

TRANSPORTATION AND TIIE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 5 There are those, of course, who question such a gested, was to proceed incrementally, extending bike strong need for cities in a modern world of high paths as existing roads are rebuilt and providing bike mobility and telecommunications efficiency. But paths through parks. these individuals were not represented at the Paris In some American cities (Madison, Wis. ; Davis, meeting. And, even if they had presented their views, Calif. ; and others) bikes are now used heavily for they would surely have been answered with the asser­ commuting and other trips. Christchurch, New Zea­ tion that the energy imperative makes our cities as land, has constructed a total cycle network and city indispensable in the late 20th century as they were in officials report 25,000 children cycle to school. earlier times. Osaka, Japan, has 333 kilometers of cycling roads To steer the world's cities down the road of less and experienced a doubling in bike usage between automobile and oil dependency, the delegates in 1973 and 1977. Osaka will soon have 30,000 bike Paris discussed a long list of strategies, ranging from spaces at 100 rapid rail stations, encouraging com­ the most voluntary and noncontroversial to radical, muters to cycle to mass transit facilities. As world mandatory schemes to curtail the use of the automo­ energy supplies constrict, it seems safe to predict that Top bile, particularly in city centers. Let us consider some bicycle usage will soon increase dramatically. of the salient ideas in that same order-from "soft " Pedestrian ... and bicycles h111·e to "hard ," and, correspondingly, in ascending order the right-of-u·a)' in th(, in the magnitude of political difficulty city officials Universalization of streets. Former .i;treets i11 may encounter in seeking to institute them. betu·ee11 the lmiltli11gs are Pedestrian Zones pedestrian u·ays. c/o.wd to Around the world, the most dramatic steps toward auto traffic. "Soft" Paths: taming the auto have occurred in the heart of cities by means of pedestrianized zones. As Orski noted, "what Walking and Cycling began in the mid-1960s as a trickle of modest, An entire seminar session was devoted to the very tentative efforts to free main shopping areas from "soft" path of seeking to encourage increased walk­ traffic in a few cities has flowered in the late 1970s to ing and bicycle use. Especially for the relatively short a widespread practice; and even crossed the oceans, journeys that constitute a significant percentage of from the first efforts in Europe, to take root in the trips within cities, these modes present a compel­ United States and Canada, Japan, Australia, New Zea­ lingly attractive alternative to auto use--0r for that land, and South America." matter, often an alternative to mass transit as well. There have been examples of unsuccessful pedes­ Walking and cycling, it was noted, are intrinsically trian zones, particularly when the critical mass of healthy, highly energy efficient, nonpolluting, inex­ retailing activity has already fled the center city zone. pensive, and modest in their investment require­ But the overwhelming evidence is of solid success. ments. And for persons in good physical condition, Merchants in almost every city at first were fearful of the bike can increase by several times over the radius harm to their business, but they have been won over. Bottom that one might cover by foot. In Munich, Vienna and other cities businesspersons One look at many world cities, especially the are now actually clamoring to have the streets on An effort has been mad,, in sections designed and built since World War II, which their stores front included in pedestrian zone /Jeljt to mi.,· the old 11'ith the discloses how callously scornful or unaware plan­ projects. A recently completed survey of merchants neu· in a pleasing mannn. ners have been of the needs of pedestrians and by the West German Chamber of Commerce, distrib­ Small shops are 011 th(, cyclists. Freeways cut through city neighborhoods, uted in the United States by the Council for Interna­ ground floor. ,md re.i;idential isolating all but the riders of motorized transport. tional Urban Liaison , showed a ringing endorsement units are abm·e in this Streets often are built with minimal sidewalks or no of the pedestrian zone-both for its impact on retail project located n«'t1r th,, sidewalks at all. The absurdities modern planning trade and for the general increase in urban livability central tou·n squt1re. can produce are seen outside of Paris, in the massive resulting from the zones. West Germany has an La Defense development. Between the center of La astounding 500 zones, in its great and small cities Defense, with its huge office towers and plazas and alike; 31 I of those cities participated in the survey. the chief nearby residential area, there is no way When the OECD surveyed 105 cities around the whatever to go by foot. One must ride either by auto world on pedestrian areas, it found business up in 49 or rail line-for a distance of a few hundred yards. percent of the zones and down in only 2 percent. The Public attitudes, however, are changing. "The old zones are widely advertised as creating a vibrant perception that only high technology is capable of street scene good not only for business but also for solving our needs for mobility," Orski summarized, the communal life of the city. The OECD survey found "has given way to a new respect for the potential of that a third of the zones were used for parades, walking and cycling as a practically and environmen­ markets, festivals , political meetings, or concerts­ tally desirable method of moving in the city. " urban amenities rarely rivaled in the suburban shop­ Unfortunately, making the city safe and attractive ping centers which now compete with center city for cyclists can be expensive. Bikes do not mix well areas on several continents. In addition, sharp de­ with the flow of vehicular traffic: cyclists (especially creases in automobile pollutants and noise levels are children) have high accident rates; there are frequent uniformly reported in pedestrian zone streets. problems with rough or uneven pavement surfaces, The West Germans caution that it is a mistake to open grates, parked vehicles and heavily trafficked establish inner-city pedestrian zones for retailing intersections; bad weather can make cycling impos­ purposes alone. Some German cities have found that sible during many days of the year. Ideally, bikes the city streets immediately surrounding the zone should be separated from vehicular traffic, but sepa­ begin to fill up with parking garages and experience rate bikeways are often difficult to squeeze into overall deterioration, creating an auto wasteland di­ already crowded streets and separate rights-of-way rectly beside the prized pedestrian zone. Dietrich involve great expense. The realistic path , it was sug- Sperling's advice:

6 TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 7 8 TRANSPORTATION AND TIIE URBAN ENVIRONMENT You must reduce motorized traffic around vanced nature of urban mass transit in so many the pedestrian zone, too. You must give the foreign nations. Just last spring NewJersey's Commis­ Top people a chance to live there, to have their sioner of Transportation, Louis Gambaccini, re­ (,'olh(•nhurf!. . .\'u•eden. ti ci(J' of apartments there, to have their playgrounds ported on his visit to several European cities in 450.()()() popult1tion. t1lso there. We always advise people who want to Urban Transit Abroad, a publication of the Council prol'ides e.\'cellenl lrt1nsil make pedestrian zones within their villages, for International Urban Liaison. "For an American interft1u. Al this cell corner towns, and cities: Don't do it for one street transit professional," he observed, "a stay in Paris, where you have all the business. Do it all the Stockholm, Munich, Hamburg or London is surely in the het1rl of the cif.)'. ti feu· way around and make the people walk paradise. How did they build these systems up from h/ochfrom Cit)' Ht1ll. t111los longer distances in order to get to the place. the ruined transit properties left after World War II?" t1re routed t1round t1nd ct1nnol To facilitate access, many pedestrian zones have Americans, Gambaccini suggested, had much to cross into the t1djoinin[!. cells subway stops within them or allow buses and some learn from the European experience "to help us as rnn transit l'ehicles and taxis. Particularly popular in the United States are rebuild our transit systems from the disarray caused la.\'is. The auto must return transit malls (in Minneapolis, Philadelphia, Portland, by the automobile-dominated policies of the United lo th(' rin[!. road and enter the Ore., Madison, Wisc. and one planned for Columbus, States in the past fou r decades." adjoin in[!. cell from that Ohio). The transit malls fail to provide quite the The specifics Gambaccini noted were echoed point. A/thou[!.h the .,:,·stem degree of pedestrian amenities that the traffic-free again in the Paris seminar: simplicity of transport has reduced noise and air zones do, but they make access to the city center information, effective coordination of routes and pollution in the center ci(J'. ii rapid and convenient and appreciably increase the services, simplicity of passenger transfers from and quality of street life. between lines and systems, stability of capital fund­ hm, increm,ed them t1lon[!. the Prominently considered at Paris was the rather ing, and public support for, and pride in, public e.\'lerior. and neu· lanes need new variant to the inner-city pedestrian zone: residen­ transportation. That public support, Gambaccini lo he added to the rin[!. rot1d . tial areas in which autos are strictly controlled but said, had been translated in a country such as France not banned altogether. The idea is to remake the into a firm , sustained national government commit­ entire neighborhood street into a zone of peaceful ment to public transit in Paris for a quarter century: coexistence between automobile, bicycle, pedestrian "Governments have come and gone in France, but and child at play. The traditional division between this commitment to transit improvement has never "sidewalk" and "street" falls away; the entire space wavered. " between houses becomes a common space, usually Is the United States ready to make such deep, through artful use of cobblestones, plantings, and long-term commitments to mass transit? Until the well-designed traffic hindrances. This concept can­ very recent past, the answer was demonstrably nega­ .ffiddle not, of course, be applied to major through roads. tive. With the energy crisis looming ever greater, l.i[!.hl rail l'ehicles t1pproach But as the Dutch have found in their "woonerven," however, it is conceivable the time has come. If so, the central tou·n station and the West Germans in their somewhat similar these specific tools of transit improvement, discussed u·hile r·ehku/ar tra.ffu: is "wohnbereichen," smaller neighborhood streets can in the Paris seminar, may be of assistance: be reclaimed for the pedestrian by domesticating the Provide high quality, reliable service. Good routed around the main ,·ell automobile but not banning it. management of transportation demand does more to interfill·c•. If applied increasingly in residential areas, the maintain and increase transit ridership than woonerf concept might by the end of this century wholesale additions of new subway lines, bus fleets, claim for people around the world vast numbers of or other equipment. Good service also is more effec­ residential streets that had been given over almost tive in attracting riders than attempts to hold fares entirely to auto transit alone in the automobile age of artificially low. the 20th century. It is an idea at once deceptively Market transit services aggressively when simple and revolutionary. It may take years for urban they are of high quality. The London transit au­ planners and city officials to explain it throughout the thority, for instance, was praised for imaginative neighborhoods of the world's cities. It will bring marketing such as a "Fly By Tube" slogan when its Bollom some forms of political strife: which streets, for rapid rail lines were connected to Heathrow Airport. instance, are granted woonerf status; which must Given the myriad problems public transit sometimes (;,>thenhur[!.'.'i cell .'i_)'.'ilem and accept the heavy flow of diverted traffic? Whatever the faces, "if you have a good product, then market it ," HO mile li[!.hl rail S)'Slem problems, the dividends in livable, safe streets for conference chairman Bayliss suggested. make ii a u11u1m• people are so great that the effort is surely worth Employ monthly passes to increase transit lransporlt1tion communi(J'. whatever trouble-including headaches for politi­ demand. The psychology that makes passes so effec­ Si[!.ntll priori(J' fi,r buses t1nd cians-may be involved in implementation. tive is fairly simple. Since travelers are most aware of an e.\'lensfre e.\'c/usfre immediate out-of-pocket costs, trips by bus or sub­ [!.llideu·a)'for its li[!.hl rail way are sometimes perceived (almost always er­ l'ehide.'i prol'ide fi,r ft1sl. safe Mass Transit: roneously) as being more expensive than those by transit .'ierl'ice. car. But when citizens hold monthly or season passes The Foremost Means for mass transit, they view the additional trips as The Paris discussions made it abundantly clear that costing nothing. In all cases where the passes have an integrated, efficient, well-managed public transit been successful, however, they have been accom­ system is the sine qua non of the more energy­ panied by aggressive marketing and by a long-term, efficient, less auto- and oil-dependent city of the sustained effort to upgrade the quality of the entire future. Anumber of models-Paris, London, Onawa, transit system. Oporto (in Portugal) , Osaka, Ankara, Brussels, and Employ an economical, incremental ap­ others-were presented. Notably, the advanced tran­ proach to transit improvements. Brussels, for sit cities included scarcely any in the United States, instance, decided over a decade ago on an overall although valuable individual ideas for furthering upgrading of mass transit "to prevent asphyxiation of mass transit were forthcoming from American cities. the city," as one speaker put it. But as the city Americans are understandably awed by the ad- installed underground and segregated surface rail

TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 9 lines, it didn't buy subway cars for them immediately. development and a person's right to do what he or Instead, it used a "Pre-Metro" system of lightweight she pleases with individually owned land. But with a (trolley) cars. The first "Pre-Metro" cars appeared in modicum of rationality, in the modern era of short 1969, the first actual heavyweight subway cars for the petroleum supplies, the land use ideas advanced in Paris has long been kn011·n 11 .,· Paris may take root in America; with a little luck they same lines in 1976. Brussels doesn't expect to com­ 11 tr11nsit oriented ci~)'. might actually be advocated by state and local offi­ plete its full subway system until 2000. Origins 11nd d,,stin11tions 11re Attempt to hold government subsidies as cials who recognize the direct tie between sound land displayed on the h11ck. sid,,s low as feasible. Around the world, operating use practice and the nation's energy dilemma. deficits-and thus required government subsi­ In Canada, the realization is coming more rapidly. 11nd fronts of buses. 11s tl'ell dies-have risen sharply in the last two decades, The city of Ottawa, for example, has shifted public 11s popuillr stops along th,• most dramatically in the 1970s. Between 1970 and expenditures sharply from road building to mass route. 1975, for instance, deficits (as a percentage of transit, and now has a statute requiring that every operating costs) went up from 32 to 69 percent in house in a new subdivision must be within 500 Belgium, from 9 to 29 percent in the United Kingdom , meters of a bus stop. and from 15 to 46 percent in the United States. Labor costs were given as the chief reasons for this devel­ opment. Research presented at the seminar indicated Paratransit Futures fairly conclusively that productivity-output per The "new kid on the block" in the transit field is transit employee--declines in the wake of increased paratransit-the smaller, more demand-responsive, Middle government subsidies. With tax resources strained in and ideally more economic way of moving people all nations, such a development is clearly unfavorable from place to place. The Paris seminar delegates French bus stops 11re u·ell tmd to the future of a sound mass transit system. The showed clear interest in paratransit-but as a com­ uniform~)' m11rked. 11s are ideal, one British delegate suggested, would be to plement to , not as a replacement for, traditional entrances to underground confine central government subsidies to capital ex­ mass transport services. p11rking f11cilitu•s. penses , although the speaker doubted that would Paratransit, the discussions made clear, is still in suffice for systems' needs. its rather early, experimental stages. But dial-a-ride Institute exclusive bus lanes. In virtually all systems for the general populace received negative sizes and types of European cities where traffic lanes reports because of the high costs involved. Properly reserved exclusively for buses have been tried, they applied, however, paratransit could effect major have reduced bus travel times significantly, cut down economies. A World Bank representative, for in­ headways between buses, and permitted transit au­ stance, reported studies by his organization showing thorities to reduce the size of their bus fleets. Estab­ that cost economies per seat of smaller vehicles lishing such a privileged roadway for the public bus (minibuses, vans and others) were "greater than we system , Dietrich Sperling notes, not only speeds the could ever have imagined. " buses but motivates motorists caught in traffic jams, 1\vo paratransit areas seemed to have the brightest watching the buses speed by them, to reconsider possibilities for reducing the severe traffic congestion Bottom their transit mode and often to decide "next time, and energy wastage of single-occupant-per-auto We11ther in Sll'eden rnn he take the bus. " commuting. These are specialized transit services for cold 11nd u·,•t. Stops such m; The exclusive bus lane or bus street may provide lightly populated rural areas and ridesharing­ a particularly important model for the rapidly grow­ carpooling or vanpooling, which is more popular to this in Gothenburg 11re ing and highly congested cities of less developed date in the United States than in European countries. he11ted. as 11re side1rnlks in nations, Sperling suggests. The case study of Oporto, The Americans reported that 22 percent of all U.S. tht.• dou·ntou·n are11 h.r return a densely packed city in northern Portugal, illus­ workers share cars on their way to work and that heat pipes lorntedjust und,•r trated how, in a short period of time and with there are 2,000 organized vanpools in the United the sid,•11•11/k. They tl'ere relatively little additional public investment, exclusive States and probably several thousand privately owned plflet•d there during tht.• bus lanes and streets unclogged horrendous traffic vans used for joint commuting. u·idening of p,•destri11n ll'll)'S. jams. Introducing a reserved bus lane on only 400 Next to charter buses, vanpools are the most 11nd the nt1rro1l'ing of streets. meters of one particularly busy Oporto avenue re­ energy efficient of all forms of commuter transport. 11s II p11rt of th,• tra.ffu: duced average travel and waiting time during peak Even as the Paris conference met, the White House m11n11gement scheme. hours from 18.5 to 3.2 minutes. was working on plans for a vastly expanded U.S. Consider transit in the context of overall vanpooling effort. As European nations experience land use. Even in Europe concern is mounting their own suburbanization and recognize how many about growing suburbanization and its effect on mass work trips do not carry workers into center cities, transit systems appropriate only for relatively high­ they may become increasingly interested in com­ density land use patterns. OECD consultant Howard muter vanpooling. Simkowitz suggested that all future land use decisions All paratransit forms, however, involve prob­ be made in light of the travel they will require and the lems-economic, regulatory, or institutional­ energy they are likely to consume. A coordinated which have tended to slow implementation in all transportation/land use program , he said, should countries. Rural paratransit, for instance, has so far include limiting urban sprawl, infilling and rede­ required significant government subsidies unless it veloping central areas at greater densities, develop­ can be combined with existing services (the Swiss ing high mobility/ high density corridors, and pro­ postal buses, for instance) , or can be run with moting mixed-use development so that residences, volunteer drivers. With volunteers, the heavy ex­ shopping and recreation facilities are all within walk­ penses of generally unionized, high-paid drivers are ing or cycling distance or easily reached by mass avoided, but experience shows that a large number of transit. volunteers are required to maintain service, unions In the United States the very idea of land use fight such arrangements, and legal and safety prob­ planning has, in past years, been considered almost lems may arise. Yet the final public good to be subversive, a threat to unfettered free enterprise achieved-mobility for rural residents, including

10 TRANSPORTATION AND TIIE URBAN ENVIRONMENT TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 11 those who can't afford to drive private cars or are too example, has been attempting to assist Kuala Lumpur course, is that the heaviest traffic flows on the periph­ old or too young, plus energy saving in the public (Malaysia) and Bangkok (Thailand) to develop their eral route, and through-trips are diverted away from interest-may justify a major effort. own versions of special licensing. The need is appar­ the center. Another public good in paratransit is its capacity ent, and typical of the Third World today: Kuala The Gothenburg planners' concept of the ideal to return some element of competition to the public Lumpur, with I million inhabitants, is growing at an traffic cell is quite sophisticated. The main streets for transportation field by introducing new transit pro­ annual rate of 3.7 percent; Bangkok, with over 5 traffic are to be on the outside of the cell, lined by viders, such as small bus and taxi firm s. As Ronald million peo ple, is adding 8 percent per annum to the office buildings that won 't be disturbed greatly by the Fisher of the U.S. Urban Mass Transportation Admin­ vehicle fleet that already clogs its streets so continu­ vehicles' noise. The interior of the cell is to be istration put it, "paratransit can return the entre­ ously that one cannot even speak of "rush hours" bisected by major cross-streets, reserved largely for preneurial spirit to transportation ." there-they exist all day long. mass transit and lined with shops. Tucked away Fisher made another point that should be heeded But what of the "developed" world? In both Stock­ between the exterior and intersecting streets are to be seriously: the need for a brokerage function to work holm and London , the OECD conferees heard, varia­ pockets of housing-close to shopping, public out the best combination of traditional mass transit tions of area licensing, including rather stiff fees, transit, and parking garages, but insulated from the and paratransit services among the regional public have been prepared by local transportation planners environmental hazards of traffic. This model of mixed transportation authority, local communities, and and forwarded to political officials for decision. Re­ use in intimately connected neighborhoods is rarely paratransit providers. The problem, of course, is that sponding to public concern, especially about air seen in world cities today-and actually is only if the transportation authority does the brokering, it pollution, political leaders in Sweden have asked if partially represented in Gothenburg. But city plan­ may be biased toward their own operations. Astrong inner-city traffic couldn't be reduced by about a ners say that future land use and building site deci­ case can be made that general purpose local or quarter, said Bo Kohlmark, Stockholm's director of sions in Gothenburg will be obliged to conform to regional governments should at least oversee, if not planning and design. That objective, he suggested, their prescribed cellular structure. conduct, the brokerage process, to ensure that the can be met only by some variant of area licensing, or The full success of Gothenburg's effort--recorded public interest is served. alternatively by a major international petroleum sup­ at another point in this booklet-ranges from sub­ ply crisis. "Then you'd have your 25 percent decrease stantial reductions in traffic, air and noise pollution immediately, " Kohlmark said. David Bayliss reported in the city cells to remarkable acceptance of the Traffic Restraint that some form of road pricing has been under study whole idea by merchants and citizens alike. At one in the Greater London Council for 16 years. central corner where 40,000 vehicles once passed, and Other "Radical" The hard fact , of course, is that politicians in any there are now but 10,000. The city has a relaxed, Western nation , given the overwhelming automobile free-flowing atmosphere. The planners boast "you Proposals culture of recent decades, instinctively shrink before can hear the sound of footsteps again," and they are Finally, one comes to the "hardest," most "radical" the ideas of area licensing or road pricing, fearing a not guilty of great exaggeration. proposals advanced by urban transportation plan­ horrendous popular backlash. There seems little A complementary strategy in many advanced traf­ ners around the world as they seek to restrain the question that before the West's energy dilemma be­ fic restraint cities has been a sharp increase in automobile and ensure the vitality and safe environ­ came so apparent, the backlash would have been parking fees, sometimes with progressively higher ment of cities. These are the plans embracing whole immediate and severe. Whether this still is true will rates for each additional hour, to favor short-term center cities-not just a few chosen pedestrianized remain unanswered until a Stockholm, a London, or over long-term parkers (e.g., shoppers over office streets-that attempt to effect major reductions in some other city finally gets up its courage to experi­ workers) . Going a step further, so me of the plans automobile traffic. Traffic restraint plans involve spe­ ment with such a system. reduce the total number of parking places. The cial licenses to drive in or across the center city, The urban transport experts gathered in Paris objective is to encourage all downtown visitors­ traffic cells which discourage tran scity auto traffic, clearly hoped that day would not be too far off. Up to employees and shoppers alike-to use mass transit. and heavy parking surcharges. now, said Dietrich Sperling, "the guardians of It is questionable whether U.S. citizens would ever The world's premier example of special licensing, motorized traffic still think the ideas of liberty and accept physical or financial restrictions on the or "road pricing" as it has also been called, is the city those of nonrestricted driving within the city belong movements of their private automobiles. In Europe of Singapore. Precisely at 7:30 each morning, warn­ together." But, he suggested, the custom of viewing as there is a much longer, more deeply imbedded ac­ ing lights flicker on across signs above the 22 roads identical "the trumpet of liberty and the beamlights of ceptance of public planning. In some of the Asian leading into Singapore's central business district. one's car" is living on borrowed time. He predicted countries considering traffic restraint, democracy is They read: "Restricted Zone-In Operation." From that severe restrictions on inner-city traffic would less full-blown than in OECD nations; in Singapore, that moment until 10:15 a.m. , any automobile enter­ appear in Europe within the next several years. for instance, dissent against the governing regime is ing downtown Singapore must have a prepurchased One form of restriction , less radical than area systematically suppressed. $1.70 a day (or $34.40 a month) sticker on its licensing, but still much more daring than pedestrian Yet the fact cannot be ignored: Had an interna­ windshield. Corporate cars must pay twice as much. zones alone, has already appeared in Europe. It is the tional conference on urban transportation been held Not even diplomats or high gove rnment officials inner-city traffic cell system, pioneered in Bremen, in the 1960s, the theme of accommodating the city to escape the net. The only exempt vehicles are buses, West Germany, and copied in Groningen , the Nether­ the automobile-rather than the reverse-would some delivery trucks, and carpooling vehicles with lands; Nottingham, England; Besan<;on, France; and surely have prevailed. And such progressive traffic four or more passengers. Stockholm and several smaller Swedish cities. The restraint ideas as those now being translated into Singapore city officials report that the number of traffic cell is best exemplified, however, where city reality in many European and Asian countries would cars entering the downtown district during the morn­ planners and merchants first conceived it in the years have been considered either foolhardy, impossibly ing rush hour dropped an astonishing 73 percent after World War II-in Gothenburg, Sweden's sec­ visionary, or both. following institution of the area licensing scheme in ond largest city. Nor can the success of recent reforms be dis­ 1975. Carpooling increased by 80 percent and most Gothenburg divided its central business district counted. Analyzing OECD case studies since 1976, recently accounted for 53 percent of commuters into five cells-roughly like pieces of a pie. From a Ronald Fisher found that public transit trip rates were during the restricted hours. Buses run more fre­ ring road surrounding the central city, motor vehicles up 47 percent in Ottawa and 69 percent in Madison, quently and on time through the unclogged streets, may enter (by a single entrance) any one of the Wis.; that transit use had risen 8 percent in Gothen­ cutting commuters' delay and frustration. There has pieces of the pie. But once within the pie piece, they burg and 15 percent in Brussels; and that bus use been a sharp drop in carbon monoxide air pollution; may not cross to another; only public transit, cabs alone had risen 36 percent in Paris. Gothenburg, pedestrians not only can enjoy the cleaner air but are and emergency vehicles, plus cyclists and pedes­ Besam;on, Singapore, Geneva and Nagoya all re­ exposed to fewer hazards of heavy traffic. trians, may legally make such a crossing. Motorists ported greatly improved air quality. And rush hour Could such a plan be transferred successfully to must drive out of the pie piece to the ring road, automobile traffic-the alleged villain in virtually all other cities around the world? The World Bank, proceed around the ring to some other piece they those cities-was down from 15 to 75 percent in the which has taken special interest in the Singapore may select as a target, and enter there. The result, of cities surveyed.

12 TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT lion reform, for instance, with housing rehabilitation, ambitious undertakings as urban freeways, new sub­ Features of a Successful tree planting, reintroduction of open air markets, way systems, or large-scale redevelopment. Thus the changes in land use, and institution of flexible work­ costs of "failure " in any one case, Bayliss suggested, Transport Program ing hours. Transportation in this sense is seen as but are small, and the new reforms are by their very In concluding the Paris seminar, David Bayliss pro­ one element in the effort to increase urban livability, nature susceptible to modification and improvement vided a checklist of "lessons learned"-and to be environment and quality of life. after the initial operating experience had been heeded-in the reform era now dawning. Citizen participation. Bayliss suggested the par­ obtained. Accessibility. Properly prepared transport plans , ticipation , "as appropriate," of the public at large in Thus the seminar concluded on its characteristic Bayliss said, have shown that necessary access to major transportation changes. This consideration, note of frugality, modesty, practicality. But David central cities for business, commuters, and shoppers however, was a weakness of the Paris conference. Bayliss, a mild-mannered man, showed the iron fist can be maintained, even if traffic is restrained. And When experts meet and plan, they too often think of of determination beneath the velvet glove of the introduction of progressive transport manage­ the parties affected by change far too late. Even with accommodation-and doubtless spoke for the great ment programs, he noted, has con.firmed the vitality the best of intentions, it is hard for a city to explain majority of delegates present--when he ended the of city centers and shown conclusively that the radical traffic changes to its citizenry. conference by saying that what is required most of all spectre of lost trade is a false one. Reversibility. A final "lesson" cited by Bayliss is "a determination to break the pattern of increasing Complementary measures. The need had been deserves mention. The various urban transport re­ congestion and pollution of our cities and reestablish proven, he said, for a wide range of complementary forms cited at the conference, he said, contained few the motor vehicle as man's able and willing servant measures in each city-supplementing transporta- if any of the "irreversible" elements inherent in such for a better urban life." ■

TRANSPORTATION AND TIIE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 13 I I

rl n

14 TRANSPORTATION AND TIIE URBAN ENVIRONMENT rop \lot'kbolm i11terfat'es its three F•rms ,~f tra11sil-ligbt-rail. Relleclians ml'lro mu/ hus-ill allrat'lfre. 111'1 l-til'sig111'd fad/ ii i{'s. lt~jr,rmalio11 011 all forms of transit i., readilr al'(li/ah/e. an a European Ibis .\la/ion also lma.,t., an 1111til'rgro1111ti .,bopping mall 11 ilb a l'(lridr of .\bof>11illg at'lfrilie.,. \mall lm11ti,111e., SludyTaur are mixe,J II ilb gron·rr .,ton·., anti art .\bop., lo pro,-it/e /be .\bopper 11ilb "" opfx,rl1111ily to 11.w lrt111.\il j,,r a/1111•1•1/.,.

BY TED Llfl'Z

The Paris urban transport seminar and study tour for, national treasury support for the operating costs provided an excellent opportunity to reflect on a of the Paris public transit system. French national number of issues in public transportation and its role treasury support for operating costs is not provided in shaping livable urban areas in our country and to other French cities but has been provided to Paris, Hollom throughout the world. The delegates were exposed to apparently because of the national government's spe­ some of the differing and often exciting strategies { nij,,rm .\ig11i11g am/ cial relationship to the capital region . The reassess­ being used in other countries to incorporate public ment of the national treasury role in financing Paris i11jt,rmatio11 map., a11,J tahle.,. transportation as an integral element of comprehen­ transit operating costs appears to reflect a desire to et1.\_I' to 1111,Jent,11u/ e/'ell j,,,. sive community planning and development. The vari­ reduce the costs to the national government and to 1111• i11ter11ati01111/ l'i.,i/01: ous approaches were of particular interest to me, reduce its involvement in local service decisions, adt/{•d to high 011-tillw having recently stepped away from my position as such as the setting of Paris transit fares. perjt,rmt111Ce. make .\uet/i.,b General Manager of the Washington Metropolitan In several other European countries-namely, I rall.\il .\_l'.\ll'm., n~;oyahle jt,r Area Transit Authority. West Germany, England, and Sweden, the national the l'i.\ilor a., 11ell a., the Four public transportation/urban development government emphasizes capital assistance exclu­ re.,itil'11l. questions emerged that appear particularly relevant sively, believing local and regional governments to the U.S. situation. These issues are: should have the key role in handling fares , service levels, and operating costs. The Dutch government, 1. The national government's role and perspective however, provides considerable assistance to defray on financing public transportation capital and operating costs, and the national government ap­ operating costs pears to have a major impact on all transportation 2. The planning and decisionmaking process for planning and assistance decisions. public transportation programs In many other countries, including the United 3. Public transportation service characteristics States, more attention is being given to the role of the 4. The relationship of public transportation to im­ farebox in financing total transit operating costs. This proved urban livability point has several aspects. First, localities are examining more predictable policy guidelines on what percentage of operating Financial Assistance costs should be met by fares and related revenues. While these guidelines vary widely according to pub­ Issues lic policy, they are being used to provide guidance for A major issue with public transportation , as with any the orderly development of transportation assistance public program, is how to pay for it. While all the programs. As a former transit general manager, I countries studied provided meaningful support for found it gratifying to see the degree to which Euro­ capital investment programs at the national level, the peans recognize that the level of subsidy most often role and extent of government financing of operating reflects public policy choices on service and fare costs varied from country to country. levels, rather than the relative efficiency of transit In Paris, for example, the French national gov­ management. ernment is reevaluating the degree of, and rationale For example, the case study presentation by offi-

TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE Ull1"N ENVIRONMENT 15 cials of Ottawa, Canada, showed that they operate Brussels and Ottawa also have experimented suc­ under a premise of covering 60 percent of the costs cessfully with the pass system. In Ottawa, 60 percent Top left /Middle of public transit operations from the farebox. It is my of all transit riders now use monthly passes. The understanding that several U.S. cities (e.g., Dallas, Netherlands last year introduced a yearly pass for /,a Defense. a neu· tou·n Tex., and Portland, Ore.) and states (e.g. , California) families on all rail lines in that country; in fact, the d,,,•elopment outside Paris. have adopted this same conceptual approach, al­ authorizing statute ensures that the definition of fam­ prm•ides information aids for though with different percentages, to guide service ily is not restricted to married persons but includes transit users. The ci~)' is and budget planning. Because of the current com­ those living together on some permanent basis. linked to Paris b.J' bus and plexities of financing public transportation operating Although a graduated fare structure for large costs in many parts of the United States, I expect to urban areas was favored over a flat fare system, most commutn rail (REH). The r.s. see more emphasis at all levels of government on transportation systems recognize the need to make it delegation t•isited l,a °'-fi'nse. gaining a relatively predictable division of cost be­ as convenient as possible to pay fares . Extensive use a joint del'elopment complex. tween the user and the nonuser of public transporta­ is made of unified fares between various carriers in a u·hile in Paris. tion service. region, easy transfer between different modes, and The second point regarding operating costs was passes for both bus and rail. Gothenburg, Sweden, that it is more desirable to raise fares to meet even allows passes to be purchased with a credit expenses than it is to reduce service. Many examples card. A number of systems used self-ticketing or the were given to show that the quality and reliability of honor system for fare collection, procedures that service have a far greater impact on ridership than promote efficiency and convenience and warrant Top right reasonable fare increases do , especially as the energy further experimentation. situation pushes up the out-of-pocket costs of auto­ Over the next several years, I fully expect the U.S. Mari,mplatz Statum. the mobile commuting. A delegate from Manchester, federal government, as well as state and local gov­ central lf-Bahn statum in Great Britain, noted that a significant fare increase in ernments, to grapple extensively with the complex Munich. is located helm,· Cil.J' his city last year did not reduce ridership, but disrup­ issues involved in financing a transportation system. Hall. and pro,•id,,s access to tion of service by bad winter weather and strikes cost At the federal level, given the fact that we have had th,, p,,d,,strian mall and to the system 5 to 6 percent of its passengers. approximately five years to experiment with the Sec­ both bu:, and ,\'- Hahn Free or reduced fares with no improvement in tion 5 program in the Urban Mass Transportation Act, connectfons. transit quality were not considered effective in in­ the time probably is ripe for another thoughtful creasing ridership. The Urban Institute of Washing­ assessment of the appropriate partnership between ton, D.C., reported that "reductions are ineffective as the federal and nonfederal governments in financing a way of inducing people to switch from cars to capital and operating costs. In addition, state and public transport. " Efficient transit systems, however, local governments will be wrestling with the question "can be effective competitors for the motor-car." of sharing the financing of public transportation In the United States, limited transit assistance between users and the general population as well as funds have been used most often to hold down fare between state and local taxpayers. levels rather than to improve or even maintain the The decisions to be made will point up the need Bottom service level. The emphasis may shift to service for more predictability and certainty in the existing, quality, however, due to the energy situation and often chaotic, planning and financing systems for The Paris Metro has 3H efforts to remove some automobile subsidies. public transit. From my experience, predictability is stations and carries more Throughout Europe, differing approaches exist to as critical to the development of a sound operating than 4 millum passengers provide financial assistance to special groups, such budget for public transit as it is to a longer term dai(r ot•er 113 mif,,s of track. as fixed income elderly, as part of an overall fare capital program. Currently, there are too many vari­ This particular line. u·hich policy. It is recognized that if fares are raised to keep ables to permit rational planning and effective man­ runs from t'toile to .V,iti011. pace to some degree with cost increases, such groups agement by even the most progressive U.S. public has rubber tired t•ehicles. will require additional assistance, although it may transit agency. The need for greater stability must be Passengers ma_r purchase need to be more precisely targeted. recognized in the U.S. federal legislative/appropri­ indfridual tickets. either first In both Europe and the United States, the realiza­ ations process. At the same time, stability is a key class or second class. tion that employers have a special stake in a good force behind the drive to gain dedicated state and public transport system appears to be growing. The local tax sources. carnets (ten tickets at" Paris region, for example, instituted an employers' reduced price) or a month(r tax in 1971, with the proceeds going to simplify and pass. the Carte d'Orange. reduce fares for commuting workers. In 1978, the tax The Decisionmaking yield was 2.4 billion francs, 28 percent of public transit costs in the region. Recent actions by private Process employers in the United States (Chicago, Seattle) also Several themes regarding how public transportation have provided direct assistance to employees who decisions are made kept recurring throughout the choose public transportation to get to work. tour. Most striking to people in the United States is the Several countries offer monthly or family passes to high degree of centralized planning exercised by the encourage broader use of public transportation. bulk of the European systems. In Europe, the state Paris instituted its "Carte d'Orange," a monthly ticket exerts considerable control over individual actions, a and pass that allows for an unlimited number of trips factor to be reckoned with before trying to imple­ in the region, based on differing base prices for five ment similar transportation/land use programs in concentric zones. The device proved extremely effec­ the United States. Because of the tradition of govern­ tive in enhancing the image of public transit, increas­ ment planning and control, European countries ing bus travel in particular, and shifting a small but place greater emphasis on the use of regulatory significant percentage of trips from automobiles to approaches to traffic control and urban planning. the public transportation system. From an initial Many of the schemes that could be beneficial in U.S. 700,000 users, the number of Carte d'Orange users cities rely on a degree of governmental regulation of has risen to 1.4 million. individual citizen and property rights that U.S. offi-

16 TRANSPORTATION AND TIIE URBAN ENVIRONMENT TRANSPORTATION AND l1IE URMN ENVIRONMENT 17 18 TRANSPOKTATION AND 1HE URBAN ENVIRONMENT cials have been reluctant to try. However, papers at general condition of European public transit re­ Top the seminar stressed that regulatory actions, such as flected the high priority placed on good transporta­ control of access of private cars as well as tax and tion with attention to system reliability, quality, and .I strong emphasi.,; is put on other financial incentives, were essential to the suc­ ease of riding. transit informt1/um t1nd cess of most efforts to build more livable cities . The transit systems in the tour cities had consist­ mt1rkeli11g lech11iqm•s in the The centralized planning process, as practiced in ently good physical characteristics. The lighting level cit)' of Pt1ris. lnformt1lit>n on many European countries, allows for a strong trans­ was high in the stations and vehicles, contributing to both bus t111d Mhro is rt•adi(J' portation policy at the national level. For the systems a feeling of security and enjoyment. It was clear that studied, each national government had, at one point maintenance receives a very high priority throughout t1l'llilable. t1nd et1si(r or another, made a stated policy choice to start these systems. Unlike U.S. systems, which seemingly 11,u/erslood. t'l'en in " cit)' favoring public transport over the private auto in relegate facility and equipment maintenance to the lht1I grell'from a smt1/I island urban areas. This approach contrasts sharply with low end of the totem pole, these European systems centered in the Seine to one the U.S. system which has always emphasized state hammered at system appearance and performance. of th,• 1rnr/d'.,; most and local decisionmaking with federal financial as­ Construction materials and designs appear to have complia,ted urbt1n aret1s. sistance for transportation. been selected with ease of maintenance and good l'i.,;itors ht1l't' no problnn With the exception of Sweden, it appears that most lighting in mind. At Washington Metro , it was a fimli11g the most ob.,;cure of the countries visited are not too hamstrung by rigid constant struggle to make sure the construction and slret'I. l'he (t1rle d'Omnge. ti financing mechanisms should they decide to shift engineering decisions gave some consideration to m,mth(r pt1ss good on both priorities in transportation plans. Countries whose both long-term operating and maintenance the Jt,;tro t111tl the bus transportation financing structures are more simi­ consequences. lar to that of the United States are attempting to The European systems offer a variety of generally 11elll'orks. boosted ridt•rship make their programs more adaptable to changing good graphics to the rider. To me, the Paris system t1i11wsl HO percent ll'hen first priorities. graphics were most outstanding. On a sour note, it introduad. II ht1s since been The need for citizen involvement in developing was discouraging to ,vitness the growing graffiti prob­ expwu/ed to i11c/11dt• and implementing transportation and land use pro­ lems in these cities, a problem appearing in many co11111111/er trips. grams was stressed repeatedly. Early citizen and other areas of the communities as well as in the merchant participation was viewed as particularly transit system. crucial before instituting the more innovative traffic Security was less evident in the European systems management and regulation schemes. One speaker than in the major U. S. systems. Transit officials at suggested that citizens should be involved in deci­ several tour cities expressed growing concern over sions leading up to important changes for as much as crime and fare evasion , however. Several cities­ three to five years, especially when the changes would especially those with honor-type fare systems-were affect their own neighborhoods or lifestyles. seeking to reduce revenue loss by raising substan­ An urban planner from Delft, The Netherlands, tially the penalty for failure to pay. JI it/tile advised, "Always go to the housewives to discuss local I was impressed with the extent to which all cities Ft1se in hot1rding mt1kes using traffic problems. They are the ones who really know studied were using relatively precise service stand­ Jmhli,· transit in Stockholm what's going on. " West Germany and Sweden also ards to guide transit planning. It is not easy to develop more pleasant. stressed the need to involve citizens and merchants in such standards, especially in a large metropolitan each step of the process, although much of the region, and particularly if there is no comprehensive consultation seems to occur during informal com­ regional financing source. Other countries seem to munity meetings rather than through formal public be making good use of service and planning stand­ hearings as in the United States. ards, as exemplified by the Ottawa, Canada, bus Even when major traffic changes are publicized system, which made locations more than a 20-minute extensively, planners learned that citizens often are ride by regular transit service from downtown candi­ surprised when the plan actually takes effect. The dates for express service, and the precise plan for deputy mayor of Groningen, J. Wallage, acknowl­ maximum walking distances to subway stops in Swe­ Hollom edged that the city's large investment in advertise­ den (with credits for escalators). Interface ,111wng 1·t1rious ments, maps, and posters to prepare its citizenry for Another transit service trend that I believe will a traffic cell system proved largely ineffective. He said grow in importance in the United States is the more motl,•s is t111 oulslantling that the day the scheme was implemented, motorists extensive use of larger vehicles on line-haul routes aspt'l't of the J1unich transit acted "as if they had not been informed at all and had and smaller vehicles for residential communities that system. Jtetro ( l'-Hahn) and quite a shock." The nicer shock, he said, was for have not previously had significant public transporta­ rnmmuter rail (S-Bt1hn) are pedestrians, who suddenly discovered that the inner tion services. In discussions of experiences with tl,•.,;igm•,J to connect ll'ith bus city was theirs again. Despite Groningen's experi­ smaller vehicles in regular transit service, OECD /oat/in!!, areas. Jfan_J' ,~r ence, Wallage said that city administrations have no seminar delegates focused on the mechanical relia­ H1111id1\ hu.ws art• choice but to go to the people and spend a lot of time bility of the vehicles (or , as a seminar delegate from artit'ulate,J. there is a 1mifit•d and money to explain why a new traffic plan is being the United Kingdom put it, the problem of small 1'011n•11tri,· :one fare sc·/J('{/11/e. instituted. Even then, they must recognize that it will vehicles "not being sufficiently mechanically robust" wul tit'kt'I.,; t1re 110/ cht'l'ketl in still take some time for people to get used to it, he to stand up in intensive service) . Should the demand statiom. JfJT offil'ia/s concluded. for small vehicles materialize, one must hope that ,•st imat,• that on(J' t1bout 2 more bus manufacturers throughout the world will give additional attention to the small bus manufactur­ pen,•11/ is lost to cheaters . Public Transportation ing question. .\JH>I l'bt'l'kers '"""' 011/ $10 One of the most striking impressions of the tour fines for /how c,111!!,hl tr_rinJ!, Service Characteristics was the effort that has been made to make public lo J!,t'I a free ride. To a public-transportation-oriented visitor from the transportation more reliable and easier to use. Many United States, European transit systems have many of these steps also improve systems' efficiency and enviable characteristics. While obviously different in reduce costs to localities. Examples were exclusive size and style from American systems, the good and contraflow bus lanes on existing urban roads and

TRANSPORTATION AND TIIE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 19 20 TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT signal changing devices to expedite and give priority for disruptive urban freeways in favor of improved to public transportation vehicles. These special pro­ public transport facilities. Anumber of cities provide Top visions not only improved service and increased extensive separate facilities for bicyclists and pedes­ Tht• (,'reatn London Council is reliability, but also reduced bus fleet requirements, trians. I was amazed to note, however, that in the responsible for transit and thus reducing operating subsidy requirements . cities with good separate facilities to encourage walk­ transit planning in i,ondon . Several tour cities had arrangements to substitute ing, pedestrians generally took their lives into their taxi service for bus transit service at certain hours hands the minute they stepped near a street with .\pecitll serl'ices such as this and locations. While these efforts are largely experi­ moving auto traffic. These cities appear to need shopper'.'i sp,•cial mental at this stage and not without problems, they stronger traffic control regulations and enforcement doubledecker are "part of the bear careful monitoring to determine whether mean­ to protect pedestrians. o,•eral/ marketing strait'!{)' to ingful cost efficiencies occur. European governments have instituted a number make transit an attractfre Several countries noted experiments in of regulatory traffic control schemes to improve llllernlllfre in clogged customized minibus service for the physically handi­ urban livability. These include parking restrictions do11·11to11·n /,ondon. capped. Gothenburg Transit, for example, operates a and high parking rates , neighborhood traffic control fleet of 39 small vehicles and arranges taxi trips for plans, and pedestrian zones. Several specific projects residents who qualify. Only the United States, it ap­ of these types are described in detail in the preceding pears, is seriously considering the far more expen­ article by Neal Peirce. It is sufficient to note here that sive and difficult alternative of modifying all bus and public transportation plays a key role in all efforts to subway fleets and stations to accommodate handi­ preserve the character and vitality of the central city. capped persons. The Europeans seemed to feel that Several European cities visited also seemed to in addition to the cost, inclusion of the handicapped recognize the need to develop good public transpor­ on their crowded facilities would jeopardize the tation service as a necessary component of planned safety of other riders. Sweden in particular is watch­ "new-town" developments in a metropolitan region. ing U.S. experiments with lift-equipped buses in regu­ Such planning for the future is never easy and not lar route service because that country also is caught always completely accurate, but it shows a real com­ up in political, social and economic debate over total mitment to use public transportation to serve and accessibility and mobility. guide new population centers. Improved Urban Conclusion While there were many valuable lessons and insights Jliddle Bottom Livability gained from attending the seminar and study tour, the forntedju.'i/ off Oxford St .. Amajor purpose of the study tour was to observe the feature that made the strongest impression on me this i.'i one of the first innovative ways European cities are integrating was the careful integration of public transit planning and implementation into the development of truly pedestrian mt1/ls in /,ondon. transportation and community development plan­ ning to improve the quality of urban life. In city after living cities. The study tour, in particular, highlighted Side1mlk rnfes. ,mtil/Ut' shops city, we saw efforts to use creative transportation the emphasis on conservation and preservation of ,md desigm•r slort•s mt1kt• " facilities and actions to make cities better places for both resources and urban vitality, using public trans­ mid-dt1)' stroll delightful. "the vital mingling of functions ," to use the descrip­ portation and traffic planning schemes to foster a tion of a seminar delegate from the Netherlands. stronger sense of community among the urban resi­ A central theme of the urban revitalization pro­ dents. As the United States faces a future with new grams was the need for a more "human scale" in city constraints on resources and seeks a stronger sense planning and an enhanced sense of community of community among its citizens, planners would do among the residents. To avoid the loss of established well to capitalize on the experimentation and innova­ neighborhoods, several cities had abandoned plans tions taking place throughout Europe. ■

TRANSPORTATION AND TIIE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 21 The Changing Rale al Aulamahile and Public Transparlalian

BY C. KENNETH OKSKI

Progress has been more impressive with respect Transportation and to improvements for pedestrians. What began in the mid-1960s as a trickle of modest, tentative efforts to the Environment free main shopping streets from traffic in a few It seemed particularly appropriate that this confer­ cities flowered in the late 1970s into widespread ence on Transport and the Environment should open practice. Today hardly a city or town in Europe fails with a session on "Pedestrians and Cyclists"-for to protect its historic center from excessive automo­ walking and cycling are at once the most energy­ bile traffic. Some cities-such as Munich and Es­ conserving, least costly and most environmentally sen-have done so by closing downtown streets to sound forms of locomotion; and those three con­ autos entirely. Others-such as Gothenburg and cerns--energy conservation, fiscal economy and Groningen -have chosen to restrict automobile ac­ environmental soundness--seemed to dominate the cess and divert through traffic with the help of traffic thinking at this conference. management techniques. Yet for many years efforts to improve transporta­ Nor are pedestrian schemes any longer confined tion on foot and bicycle received scant attention. to Europe. Thanks in part to the good efforts of Cities seldom catered to our needs as pedestrians or OECD, the idea of rededicating streets to pedestrians cyclists with the same zeal as they responded to our has crossed the oceans and taken root in North needs as motorists. Somehow, the subject seemed America, Japan, Australia, New Zealand and South just a trifle frivolous. America. Today, in addition to 120 cities in Europe, Now all this seems to be changing, as the discus­ some 50 cities in other parts of the world have thriv­ sions at the first session clearly demonstrated. The ing pedestrian precincts in their central core areas. old perception that only high technology is capable The reasons for these success stories have by now of solving our mobility needs has given way to a new been well documented. Pedestrian streets are popu­ respect for the potential of walking and cycling as lar with shoppers; they create a lively, festive environ­ practical and environmentally desirable methods of ment that attracts visitors and tourists; they lead to moving in the city. reduced pollution concentrations-at least, to less During the first session we heard some serious carbon monoxide; and they have proved to be good discussion about the advantages and disadvantages for business. Indeed, in the United States, pedestrian of the bicycle. It seems that in urban areas the most malls have become an accepted means of rejuvenat­ serious obstacle to the widespread use of bicycles is ing downtown areas. Downtown malls offer people their vulnerability in mixed traffic. Ideally, we were an attractive alternative to suburban shopping cen­ told, bicycles should be made to operate on separate ters which for a long time were the only places where rights of way. Unfortunately, separate bikeways are people could shop in a traffic-free environment. not always possible, or else can be built only at a This is not to say that doubts about pedestrian great expense. So it was suggested that a more realis­ areas have entirely disappeared. They have not-as tic policy might be to proceed in small steps, by ex­ we heard from Mr. Wallage's presentation of the Gro­ tending bicycle paths incrementally as existing roads ningen scheme. But whatever doubts may still per­ are rebuilt, and by gradually facilitating bicycle use sist, they seem to relate to the proper form of imple­ in other ways. mentation of car-restricted zones more than to their

22 TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE lJll&\N ENVIRONMENT TRANSPORTATION AND THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 23 24 TRANSPORTATION AND TIIE URBAN ENVIRONMENT fundamental rationale. People no longer question ride-sharing has been receiving increasing atten­ rop whether pedestrian zones are good for the city; tion, especially in North America, because of its rather, they want to know how to make them work: high potential to reduce dependence on automo­ .ts u·tls lrm• ill the f '11itetl how to determine their optimum size, how to involve biles and to conserve petroleum. .\'/flies mu/ in ""'")' f.'11ropetl11 the public in their planning and how best to enforce c01mlrit•s. t/11ri11~ Im• fifti,•s them. Perhaps the greatest significance of paratransit, as flml sixlit'.'i trajJ'il' p!tl1111i11~ revealed by the discussion at the third session, lies in emphflsizetl freeU'fl)' its potential to bring about fundamental changes in ,l,•1·elopme11t. fl1ltl u·as Traffic Restrictions the organization and management of public trans­ portation. Because paratransit usually involves ll'l'i~hletl hefll'i(r ill ftll'Or of in Residential Areas small-scale operations, it offers opportunities to a the fllllo. /11 f)efft. ho11 ·e1·,•r. As discussion at the second session revealed, a move whole new set of independent service providers, in­ this lrnul ll'flS rel'ersetl eflr(r. is now underway to extend the concept of automo­ cluding private taxi operators, and thus may stimu­ 1'he pifl11 hfltl ml/et/ for the bile management to residential neighborhoods. Lim­ late competition in a field that has not been distin­ six lfl11e .'i ,~f this hritl~,, lo he iting traffic has come to be viewed not only as a way guished by high productivity and innovation. Also, t'.\'lemletl lo Im• 1011 ·11 n•11ter. of stimulating commercial and economic activity in since paratransit is often offered as a bundle of /1011 ·,,,.,,r. " tho11~htf11/ the center city, but also as a means of creating a safer differentiated services tailored to the needs of indi­ tlecisio11 u·a.'i 1111ult• lo stop the and more livable residential environment in existing vidual users, it encourages a market-oriented, man­ .fi·eeu·ay al this poi11t so as to inner-city neighborhoods. agement approach to public transportation. route traJJ,,· a1rny from the In this area we owe a special debt of gratitude to What is most noteworthy, however, is the great our Dutch colleagues who have demonstrated that European interest in paratransit evidenced at this /011·11 ,·e11/er. keepill~ ill automobile management in neighborhoods can be conference, compared with the interest at the confer­ harmo11y tl'ilh the plea.,;i11~ more than a simple choice of "to ban or not to ban." ence four years ago. The message seems unmistaka­ 11alt1rt' ,~f this a11ci,•11t f)utch The woonerf concept has shown that there is a third ble: new travel patterns in European cities can no lotl'll. option: integrating the automobile into the fabric of longer be satisfied effectively by conventional transit. a neighborhood so that it becomes compatible with The new interest in paratransit may be an expression walking , biking , playing in the street and engaging of Europe's search for more flexible forms of public in neighborly contact outside the home. transportation that would more effectively help Just as pedestrian streets proved to have a strong people cope with the problems caused by dispersed revitalizing effect on downtown areas, so protected patterns of housing, shopping and employment. neighborhoods-whether in their original form of a Dutch wooner( their German variation of a wohnbe­ reich, or in the simpler form of a residential parking Management of permit scheme, as practiced in the United States-­ promise to become a powerful instrument of our ef­ Transportation Demand /lollom forts to make cities livable again and to stem the out­ Although the next two sessions were called by differ­ /11 f)t'fjl. the ,·011n•pt of the flow of people to the suburbs. ent names, they dealt with two aspects of the same 11·0011t•rf bas heco111t' l'e,:r issue--the management of transportation demand. The emphasis on demand management represents a pop11lflr. fl uses special(r Paratransit significant new trend in transportation thinking. mark,•,/ parkill~ spm·es am/ In the third session we talked of paratransit-a rela­ For many years transportation policy was con­ traffk i.'ilmu/.,;. 11'1,it'/1 cba11~,, tively new concept, born of the need for a more flexi­ cerned primarily with investment planning. With the rom/u·ay so a .'i lo slo11 · ble form of public transportation to serve efficiently money relatively abundant, the question was not l'ehid,• tra.fJ'it' a11tl hrill~ ii and conveniently the travel needs of people in con­ whether to build new transportation facilities but mor,• ill nmn•rl ll'ilh temporary, dispersed metropolitan areas. where, when and how fast to build them. Today, with pe,leslri,111 am/ hiqcf,, traffic Although paratransit was originally viewed pri­ fiscal resources diminishing and environmental

TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 25 in attracting people to transit than were low fares . the dominant consumer of petroleum-must inevi­ While the majorit y of delegates felt that transport tably become the focus of these efforts. l'o/J subsidies are necessary, they agreed that justifica­ It would be tempting to assume that technology tion for them must be sought in other policy objec­ once again will come to our aid, and rescue us from l)uring the sltulr lrlu,: 1111 • l . \ . tives, such as equity considerations. our present dilemma, as it has done on so many past tlelegatio11 l'i.,ill'tl tlJ1• JI .. I. \ . The greatest area of uncertainty-and debate­ occasions. But this time, I fear, we cannot rely exclu­ plant in l11,1.,:shurg. s1111th '!l surrounds the subject of automobile pricing disin­ sively on a technology fix. To be sure, there is still a .Jtunich. JI. I.\. i., lmiltling centives known as "area licensing" and "road pric­ considerable potential to increase-perhaps double articulall'tl hu.\l'.\ J;1r .\1•attle. ing.'' The conference heard with interest about Singa­ or triple-the fuel economy of today's cars, espe­ pore, where automobile licensing has apparently cially the larger American cars. Given sufficient re­ llashi11glrl11 . /).( .. a111/ 11ther been highly successful in inducing commuters with sources and technical skills, we hope to realize this riti1•., {i('f'II,\ .\ th1• 1·111111(r)'. ,,, center city destinations to shift from autos to car goal. atltlition. they are pools and transit, but proposals for automobile But even tripling fuel economy will provide only a expnimentin,I!, tl'ith th,• disincentives generally encounter widespread skep­ temporary respite from the ever-growing petroleum pnulucti1111 ,~fa fou .f11111re1/ ticism and resistance. Still, the results of the Singa­ shortfall. With automobile travel growing at an an­ n•hid1•. tr, make flff1•ss easii•r pore experience have been dramatic enough to war­ nual rate of 3 to 5 percent, it does not take higher f11r the eltlerr anti rant serious considerations of its variants by other mathematics to conclude that the benefits of in­ lumtlirnppetl. /he rl'l1icfr cities. Indeed, the conference learned that several creased fuel economy can only be short-lived. /1kture1/ here is .vh1•tlu/1•1IJ;1r countries, notably Sweden , the United Kingdom and Thus, whatever interim relief technology may of­ 1/dil'err tr, llashingt,111. IJ.<. the United States, are actively investigating the prom­ fer, we must be prepared to face the fact that in the ise of pricing approaches, such as parking sur­ long run we have to do more than "reinvent" the au­ charges and differential tolls. It is possible that we tomobile. We must also rethink the manner in will see more such efforts in the future. which the automobile is used We should approach this task not in a destructive way, by trying to banish the car from our lives, but in a creative sense of seek­ Jtit/11/e Financing ing a new equilibrium between our desire for per­ F11r1111•r Jtay11r '!/ l'11rt lllful At the sixth session, on financing, concern was ex­ sonal mobility and the need to conserve dwindling llflli l"llf'f'efll kO"l'larr '!l pressed about the rapid growth of transit deficits, oil supplies. fra11s/H1rtati1111 \l'i/ which some delegates feared may lead to decreased You may wish to consider whether this challenge <,11ltlst'lm1itlt tlisr11n1 •., 111·11 transit operating productivity. However, there was of harnessing the automobile in an energy-scarce, general agreement that proper levels of subsidy to inflationary era should warrant becoming the focus ll'clm11lo,1!,y 11ith JI. I.\. public transport must be considered in the context of a major, concerted international exchange. In­ ,~flkia/.,. of total urban transportation financing. Some dele­ deed, in retrospect, the most important and lasting gates expressed the view that the full cost of automo­ contribution of this conference may have been that it bile travel is not accounted for by the present system has launched just such a debate. For deliberately or of pricing and taxation of road transport, and that not, our discussions over these 2 ½ days have been a comparisons based on actual costs might lead to a wide-ranging exploration of alternatives to a life false conclusion that the automobile "pays its own style based on the unconstrained use of the private way," while public transportation does not. automobile. Whether the issue concerned pedestrian streets, or traffic restraint in residential neighborhoods, or Energy transit subsidies, or ride-sharing, or management of With news of the latest OPEC price increase still re­ transportation demand through pricing and regula­ verberating throughout OECD countries, and with tion, the underlying theme, the unstated assumption, memories of lines at gasoline stations still fresh-at was the need to rethink the question of movement least in the mind of the rapporteur-it is difficult and mobility in metropolitan areas. not to be impressed, and concerned, with the degree Thus, we may have already set our agenda. I hope /111tlom of our dependence on petroleum. that the dialogue this conference has launched will Our task for the remainder of this century will be not be allowed to falter, but that it will grow. And that /011.Jlo,,r '"'·"'·' I hat inrrea.\l' to try to reduce this debilitating dependence. In this forum , which has been so hospitable to us in the affe., .,. p,r th1• h,1111/irappe,I these conservation efforts, transportation , we are past, will continue to be available to foster and nur­ 11ere ,~f great inll'rest tr, I he told, will be called upon to play a critical role. And ture this debate in the future. ■ I .S. 1/d1•gatio11 at IIH• JI. I.\. within the transportation sector the automobile-as plant.

26 TRANSPORTATION AND TIIE URBAN ENVIRONMENT TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 27 28 TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE lJRMN ENVIRONMENT Top In Amsterdam. adl'erlising ret·t•nu,•s help offset opi•mting Innovative co.-.ts. Signals and standard signing ht•lp protect e.\'clusfre rights of 1my. Management al Urban Transport laraBeHer Environment

BY ARIEL ALEXANDRE AND CHRISTIAN AVEROUS Bottom 71,e use of i11ter11ati01,al Instead of building expensive metro systems or free­ verted. They can control and reduce on-street park­ signing/or hl'lter traffic ways, the new approach to urban transportation ing and use computer-based area traffic control to policy is to make better use of existing facili­ smooth congestion. They can also require supple­ managt•mt•nt makes it ea.~)' ties--roads, buses, taxis, light rail lines-­ mentary licenses for persons who want to drive into for r·isitors to knou· u·ht'rt' through comprehensive and innovative manage­ heavily congested areas. they can and can't park. u·hat ment. Building heavy infrastructure has become the Giving city officials the power to regulate com­ size and category of r•ehicles solution of last resort. muter parking by charging progressively more for art' prohibited and u·here The OECD has carried out case studies on a num­ each additional hour or by reducing the number of special tmffu· routing is ber of cities that have adopted comprehensive poli­ available parking spaces and compensating people required. cies. The cities vary widely in size, structure and adversely affected by traffic management schemes level of car ownership. Together they present a broad (those who live on newly designated ring roads, for picture of local and national efforts to improve the example) also can help achieve environmental and urban environment and to facilitate access to the transportation objectives. city, both for persons with cars and those without. Restrictions on the automobile must be comple­ The measures taken are behavior oriented and often mented by improved public transportation, which politically sensitive. may require financial help from national govern­ Scrutiny of these cities has made clear that ments for both investment and operating costs. management-oriented urban transportation poli­ cies, though local in inception, have implications for national policymakers in diverse fields: environmen­ Impact on the tal protection, energy conservation, inner-city revi­ talization, institutional reform and finance. Environment There is a strong positive correlation between traffic volume and air and noise pollution. Thus, sharp de­ Traffic Management creases in automobile pollutants have been regis­ The new management-oriented urban transporta­ tered on pedestrian streets. In Gothenburg, Sweden, tion policies are aimed at encouraging people in the for example, noise levels fell from 74 db to 67 db in city to make more efficient use of vehicles and infra­ pedestrian streets, and average levels of carbon structure; emphasis is changed from moving vehi­ monoxide dropped from 65 ppm to 5 ppm. Besan­ cles to moving people. c;on, France, reduced carbon monoxide in the cen­ Most countries' local authorities have it within tral city by 67 percent, while auto-related pollutants their power to reduce traffic-caused nuisances and in Nagoya, Japan, declined by 16 percent. to enhance the urban environment. They can turn It must be noted, however, that these large reduc­ shopping thoroughfares blighted by noise and fumes tions in pollution may be very local in effect; unless into pedestrian streets. They can introduce "traffic the areawide volume of traffic is actually reduced cells" to keep through traffic from traversing the (through a shift of auto users to public transporta­ center of the city, and they can upgrade or create tion, for example) pollution will merely be redistrib­ "ring" roads to accommodate the traffic thus di- uted to ring roads and other diversion routes. This

TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 29 NOTIINGHAM'S CENTRAL ZONE AND COLLAR SCHEME

Park and ride sites

Intermediate ring road

'lrallic signals limit entry of autamabilas; __ Inner zone buses givan priority Ring A

', Inner city area I Short-term Central care parking (partially pedestrianized, lats no through traffic) Border "Bus only" roade between --- zones

1. 'lraffic Cells 2. Zona and r.oilar Schemas

City centers or sensitive residential areas bounded by a ring road or Central city areas may be divided into a series of concentric zones major traffic arteries may be divided into a series of cells. Local access to bounded by a "collar" of traffic lights. Traffic entering each zone in Iha each of these cells is possible only via a limited number of entry and exit peak period may be restrained by reducing the green lime at these lights. points at the periphery: Through trips across cell boundaries are prohib­ The amount of green lime permitted depends on the traffic conditions in ited, and motorists can only go from one cell to another by means of a inner zones and the length of traffic lines on radial routes at each collar. ring road. As a result, the heaviest traffic flows occur on the peripheral Priority measures for public transport such as bus lanes and "preemp­ route and through trips are diverted away from the center. Such schemes ted" traffic signals (a bus can turn the lights green by radio transmitter or are often combined with pedestrian zones, bus priority and other traffic a sensing device in the road) may be incorporated into such a scheme to management measures (e.g. parking restrictions and one-way street avoid delays at the collars for public transport users. systems within each cell).

4. Supplementary Licensing 3. Pre-Matro Systems Supplementary licensing is one form of road or traffic congeslion pricing. Underground or segregated surface lines may be constructed along Part or all of a city center Is cordoned off and drivers must purchase a particularly congested corridors. Streetcar or "pre-metro" services are supplementary license to have access to or to drive within this area. operated along these corridors unt11 ridership reaches a certain level, at Such schemes are mainly directed at restraining the use of private cars which point they can be replaced by a higher performance metro system. and through traffic during peak hours in congested city centers.

30 TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT impact can be minimized if the alternative routes are GOTHENBURG'S TRAFFIC RESTRAINT SCHEME carefully chosen (if, for example, they are streets with little human activity) and if traffic signals are synchronized to ensure a steady flow of vehicles.

Energy Use p Parking Border between Motor vehicle transportation accounts for about 20 area zones dasignad as reserved area for percent of all fuel consumed in Europe and more Area redesigned and public transportation than 30 percent in the United States. Management­ reconstructed to u based urban transport can save energy in the follow­ accomplish the Public transportation scheme routes ing ways: Border between Entry of cars into zones zone ■ By increasing car occupancy ■ By encouraging a shift from private cars to public r transport ■ By encouraging inhabitants to walk or cycle when I making short trips ■ By encouraging more efficient use of existing roads.

For example, automobile load factors are very low in OECD countries, and an increase in auto occupancy from 1.2 to 1.6 persons per car would reduce the number of cars used by 25 percent. If such approaches are to be successful, they must be supported by national policies and incentives such as increased taxes on motor vehicle fuel and development of more fuel-efficient vehicles. In deciding upon such measures, policymakers need to consider the relationships between energy conservation and other measures. For example, auto emission standards need to be coordinated with fuel-efficiency measures, since at least some tech­ niques for reducing such emissions tend to raise fuel consumption.

Revitalizing 'I Inner-City Areas In many inner-city areas, the number of industrial • and service jobs is declining and residents are mov­ ~ • ing to the suburbs. These changes tend to leave be­ ... ,, hind the economically, socially, and even physically disadvantaged persons, often in obsolete and de­ caying residences with declining services. Countries have begun to realize that the existing •• urban infrastructure, cultural as well as physical, is too valuable simply to abandon-and that it cannot -· be recreated once it has been destroyed. Efforts are being made to revitalize cities, to restore their former quality of life and the role they play in the economic and social life of the city. - Management-oriented urban transportation poli­ The tap diagram shows the traffic plan for the dty as a whole, the bottom one the dty center. cies can help by improving accessibility to jobs, re­ ducing the cost of operating public transportation and providing a generally better environment. For areas have created metropolitan planning organiza­ example, pedestrian streets in business districts Institutional tions to make regional plans, and some federal fund­ have helped to reverse economic decline in the area, ing is dependent on the existence of planning on and use of traffic diversion techniques in urban·resi­ Adaptation such a scale. dential zones has visibly helped to restore the quality To be effective, urban transport planning and man­ In Stockholm, all commuter railway, metro, bus of life by giving streets back to the people. Delft in agement must take into account all modes of trans­ and ferry services are operated by a single regional The Netherlands, where pedestrians have priority portation and be adapted to the needs of the entire transport company set up about 10 years ago. Urban over vehicles on residential streets, is a particularly area. Thus, transportation can be most effectively transportation policy in West Germany has aimed at good example. managed when the city and its suburbs are treated as integrating the services provided by various modes Supplementary measures to increase inner-city a unit-a change that will generally necessitate of urban public transport without abandoning their job opportunities and to improve housing and edu­ some institutional reorganization. In the United operational independence: In Hamburg, Munich and cational facilities and urban services are needed. States, for instance, local authorities in adjacent Frankfurt, limited liability transport associations

TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 31 Effect of Management-Oriented Urban Transport Policies: Analysis of Six Case Studies

TOWN KEY POLICY FEATURES TRANSPORTATION RESULTS ENVIRONMENTAL RESULTS

'Il-afflc cells Introduced. Streetcars and buses 'Il-afl1c accidents reduced by 36 percent. Begula- Meua raducad from 74 ta ff/ dadbals ID main ~ 'i:: given reserved right-of-way and priority at rlty al bus and streetcar services Improved. alqlplng&traat. A.,..lmllaf mrlmdlmlda ~ i signals. Suburb-to-downtown express bus ser- Costs al running pubUc transportation reduced abaYe J11'81118D18 raducad from 6.5 p/m ta 5 m ;I:: vtce started. Central area parking amtrolled. by 2 percent. An Increase of 6 percent In week- p/m; raducllan ci ialt carbon m::mxtde hmls ~ day 111ps to center by bus and streetcar. 'Il-afflc by9JBC8Dl. A 17parmnt nductlanlD number Cl on Inner ring road Increased by 25 percent. af Cll1'II IDIBrlDg Iba amlrll c:lty. =t!J

'Il-afflc cells establlshed In restdanttal quarters. A 17 percent Increase In trafflc speeds on main A 15 paramt raducllan ID cars IDIBrlDg Iba Longer distance road movements segregated on roads covered by computer-managed signals. A amlrll ara ID Iba marnlDg rush baur. A 1.5 Cl~- [ a •loop route equipped with linked stgnals. 3 percent Increase In ridership on buses using parmnt raducllan ID tralllc dl'l:Ulatlng ID amlrll n,:::,.,tl>"' Cmnputer-menagad area traffic control, bus priority lanes. A 59 percent reduction In deaths bualnasa district. A 16 parmnt raducllan ID lanes, priorities for pubUc transport at signals, from road accidents In the central area and a 57 IIU1Helatal pallutmta. :z staggered work hours, parking regulations In- percent reduction In residential areas covared traduced. by cells.

Between 1971 and 1976, bus services more Between 1972 and 1976, annual publlc trans- A 15 paramt raducllan ID iaJt pmiad mr u.. then doublad. Fare subsidies ra1sed from 7 to 46 port ridership Increased from 37 to 60 mlll1on r.arbma rnooaxtde 1ffllls bald mnatant at 13.15 percent al pubUc transport operating costs. Flex- passengers par year. Publlc transportation's p/m bltwlm 19'13 ml 1975. (Tba imnga ID ;- Ible working hours adopted by 50 percent al share of total evening peak travel by road In- luga Nmth AIIBtam clllaa II 25 p/m.) A Ottawa's city center employees. Charges al $20 creased from 20 to 30 percent. The proportton of p,pJlallan --. from 95,IDJ ID 97,500 ID ~! to $24 (Canadian) per month Introduced for 700 government employees driving to work dropped the lml8r city bltwlan 1971 11111 1978. spaces In federal government parking lots. Ex- from 35 to 27 percent between 1974 and 1975. press busway 7 km long created.

A monthly transport pass - the "Carte Sales al Carte d'Orange rose from 100,()[I) In Sur,ay l'8IUlts abow that an imraga af 70,m:J d'Orange"-allow1ng an unlimited number al October 1975 to 1,300,()[I) In December 1977. auto trips JBr day boa al ablflad ta public trips by any publlc transport mode In the Parts The scheme has led to a 36 percent Increase In 1rllllpDrlallan ID Parts. All 1mm Jllll8Ul'II region Introduced. A 2 percent payroll levy by bus usa In Parts (of th1s Increase, 38 percent al hna amtrtbutad graatlytolmpmlngtbllmaga UJ ei' local authorlttes on employers Introduced to 111ps were formerly made by Metro, 30 percent af public transpartatlDD, putlcuJady smfaca -~ ~ f1nance pubUc transport. Reserved bus lanes on foot, 14 percent by auto). The payroll levy transpartallDD, ID Iba Parts raglDn. CL. ~ were lmplemanted to form a network al 100 km produced almost 2 b1ll1on francs In 1976 (ap- In Parts. proximately 22 percent al the total expenditure for pubUc transport In Parts). The reserved bus lanes have Improved the regulartty al bus ser- vice as well as the speed of the trips.

2! Supplementary l1censes Introduced for veh1cles A reduction al traff1c during the morning rush A 43 paramt raducllan ID a,nll dally tralllc ID Cl entering the central business d1str!ct during the hour In the zone covered by supplementary Iba llamaal zana. A 15 ID 3:1 pan:ant J'ldudlan morning rush hour. Tux dlslncanUvas on car ltcenslng al 75 percent. Cer pools rose from ID mrlm munudde hmds. ~ ownership. Publlclty for car pooling. Staggering 2,137 to 4,500. A 15 percent Increase In bus al work hours. Park-and-ride servtces. Im- passengers between 1974 and 1976. The rate al .§> proved bus service. growth al car ownership fell. U1

A variety al traff1c management and restraint The zone and collar experiment was abandoned 'l'he cmtrel - llmllDI bu raducad padaa- measures introduced, Including zone and collar after 11 months, but s1gn1flcant results were trlllll/'flhk:la amlbcts (aa:ldanta dl'llplBl a, phys1cel restraints, traff1c cells and pedestrian achlsvad including the elimination al through pan:antLbugmnbuaandJmt81rtamprtar- zones, peak period wetting and delivery traff1c In the central core, a SO percent reduction tty anr otlm tralllc ml bu lmpravad tba ]_ restrictions, synchrontzad traffic signals, and In circulating trafflc, and stgntf1cant Improve- dawnlawh iiivlnimwd. truck bypasses. On-street parking restrictions; ments In bus reltabll1ty. restraint and pricing measures Implemented for ilfl-street parking. Publlc transportation ser- JI vtces lmproVBd In frequency (33 percent In- Cl crease during peaks) and with new services :z (free special bus service for shoppers, park- and-rlde-servtces during peak pertods and on Saturdays).

32 TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT grouping representatives of federal, state and city obliged to pay for at least some of the costs imposed and national governments. One response to this situ­ government have been set up to determine transport on others by their vehicles. This scheme has resulted ation has been a search for new revenue sources. In routes, to develop equipment, to fix fare schedules in a 75 percent decrease in traffic entering the cen­ France, for example, a payroll tax on firms with and to distribute revenues to the participating com­ tral area during the morning rush hour and radical more. than IO employees has been imposed for the panies. improvement in the environment. Profits from the specific purpose of improving public transporta­ Regional transportation must be integrated if sale of the licenses could be used to improve public tion. First introduced in Paris and neighboring management-oriented urban transportation policies transportation. towns in 1971 and subsequently extended to cities are to succeed, but the form of integration will vary Experience suggests that supplementary licensing with more than 100,000 inhabitants, this tax pro­ from place to place. is a powerful and effective instrument, but it is a con­ duced a revenue of $500 million in 1976 for the troversial concept primarily because motorists are whole Paris region. not accustomed to paying all the costs of automobile In North America, attention has been given to Finance usage. Such schemes also raise issues of equity, be­ what is called "value capture." This is a financing The financing of urban transport systems is com­ cause they discriminate against lower income car mechanism that involves evaluating how much a plex: Private funds finance the purchase of cars and owners. Kuala Lumpur will be the second city in the given transportation improvement has increased trucks, public funds the purchase of transportation world to implement such a scheme while Bangkok, land values and then levying a tax on the increase. equipment and infrastructure as well as the operat­ London and others are examining the possibility. Some Canadian cities have used the technique, but ing costs of the various components of the urban Generally, fares do not cover the costs of public they found it difficult to separate value increases due transportation system. All costs, except of course the transportation, and the amount of subsidy needed to transit improvements from other changes in a private purchases, are in turn covered to varying de­ varies from city to city. Deficits have been due, in complex urban land market. grees by user charges, taxes and other sources of part, to rising labor costs and the labor-intensive­ In the United States, local authorities (in Minne­ revenue. Although taxes on ownership and use of ve­ ness of public transport. In addition, political deci­ apolis, for example) have created special tax assess­ hicles (including fuel taxes paid by urban vehicle sions have been taken to keep fares low, particularly ment districts around shopping streets rehabilitated owners) cover most investment in highways and to benefit low-income residents, and to encourage for the exclusive use of pedestrians and buses. Shop­ parking, they do not pay for the costs of air pollution, more people to use public means of transportation. owners on the street (called a transit mall) are re­ noise, congestion, accidents or disruption that vehi­ Public transportation enables cities to function bet­ quired to pay a special tax which is used to finance cle users impose on other urban residents. Some ter; in many cases, the absence of such a system the improvements, to pay the operating costs, or countries are considering special taxes on motor ve­ would prove disastrous to the city's economy. Large both. hicle pollution, both air and noise, to remedy this subsidies can also be rationalized by noting that car Revenues derived from financial measures such situation. users are implicitly subsidized since they do not pay as these can be used to support public transporta­ In Singapore, supplementary licenses must be for the costs they impose on others. tion, thereby reducing the need for central govern­ purchased by drivers of cars with fewer than four oc­ Whatever the theoretical arguments, subsidies to ment subsidies. ■ cupants which enter the city center during the morn­ urban public transport are in fact rising in many ing rush hour. In effect, these drivers are thus OECD countries and causing concern to both local

TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 33 In t1ddition to some sixten, A Personal View intersectio11s equipped 11·ith bus priori~•· equipment (J1'1:u; •".l','ilem). J)eljt bt1s bus pt1ss-throuxh.'i lht1I permit the al the Seminar an transit ,·ehicle to !!,O throuxh intersections prohibited to th,! t1ulo. The nept1rlme11t of Puhli,· lforks is co11tinuin!!, Urban Transport ll'ork 011 ti computerized traffic omtrol system ll'hich 11'ill er·enllwl(l' monitor t1fl andthe lrt1ffic t111d {l{{iust sixmlfs to smooth traffk j101l'. !!,ir'e further priori~•· to lra11sit l'ehicles. am/ refi,,,.e Environment COll!!,e,'ifiOII .

BY DAVID BAYLISS

Our cities' welfare has become an increasingly im­ restrictions, or both, to encourage the use of more portant public policy issue in recent years. An in­ efficient methods of transportation. As the case stud­ creasingly discerning public is demanding that citi­ ies have shown, the degree and form of government zens and decision-makers cooperatively deal with intervention will differ with the area. These differ­ the issues that recent experience has shown can lead ences will arise not only from the variation of trans­ Hottom to economic, environmental and social problems. portation and environmental circumstances among E1·e11 stifffi11es ht1l't' not While the public speaks with many voices and parti­ towns but also from public attitudes and the willing­ sofred the ille!!,t1l pt1rkill!!, san interests often contradict one another, debate is ness of governments to introduce the required meas­ problem 011 the . 1r,•1111t' healthy. All views should be considered in the ures. The common elements in these projects are the decision-making process. better use of resources, the improvement of the envi­ Ct1nuit. just be/011· the Art· de Primarily because of the widespread failure of ur­ ronment, the need to maintain and improve accessi­ 7'riomphe in Pt1ris. /Jelir'ery ban redevelopment programs associated with the bility and the optimization of existing means of l'ehicles ofte11 cfo!!, slrt•t'ls rapid economic growth of the 1950s and 1960s, ur­ transportation rather than the construction of ll'ben autos ht1l'e filled ban policymakers have, in recent years, become costly and often environmentally damaging new lot1dill!!, .'ilt1lio11s. more cautious about wholesale change. In addition, infrastructure. growing concern over environmental quality (air The case studies and background papers have pollution, noise, neighborhood safety, land use shown a range of measures to improve transporta­ conflicts) , energy scarcity and fiscal austerity is tion and the urban environment and a variety of ways stimulating policies of conservation, rehabilitation in which these measures can be combined. Trans­ and more efficient use of existing facilities, coupled portation management schemes include, at one ex­ with highly selective development. treme, traffic management policies (such as one­ Transportation is only one of many contemporary way streets, channelization synchronized traffic sig­ urban problems, but one to which this general phi­ nals and improvements in the quality of public trans­ losophy applies with particular force. Urban road portation) that are designed to prevent obvious inef­ transportation depends heavily on the most vulnera­ ficiency and excessive environmental impact. At the ble energy source, oil, and in most countries, this other extreme, there are the more far-reaching ap­ situation is likely to continue for years. Oil is a key proaches such as Gothenburg's citywide traffic cell determinant of the quality of the urban environment system and parking program and Singapore's area and one that has an especially sensitive relationship licensing program, both of which use economic in­ to economic and social developments. struments to complement other regulations. In these cities, public intervention has changed the relation­ ship between demand and supply by the shaping and Current Policy limitation of demand. Between the two is a range of more or less progressive approaches that make full Directions use of conventional techniques and employ addi­ Most cities have demonstrated a clear need for sig­ tional measures to limit traffic demand; these ap­ nificant government intervention in their transpor­ proaches include parking controls, bus priorities, tation systems, such as the application of incentives, car-free zones and parking/ public transport pricing

34 TRANSPORTATION AND TIIE URBAN ENVIRONMENT TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 35 policies. It is clearly desirable that policymakers commitment to a particular plan. The lesson seems view all forms of urban transport as part of a whole to be to focus the political commitment on the objec­ and treat all consistently. Economic instruments ap­ tives to be achieved rather than on the exact means pear efficient in achieving this unified approach. for their achievement-and then to adopt pragmatic Some cities have attempted to identify the optimum and progressive measures to achieve the goals. limitation of vehicular traffic to contain congestion Accessibility. Recent experience has shown that and to reduce its effects on the environment and pub­ careful planning can yield substantial environmental lic health, but agreement on what this limit should be and traffic benefits without undue restriction on ac­ is hard to find. cessibility. In certain situations, accessibility can be What is clear, however, is that many cities are dis­ increased. What is more, preference can be given to covering that they can no longer cope with their traf­ priority users so that interests of the community at fic problems through conventional traffic manage­ large are better served. The accessibility require­ ment. Therefore they are investigating and will be ments of the elderly, the handicapped and other per­ experimenting with progressive or radical policies. sons who have difficulty in traveling around our Radical policies, however, tend to stimulate opposi­ towns and cities must also be given proper weight in tion, and can be very damaging if implemented with­ the design and operation of urban transport. out careful preparation. Decision-makers therefore Central Area Merchants. The introduction of are understandably cautious about the introduction progressive transport management programs has of such policies and are demanding that careful eval­ confirmed the robustness of city centers and their uations of the effects of the projects be carried out. ability to cope with and thrive on well-planned change. The success and well-being of central areas is of concern to several sectors of the community in­ Lessons Learned cluding local politicians and central area merchants. Can the experience of the past few years teach us any Often the specter of lost trade has been raised as a lessons with respect to transportation policies? major objection to traffic management, even though Flexibility and Reversibility. Most of the case history has shown these fears to be ill founded; in Flou·er l'endors in 1'he studies show that because the strategies adopted some cases, in fact, traffic management has contrib­ contain minimal costly "irreversible" elements uted positively to revitalization of the urban core. .\"ether/a mis. ji·uit am/ (such as urban expressways, new metros and large­ The strong support of the business community is t·egetable stmuls i11 Su·etle11 scale redevelopment), the costs of "failure" are often a decisive influence in bringing about traffic a11tl kiosks i11 (,'er11u111_1· shou· small. The Nottingham experiment has shown that in management experiments and in making them per­ the us,•s to 1d1ichfor111er a medium-size city a radical scheme can be repealed manent. Thus, business persons should be encour­ strel'ls ca11 be put. tt'he11 the fairly easily and the worthwhile elements retained. aged to participate actively in the planning process. tledsio11 is 11uule to fal'or the Elsewhere it has been found that programs can often Role of Governments. A harmony of interests petlestria11 ol'er the motorist. be readily modified and improved once the initial and coordination among all levels of government are operating experience has been obtained. An exam­ important if programs of the kind described are to ple is the conversion of Singapore's shuttle buses to be effective. National governments must provide more conventional service. We would be deluding local government agencies with the power to exer­ ourselves, however, if we did not recognize that fail­ cise initiative. ure can have costs and, where there are risks, pro­ Complementary Measures. Successful man­ grams must be designed to minimize the costs of agement approaches must include a careful blend of total or partial reversion. All programs should be complementary measures related to the circum­ implemented in such a way as to ensure that the stances and aspirations of the individual areas. They benefits sought are achieved as soon as possible. must contain measures that encourage the use of Economic Instruments. In the past few years, public transportation and secure environmental interest has grown in the use of economic instru­ benefits as well as measures that regulate and influ­ ments to regulate road traffic. There have also been ence the use of private vehicles. Since the relative several innovations in public transportation fare merits among transportation modes depend upon systems, such as "period" tickets that allow travel on trip purpose and city form, a proper balance must all forms of public transportation during a period of be sought among modes to enable all population seg­ time. Parking charges, non-peak-hour concessions ments to satisfy their travel needs. Other measures on public transportation and subsidized travel such as changes in land use and activity patterns vouchers for certain groups are good examples of (e.g., flexible working hours) must also be consid­ economic instruments. ered. Now that a supplemental licensing system is oper­ Participatory Process. The principal interest ating successfully in Singapore (and being studied groups likely to be affected and, as appropriate, the by other cities), such programs should increasingly public at large should participate in the identifica­ be included among the policy options for those tion of objectives, plan design and evaluation. places where the potential of established techniques Effect of Urban Characteristics. The size, has already been largely exploited. complexity and design of the urban area are of major Political Considerations. Political costs of importance. In medium-size cities with a clear and traffic management must also be considered. No dominant central area, it is possible to introduce a elected representative at local, regional or national package of transportation management arrange­ level wants to be associated with an unsuccessful ments that can produce rapid and dramatic change, plan, especially if it has become a matter of political especially when the existing traffic management level advocacy. Successful programs usually are based on is low. In larger cities, rapid and dramatic change is careful planning and pragmatic implementation in likely to be local; wide-ranging measures are usually the context of a political will to improve the urban introduced gradually and with little obvious impact environment and to relieve congestion more than a in the short term.

36 TRANSPORTATION AND TIIE URBAN ENVIRONMENT TRANSPORTATION AND 11fE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 37 38 TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT Conclusion Top It is important to view urban transportation in the /11 the Fetlera/ Republit' r~l context of our main concern , the quality of life. A properly designed and functioning transportation (,en1u111.1 ·. sbopkee/u•rs system is essential to the environmental , economic origiualfr resisted the it/ea rd' and social health of cities. Low-cost management /be tlisru/1/io11 rnust'tl /~1· changes and economic instruments can enhance city co11s/ructio11 r~l tb,• .Jluuicb life by encouraging changes that reflect the general .Jletro. 1/011·,•n•,: IJt•t"au .-;e r~l desire to protect our urban heritage, to conserve .rnbsit(I' systems prol'itletl b_l' scarce resources and to improve the economy. /be go1·er11111t•11/ anti the Much remains to be done; success in these mat­ support r~l t'iti:eus tl'bo e,~;o_r ters requires bold and innovative approaches, care­ ful planning and consultation, good relationships '"" ,1111bit'11n• r~l '"" s111To11111lil1g .Jlarieuplat: among public officials and willingness to experi­ ment and, perhaps, to suffer temporary setbacks. petlestriau mall. 111erc/u111/s Most of all, however, planners must demonstrate a ultimatefr asketlfor au determination to break the pattern of increasing t•.,·/e11sio11 r~l the :one. 1d1icb congestion and pollution in our cities and to is 11011· one rd· I be mos/ reestablish the motor vehicle as the public's able and tleligb0itl areas willing servant for a better urban life. ■ 1111e11t'11111b,•1-etl by autos in the cit.1· r~f .Jl1111icb.

Bollom /hew 1u11To11· light-rail rebicfrs u·ert• tl,•relopetl especialfrfor .lmst,•rtlam:-; 1u11To11· streets . .Jloriug 011 e.,·d mire gu itleu·ays for a portion r~l their jo11n1t:r helps lo speed /rausil trips . . ldtlilioual u·ays r~ftleali11g 11-itb the iutrusiou r~l the auto are being cousitl,•rt'tl l~I' /be gorer11111,•11/ of 1'h,• \et her/a 1uls. frt{/l'ic 111111111g,•111e11/ anti parkiup, .\Cht•m,•.,; are among the lotl'-t'os/ i11res/111e11/.,; that are making /Ju/ch t'ities less relit111/ 011 the auto. anti more a111,•1u1h/e lo J1t•tlestria11 lmusil anti hi()'dt' lrt{/l'ic,

TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 39 /~ Overview al Sixteen City Case Studies

This section presents an overview of innovative urban transportation programs which the OECD Environment Directorate undertook in 16 cities around the world between 1976 and 1979. The transportation programs were designed to improve the environment in the face of increasing car ownership and use in the 1970s.

Updated summaries of previous case studies of progress in Besan~on, Geneva, London, Madison, Nagoya and Nottingham may be obtained from the Secretariat of the Urban Division, Environment Directorate, OECD.

INTRODUCTORY EXPLANATORY Pre-Metro Systems NOTES Existing surface streetcar services may ac­ 'lrafficCells quire some of the characteristics of an un­ derground railway by the construction of City centers or residential areas bounded short tunnels under particularly congested by main roads may be divided into a series parts of the road network. In the suburbs, of "cells." Entry and exit may be confined streetcars may be provided with segre­ to a limited number of points on the gated or elevated lines. Streetcars may be boundary road. The effect is to prevent operated along such lines until ridership drivers from making through trips across reaches the levels which justify conversion cells and to oblige them to use the "ring" to higher performance rolling stock and route, thus shifting traffic from the inte­ signaling systems. rior to the periphery of the affected area. Pedestrian streets, bus priority meas­ s,,pplementary Cordon Licensing ures, parking restrictions, one-way sys­ tems and other traffic management meas­ In city centers or other places where traffic ures are often combined with traffic cells. congestion is serious, vehicular movement may be diverted and reduced if drivers en­ T,one and Collar Scbemes tering the congested area are required to purchase and display a special, supple­ Cars used to drive from residential areas to mentary, vehicle license. The need to dis­ places of work may be controlled by using play such licenses may be confined to peak traffic signals as "valves." Selected resi­ travel times or to other periods. To pro­ dential areas are treated as traffic cells mote higher occupancy rates and to avoid (see above) and traffic signals are used to penalizing lower income car owners, regulate the flow of departing vehicles at license-free passage may be given to buses all exits. These controlled areas are the and bicycles and to cars carrying more zones. Traffic entering city centers and than a stipulated number of riders. En­ other areas that attract heavy flows of cars forcement may be imited to recording the may be similarly regulated by traffic sig­ registration numbers of vehicles not dis­ nals located on radial routes just before playing licenses at points of entry to the ring roads. These signals form "collars." controlled area, but other solutions are Traffic wishing to avoid the controlled area also possible. may move into the ring route. Buses and other high-occupancy vehicles wishing to <:ar Pooling enter the controlled area may be assisted by means of priority lanes and preferential Avoluntary arrangement under which two signals. Low-occupancy cars wishing to en­ or more neighbors, work colleagues or ter, on the other hand, may be forced to other companions regularly drive to and wait at the "collars" for as long as neces­ from a common destination, such as a sary to ensure free-flowing traffic condi­ place of work, station, school, or shopping tions within the controlled area. center.

40 TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE lJRBAN ENVIRONMENT ANKARA, BESAN~ON, BRUSSELS, CURITIBA, Turkey France Belgium Brazil (population 1,690,000) (population 135,000) (population 1,029,000) (population 950,000)

Objectives Objectives Objectives Objectives *To combat Ankara's history of un­ *To relieve congestion in and protect *To enable public transportation to *To provide guidelines for urban controlled growth and development the environment of the historic city attract patronage with better services. growth by integrating land use, traffic through effective land use planning. center. *To promote public access to citywide control and mass transportation policies. *To improve public transportation. *To provide a comprehensive experi­ activities. *To encourage public concern about ment in traffic control and public trans­ *To reduce travel time to and from the city. Key Policy Elements of Plan portation improvement as an example for work. *To avoid additional capital-intensive *Creation of 5.3 km of segregated bus other French cities. *To reduce traffic problems adversely road infrastructure. lines. affecting the city's economy. *To reclaim urban space for pedes­ *"Pedestrianiz.ation" of 0.1 sq. km of Key Policy Elements of Plan trian and cultural uses. shopping area between 10 a.m. and *Restructuring of public Key Policy Elements of Plan *To discourage car use and to pro­ 8p.m. transportation: *Immediate benefits from capital in­ mote public transportation. *Inauguration of light Rail Transit; ■ increased rolling stock vestment to be obtained by using street­ first sections to open in 1981, to be inte­ ■ established bus lanes and new routes cars in tunnels in "pre-metro" form . Key Policy Elements of Plan grated with bus and "dolmus" (collective ■ established new fare policy When sufficient underground sections • Central core fu nctions to expand taxis). ■ established paratransit for nonpeak are finally joined, the transition to metro along two development axes, not in one *Estab&hment of a parking tax to hours. operation is to take place. Eventually, central core. help pay i>r parking facilities i>r there are to be five lines. *Removal of through traffic by residents without garages. *Traffic Management: *General policy to segregate public redirection of traffic. ■ restricted road access for certain transport modes where they conflict with *Establishment of high-frequency bus General Results vehicles other traffic. service on development axes. *Average bus speeds are not so high ■ established traffic "cells" *Decision to integrate all public trans­ *Establishment of special terminals as hoped, because current infrequency of ■ established "ring" road portation systems through the use of and parking at transportation inter­ buses slows down boarding times. ■ set up park-and-ride areas, plus general season tickets encouraging inter­ changes. *Pedestrianiz.ation has been successful central area parking restrictions change, particularly between metro and *Control of land use activity to match and a second wne is being prepared. ■ improved traffic control equipment. railway. street capacity *Need seen for two "bus only" streets *A rapid streetcar line is to comple­ *Transformation of former roadways in the central city. *Pedestrian zones ment the metro system. into gardens and playgrounds. *Additional road capacity needed to • Road infrastructure developments to *Estab&hment of pedestrian ease congestion caused by reserved bus General Results concentrate on construction of a ring road. promenades. lanes. • Public transportation has improved. *Flexibility of plan to permit reevalua­ Ridership rose 75 percent in two years. General Results tion and adjustment following early Specific Environmental Aspects *Bu s service has become very fre­ *Of 19 streetcar lines measuring actions. *Environment is more pleasant, quent, fast and comfortable. 153.4 km, 51.2 km are segregated tracks. particularly for pedestrians. *Elimination of through traffic has •Metro lines measure 11.7 km ; General Results markedly reduced central area operation began in September 1976. *Circulation related to the develop­ congestion. *General season tickets were used by ment axes is successful, as each uses 28 percent of all people traveling on three streets: The middle one is for es­ Spedftc Environmental Aspects public transportation. sential access parking and public trans­ *Less noise from private cars has *Modal split of 66 percent rail to 33 portation; the two parallel outer streets been offset by more noise from buses; percent road transportation has been are for one-way traffic circulation. fewer accidents have occurred. achieved. *Patronage of public transportation is *Attractively designed pedestrian *Of 27 bus routes measuring 251.7 rising rapidly, thus encouraging the in­ areas have stimulated social and km, 3.9 km are in reserved lanes serving troduction of articulated buses. recreational life. both metro and streetcars. *Shops have improved their facades *The number of passengers on public Spedftc Environmental Aspects and city has become more attractive. transportation is continuing to increase *Congestion has eased. (up 2.14 percent between 1977 and 1978) . *As a result of street reclamations, *Parking building at the metro ter­ per capita green space has risen from minal has been a great success, and 0.5 square miles in 1965 to 12 .0 square more buildings are planned. miles in 1978. *Ped estrians enjoy a much improved Specific Environmental Aspects central city environment, and residential *Surface vehicular traffic congestion areas have more space i>r leisure has been reduced and traffic flow activities. smoothed. *Central city is becoming revitalized. *No major effects are expected on air pollution and noise, but the authorities do not consider either to be a problem.

TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE IJll&.\N ENVIRONMENT • 1 GENEVA, GOTHENBURG, GRONINGEN, LONDON, Switzerland Sweden Netherlands England (population 340,000) (population 450,000) (population 160,000) (population 7,100,000)

Objectives Objectives Objectives Objectives •to reduce the amount of car traffic. *To improve safety and the environ­ *To improve central city environment *To slow the decline in population *To establish a preferential network ment in the central business district. by reducing noise and air pollution. and employment by creating a better en­ for public transportation. *To improve public transportation. *To increase road safety. vironment and improving mobility. *To create public parking facilities *To impose quick and inexpensive Specific goals: while restricting private parking con­ solutions to traffic problems. Key Policy Elements of Plan ■ increased safety for pedestrians struction. *Elimination of through traffic from ■ improved bus operations *To convert designated spaces to pe­ Key Policy Elements of Plan the inner city. ■ increased speed and reliability for destrian areas. *First phase, in center city: *Improvement of facilities for public road traffic, especially commercial ■ creation of five traffic "cells" which transportation and bicycles: traffic. Key Policy Elements of Plan only public, taxi and emergency ■ establishment of central bus station ■ reduced fuel consumption. *Construction of outer ring road for vehicles can enter for urban and regional network through traffic. ■ reservation of track space for street­ ■ special provision for cyclists wherever Key Policy Elements of Plan *Construction of intermediate ring cars possible. *Traffic restraint, chiefly through im­ road to link suburbs. ■ conversion of all downtown parking to position of parking controls; target of 33 *Construction of inner ring road (two short-term. *Establishment of pedestrian-only percent reduction from 1974 level of one-way loops, centrally controlled streets. peak car traffic. Specific elements: signals) around town center. *Second phase, in central urban area: •creation of four "traffic cells." ■ controlled, on-street parking zones *Traffic management to reduce car ■ extension of cell system ■ controlled provision of new public traffic in the central city by- ■ improvement of cycle paths General Results parking lots ■ parking restrictions ■ expected lO percent reduction of *Car traffic in the central city ■ controlled operation of existing public ■ preferential treatment for buses traffic in central urban area by 1985 dropped 40 percent (80 percent in Grote parking lots and use of temporary ■ creation of pedestrian streets. as a result of parking restrictions. Markt), but only a small modal shift sites occurred. ■ controlled provision of new private General Results General Results *The number of cyclists in the central parking spaces. *Pedestrian flow increased lO to 15 • Public transportation, especially city increased lO percent. percent in the Bassesville district. regularity of service, has improved. *The number of pedestrians passing General Results *Inner-city traffic was reduced by 30 *Some reduction in streetcar the central cordon rose 5 percent (I 5 *Parking controls in themselves to 40 percent on the Ile bridges and operating costs has been achieved. percent on Saturdays) . appear to have done little to achieve the Place Bel Air. •ear travel speeds have increased in *Cars parked in covered or multistory objectives. *Average speed of peak-hour travel on central business district and on ring parking lots increased lO percent, but *Average traffic speeds have increased public transportation increased by lO road. total central city parking facilities did not somewhat. percent. *Business has flourished; no interest change. • Proportion of auto trips into Central *Public transportation ridership has group has been adversely affected by the *Bus service in the central city was London has slightly dropped. steadily increased, to 73 million in 1978. plan. speeded up. • Authorities believe parking controls *Public parking has been developed. *Expected 7 percent increase in fuel should be extended to private, nonresi­ *Cycle paths have increased from 21 costs caused by the longer journeys of Specific Environmental Aspects dential areas and complemented with km to 33 km, and 6 km more are the second phase, but traffic flow has *Central area noise levels dropped by other means of traffic restraint, such as projected. improved. approximately six decibels. area licensing. physical barriers and *Few businesses or individuals wish to traffic rerouting Specific Environmental Aspects Specific Environmental Aspects revert to previous conditions, as the cur­ *Road safety record has improved; *Safety has improved; noise and air rent situation is environmentally safer, Specific Environmental Aspects accidents dropped 44 percent between pollution have dropped. pleasing and less congested. *Main roads are less congested. 1970 and 1975. *Residents , workers and visitors have • Removal of clutter has improved *Noise and air pollution have de­ enjoyed improved environments. road safety. creased; carbon monoxide in central city dropped by 20 to 25 percent. *Shopping environment is much improved. *Fringe neighborhoods have experi­ enced some negative effects from dherted central city traffic.

42 TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT MADISON, NAGOYA, NOTIINGHAM, OSAKA, Wisconsin, USA Japan England Japan (population 168,000) (population 2,000,000) (population 305,000) (population 2,300,000)

Objectives Objectives Objectives Objectives *To create land use patterns that will *Short-term measures to reduce con­ *To increase benefits for bus passen­ *To decrease dependence on cars, encourage the use of mass transit. gestion, to improve bus service and to gers and pedestrians at the expense of chiefly by improving the quality and ca­ *To create public recognition that reduce accidents, smog and noise. motorists. pacity of mass transportation systems. public financing of buses is justifiable. • Longer term measures to extend un­ *To implement restraints to avoid the *To protect the urban environment *To maintain the vitality of the central derground transit system to relieve sur­ fiscal, environmental and social costs of and improve the pedestrian environment. city. face congestion and to construct 67 km continued pursuit of the long-term mas­ *To maintain the physical identity of of ring road and radial overhead toll ter highway plan. Key Policy Elements of Plan neighborhoods and to protect them from expressways. *Introduction of a "Ride and Ride through traffic. Key Policy Elements of Plan System" (continuous terminal transfer *To implement disincentives to low­ Key Policy Elements of Plan *Removal of through traffic from between public transport modes) for 18 occupancy vehicle use. *Establishment of an on-street parking central core. zones, and establishment of 25 transfer ban, coupled with introduction of *Establishment of free bus service terminals, each with attractive amenities. Key Policy Elements of Plan parking meters, in the central city. throughout central city to serve *Introduction of simple integrated • Preferential treatment for transit and *Establishment of 21 bus-only lanes developing shopping areas. fares. high-occupancy vehicles (establishment on approaches to river crossings. "30 percent increase in bus service. *Introduction of bus priority signals of bus lanes and transit malls). *Campaign to popularize staggered *Control of traffic through "collars" and lanes. *Extension of bus routes, so that 90 travel hours. on radial routes. *Introduction of computerized area percent of residents are within 430 *Introduction of area traffic control *Imposition of "supplementary zone" traffic control. meters of a bus stop. to divert through traffic from the central restraints. *Redu ction of parking in the central *Provision of cycling and pedestrian city. *Creation of controlled traffic "cells" business district. facilities. *Creation of 186 residential and and pedestrian areas. *Improvement of pedestrian and *Coordination of public transporta­ school area traffic cells to improve area *Establishment of park-and-ride fringe cyclist facilities. tion through a single Metropolitan Trans­ environment. areas to be served by express buses. *Improvement of ini>rmation port Authority. *Establishment of on-street parking available to users. *Establishment of rates to encourage General Results restrictions and pricing restraints in *Introduction of paratransit "jumbo" short-term parking. *Number of cars entering central public (not private) parking lots. taxis. *Improvement of traffic flow by im­ business district during morning rush *Synchronization of traffic signals. *Consolidation of freight deliveries proving the signal system and by intro­ hour dropped 16 percent. *Introduction of truck bypasses. from special centers. ducing one-way streets. *Of approximately 1,884 civil servants *Extensive provision for information affected by parking restrictions, 34 per­ General Results General Results dissemination and citizen participation. cent shifted from car to train travel, 15 *Central core traffic plan eliminated *Seven zones are operational; public *Willingness to experiment with new percent from car to bus. through traffic, reduced circulating traf. transportation use has increased 10 management ideas backed by ordinance *Passengers on bus routes with bus­ fie 50 percent, and improved bus percent. provisions. only lanes increased 3 percent. reliability. • About 8 percent of this 10 percent *Traffic speeds on main roads with *Free shoppers' buses carried total are new riders, :IO percent of whom General Results linked signal system increased between 120,000 passengers per week. used to travel by car. *Bus patronage rose from 8 to 12.5 20 and 24 percent. *No significant change occurred in • For about 29 percent of public million between 1971 and 1976. travel patterns or in use of various transit riders, travel now requires less *Transit operating deficits and road Specific Environmental Aspects modes of transportation in peak hours. time and fewer transfers. For 34 percent, maintenance costs have increased. *Road deaths in central area dropped The zone and collar delays were too travel now requires less time but more *No demands for freeway 59 percent. short to favor buses significantly, most transfers. For 23 percent, travel now re• construction have materialired. *Road deaths in residential traffic cell car commuters from controlled zones quires up to two minutes more time but *Transit share of total transportation areas dropped 57 percent. had free or subsidired city parking, and fewer transfers. For H percent, travel has not increased, but car traffic in the *Car-related pollutants dropped 16 the zone and collar system was aban­ now requires more than two minutes isthmus area has significantly dropped. percent. doned after 11 months. more time but fewer transfers. For 0.1 • Popularity of bicycles has increased, •ear trips within the central city percent of riders, travel now requires but accidents have also increased. dropped 12 percent. Specific Environmental Aspects both more time and more transfers. *Decline in downtown area appears to • Accidents fell 60 percent. have been halted. *Physical appearance improved as a Specific Environmental Aspects result of attractive street paving and *Pedestrian and cyclist facilities have Specific Environmental Aspects reduced congestion. improved. *Continued traffic growth has ham­ *Urban environment has been beau­ pered efforts to improve road safety. tified and more open space has been *Public awareness that in the long created. term land-use policies will more effect­ • Authorities expected noise and air ively reduce energy consumption and pollution to drop, but no measurements protect the urban environment than will are available as yet. short-term traffic management has grown.

TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE Ull&N ENVIRONMENT 43 OTIAWA, PARIS, OPORTO, Canada France Portugal SINGAPORE (population 528,000) (population 2,200,000) (population 320,000) (population 2,200,000)

Objectives Objectives Objectives Objectives *The 1975 Regional Plan for Ottawa­ *To promote public transportation. *To improve chaotic traffic, at low *Incorporation of transportation pol­ Carleton identified seven transportation cost, through adoption of techniques icy into a comprehensive urban strategy goals, of which two were environmental: Key Policy Elements of Plan common in northern European cities. to conserve basic resources by- One was a general policy statement, *Introduction of a monthly transport *To improve urban center traffic. ■ restricting the ownership and use of while the other dealt with through traffic pass allowing unlimited trips by public *To reduce regional disparities in private cars in residential neighborhoods. transportation, effectively integrating the transportation services. ■ improving public transportation metro, express metro and regular train *To improve general road safety, services. Key Policy Elements of Plan services. especially for pedestrians. *Establishment of parking fees ($20 *Introduction of a payroll tax (1.9 *To improve the quality of life in the Key Policy Elements of Plan to $24 [Canadian] per month for federal percent of salaries) paid by employers to central city and along the old streetcar *Introduction of "supplementary cor­ government employees, the largest user help finance public transportation. routes. don licensing" in the morning rush hour. group) . *Introduction of a network of re­ *Sharp increase in parking charges as *Introduction of flexible working served bus lanes to counter deterioration Key Policy Elements of Plan stay in the central city lengthens. hours for half of the central city in operating conditions for buses; taxis *Creation of a ring road by improving *Introduction of incentives for car employees. also favored as "high occupancy" the flow conditions on existing streets. pooling. *Doubling of bus service between vehicles. *Central traffic management: *Improvement in bus service. 1971 and 1976, and extension of service *Connection of express metro and ■ eight bus-only lanes *Imposition of tax disincentives for to poorly served residential areas. train system (under construction) . ■ three pedestrian zones, of which two act car ownership. *Establishment of express bus lanes as transit malls. (7 km) and other priority traffic General Results General Results measures. *Carte d'Orange fare system proved *Improvement of central city approach *The number of vehicles entering the *Diversion of through traffic away highly successful; number of passengers roads: central city in the morning rush period from residential areas. using system rose from 1,150,000 in ■ bus-only lanes has dropped 43 percent (for private *Approval of construction for only November 1976 to 1,350,000 in Novem­ ■ one-way streets with priority for transit cars, 70 percent). those new subdivisions that meet transit ber 1978. Bus use increased 36 percent ■ platooned access for buses to Don Luis *Car pools accounted for 53 percent requirements. (suburban bus use, 5 percent) . bridge. (Equal time division on one lane of all cars entering the restricted zone in *Bus regularity improved, but private for transit and private cars to permit the controlled time period in November General Results cars regularly violate the bus lanes. 180 buses and 1,200 cars per hour to 1978. *Between 1971 and 1976, the number *The transport payroll tax produced cross the bridge.) • Bus passengers increased; car­ of transit riders rose from 35.5 to 60.3 almost 2. 5 billion francs in 1977. owning households increased their use of million, while car travel to the central General Results buses for trips to work from 33 percent business district dropped. Specific Environmental Aspects *Traffic has increased 9 percent since to 43 percent. *The number of government employ­ *There has been little direct impact 1975, while commercial traffic speeds rose *Patterns established following the in­ ees using cars for driving to work thus far on the physical environment. The up to 50 percent. troduction of the scheme have remained dropped from 35 to 27 percent. image of public transportation, however, *On the most heavily traveled routes, remarkably stable. *Accidents fell significantly in residen­ has greatly improved, and promotion of traffic delays dropped by 500 to 700 pas­ *The rate of growth in car ownership tial neighborhoods following diversion public transportation appears to be a senger hours per peak hour. has slowed. schemes. prerequisite to further efforts to restrain • Pedestrian mobility and convenience *New suburban areas with better car traffic. in the central city improved. Specific Environmental Aspects transit plans were developed. *Further expansion of the traffic system • A reduction in the total volume of *The city saved money by avoiding in­ is likely, with user approval. central area traffic has given greater creased road construction and parking *Parking remains the most critical freedom to pedestrians, has improved capacity, while individuals saved vehicle transportation management issue. the city's appearance and safety and has operating costs. reduced air pollution in the morning Specific Environmental Aspects rush hour. Specific Environmental Aspects *Congestion has eased. *Peak-period car use dropped 15 *The traditional city center is now a percent. more congenial pedestrian meeting place. *Individuals had more travel options *No quantification of noise and other and became less dependent on their cars. pollution abatement has been made, but *Between 1973 and 1975, carbon improvement is expected. monoxide levels held constant at 13.16 parts per million, compared with an average measurement of 23 parts per million for other large North American cities. *Population increase in inner city be­ tween 1971 and 1976 suggests the neigh­ borhood traffic rerouting was successful.

44 TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT Chairman Observer Mr. David Bayliss Appendix: Lisi al Participants Dr. Krauss Greater London Council Wiesengrundstr. 31 County Hall Mr. W. Kentner Dip!. Ing. Franz Braun 8213 Aschau i. ch. London SE I 7PB lnstitut fiir Verkehrswissenschaft an der Universitiit Stadt Kolo Germany England zu Kolo Stadthaus, Gurzenichstrasse 4 Universitiitsstrasse 22 5000 Koln Australia Vice Chairmen 5000 Koln 41 Germany Mr. P. Hohnes M. Arthur Harmann Germany Transport Counsellor Directeur du Genie Civil du Departement des Travaux Herr Dip!. Ing. Eberhard Gerdum beim Senator fiir Australia House Publics Mr. Marvin Manheim Bau- und Wohnungswesen London 5, rue David Dufour Head, Department of Civil Engineering Berlin - Vil Fti A 3 England 1200Geneve Transportation Systems Division Wtirttenbergische Strasse 6-10 Switzerland Massachusetts Institute of Technology 1000 Berlin 31 Mr. F. Crawford Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 Ger many Commercial Counsellor Mr. Takeshi Mishima USA Permanent Delegation to the OECD Director Herr Brainer Goetzendorf 5, rue Leonard de Vinci Department of Traffic Safety Mr. Y. Oshima Oberregierungsrat 750 16 Paris Prime Minister's Office Mayor of Osaka City Bundesministerium fiir Raumordnung France Tokyo City Hall Bauwesen und Stiidtebau Japan Osaka Deichmanns Ave. Dr.). Bell Japan 53000 Bonn 2 Scientific & Environment Affairs Counsellor ~neral Rapporteur Germany Permanent Delegation to tlie OECD Mr. C. Kenneth Orski Mr. Muhittin Ozdirirn 5, rue Leonard de Vinci Vice President Chef du Departement de la Technologie Mr. W. Kentner 75016 Paris The German Marshall Fund of the United States Atettirk Bulvari 125/ 5 lnstitut fiir Verkehrswissenschaft an der Universitiit France 11 Dupont Circle, N.W. Arge zu Kolo Washington, D.C. 20036 Ankara Universitiitsst rasse 22 Austria USA Turkey 5000 Koln 41 Dipl.-lng. Peter Wunschmann Germany Stadtbaurat Presenters M. Alain Rathery MA 18 - Stadtstrukturplanung Mr. H. Baum Secretariat de la CEMT Herr Direktor Krull City of Vienna lnstitut fiir Verkehrswissenschaft an der Universitiit 2, rue Andre Pascal Erster. Betriebsleiter der Stadtwerke Austria zu Kiiln 75016 Paris Frankfurt/ Main Universitiitsstrasse 22 France Postfach 4269 Mag. Johann Schorsch 5000 Koln 41 6000 Frankfurt/ Main I Obermagistratsrat Germany Mr. A. P. Taylor Germany MA 22 - Unweltschutz Recherche Routiere, OCDE City of Vienna Mr. Terence Bendixson 2, rue Andre Pascal Dip!. Ing. R. Linde Austria 18, !field Road 75016 Paris c/ o ADAC London SWlO 9AA France Baumgartenerstr. 5.l Dipl.-lng. Dr. Oskar Bubbnik England 8 Mtinchen 70 Federal Ministry for Transport Mr. F. V. Webster Germany Vienna Mr. Bo Blide Transport and Road Research Laboratory Austria City of Gothenburg Crowthorne, Berkshire Herr Baudirektor Hans Joachim Meyer Box 2554 England Strassenbauamt der Stadt Dtisseldorf Belgium S-403 I 7 Gothenburg Postfach 1120 M. P. Forton Sweden Germany 4000 Dtisseldorf I Conseiller adjoint a.i. Mr. Dietrich Sperling Germany Secretariat General Mr. J. A. Bonsall Secretaire d'Etat Parlementaire au Ministere de 62, rue de la Loi Director of Planning l'Amenagement du Territoire, de la Construction Erster Baudirektor Rulf Runge I040 Bruxelles Ottawa-Carleton Region Transportation Commission et du Redeveloppement Urbain Behorde fiir lnneres der Stadt Hamburg Belgium 1500 St. Laurent Boulevard Membre du Parlement Johanniswall 4 Ottawa, Ontario Deichmannsaue 2000 Hamburg I M. H. Courtois Canada 53000 Bonn 2 Germany Directeur Germany Direction A 2 M. H. Courtois Herr Verwaltungsdirektor Wolf-Dieter Seidel Administration des Transports Direction A2 Herr Oberregierungsrat Walter Shoenball Baureferat Cantersteen 12 Administration des Transports Bundesministerium fiir Verkehr Blumenstrasse 28 b I000 Bruxelles Cantersteen 12 Postfach 8000 Munchen 2 Belgium 1000 Bruxelles 53000 Bonn I Germany Belgium Germany M. M. Leonard Herr Oberbaurat Erich Walter Administrateur - Directeur General M. Guilherme Ahneida Ferreira Mr. Paul Baron Landeshauptstadt Mtinchen S.UC. D.G.T. T. Universitiit Dortmund Baureferat, Tiefbauamt 28, Chausee de Namur 1459 R. Campo Alegre Verkehrswesen und Verkehrsplanung Blumenstrasse 28 b 6080 Montignies-sur-Sambre Porto Abteilung Raumplanung 8000 Munchen Belgium Italy August-Schmidt-Strasse 10 Germany 46 Dortmund-Eichlinghofen M. A. Lombart M. Jean-Raymond Fradin Germany Herr Rechtanwalt Dr. Rudiger Zuck Directeur du Service de !'Exploitation 1.A.U.R.l.F. Bundesverband des Deutschen S.T.l.B. 21-23, rue Miollis Mr. H. Baum Personenverhekrsgewerbes e.V. 15, Avenue de la Toison d'Or 75732 Paris lnstitut fiir Verkehrswissenschaft an der Universitiit Birkenwaldstrasse 149 1050 Bruxelles Cedex 15 zu Kolo 7000 Stuttgart Belgium France Universitiitsstrasse 22 Germany 5000 Koln 41 M. G. Plomteux M. Rolf Gradin Germany Mr. Klaus von Raussendorf Directeur Secretariat Combine pour l'Energie Conseiller Direction DI 2, rue Andre Pascal Herr Walter Bogner Affaires d'Energie, Transport et Environnement Administration des Transports 75016 Paris Verbandsdirektor Delegation permanente aupres de l'OCDE Cantersteen 12 France Gemeinde- und Stiidtebund 5, rue Leonard de Vinci 1000 Bruxelles Rheinland-pfalz 750 16 Paris Belgium Deutschhausplatz I France 65000 Mainz Germany

TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE UllBAN ENVIRONMENT 45 M. Rogissart Mr. Peter Stoehr Observer Mr. Calvin Grayson Conseiller Juridique principal adjoint Chef de Section M. Emilio Sanchez Secretary Direction Generale de la S.N.C.B. Justitsministeriet Directeur des Recherches Department of Transportation 85, rue de France Kobmagergade 48 INECO State of Kentucky 1070 Bruxelles Postbox 213 I Orense, 4 State House Belgium 1015 Copenhagen Madrid 20 Frankfort, Kentucky 40601 Denmark Spain USA Observer M. Rucquoy Mr. Peter Sylow United States Hon. Margaret T. Hance Controleur des Travaux Head of Department Hon . Neil Goldschmidt Mayor of Phoenix Ville de Charleroi The National Association of local Authorities in Denmark Secretary 25 1 West Washington Street Belgium Copenhagen U.S. Department of Transportation Phoenix, Arizona 85003 Denmark 400 7th Street, S.W. USA Canada Washington, D.C. 20590 Mr. Brian Sullivan Mr. Frits Larsen USA Hon. Ernest Morial Office of Executive Director Ministry of the Environment Mayor of New Orleans Transportation Services National Agency for Physical Planning Hon. Mortimer L. Downey 1300 Perdido Alberta Transportation Department 23 Holbergsgade Assistant Secretary of Transportation New Orleans, Louisiana 70112 Transportation Building DK-I057 Copenhagen K U.S. Department of Transportation USA 9630-106 Street Denmark 400 7th Street, S.W. Edmonton, Alberta Washington , D.C. 20590 Mrs . Jessie M. Rattley Canada Mr. Finn Tofte USA Council Member Ministry of the Environment 529 Ivy Avenue Mr. J. A. Bonsall National Agency for Physical Planning Mr. Ted Lutz Newport News, Virginia 23607 Director of Planning 23 Holbergsgade Administrator USA Onawa-Carleton Region Transportation Commission DK-I057 Copenhagen K Urban Mass Transportation Administration 1500 St. Laurent Boulevard Denmark U.S. Department of Transportation Mrs. Cathy Reynolds Onawa, Ontario 400 7th Street, S.W. Council Member Canada Spain Washington, D.C. 20590 451 City and County Building M. Victor Sanchez-Blanco USA Denver, Colorado 80202 Denmark Jefe de la Seccion de Informacion y Nuevas Tecnicas USA Mr. Edmund Hansen del Instituto de Estudios de Transportes y Mr. Alan Beals Ministry of the Environment Comunicaciones Executive Director Mr. Larry Salci National Agency for Physical Planning 25, Agustin de Benancourt National League of Cities General Manager 23 Holbergsgade Madrid 3 1620 Eye Street, N.W. Southeast Michigan Transportation Authority DK-105 7 Copenhagen K Spa]n Washington, D.C. 20006 660 Woodward Avenue (1st Nation al Bank Building) Denmark USA Detroit, Michigan 48226 M. Isidro Gonzales Costilla USA Civilingeni0r Gerl Visby Carlsen Director de Programas del Instituto de Estudios de Mr. Lawrence Dahms The Road Directorate Transportes y Cornunicaciones Commissioner Mr. B. R. Stokes Birker0d Road Construction Unit 25 , Agustin de Benancourt Metropolitan Transportation Commission Vice President Datavej 38 Madrid 3 Hotel Claremont American Public Transit Association 3460 Birker0d Spa] n Berkeley, c.alifornia 94 795 1100 17th Street, N.W. Denmark USA Washington, D.C. 20036 M. Jose Ramon Montes Gonzales USA Mr. )llrgen Haugaard Chef du Service d'Information et Diffusion de la Mr. Robert Dial Ingenieur Civil Direction Generale de !'Environnement Urban Mass Transportation Administration Mr. Ray Warner Vejdirektorat Ministere des Travaux Publics et de l'Urbanisme U.S. Department of Transportation DGA International Havnegade 23 400 7th Street, S.W. 1225 19th Street, N.W. 1016 Copenhagen K M. Jose Pinaglia Washington, D.C. 20590 Washington, D.C. 20036 Denmark Director de Programas del Instituto de Estudios de USA USA Transportes y Comunicaciones Mr. A. Haugens 25, Agustin de Benancourt Mr. Thomas Downs Professor Donald Appleyard Byplanchef Madrid 3 Associate Administrator for Planning Institute of Urban and Regional Development K0benhavns Kommune Spa]n Federal Highway Administration University of c.alifornia Radhuset U.S. Department of Transportation Berkeley, c.alifornia 94 720 1570 Copenhagen V M. Jose Ma Platero 400 7th Street, S.W. USA Denmark Jefe de la Seccion de Estructuras y Normas Tecnicas Washington, D.C. 20590 de la Direccion General de Infraestructuras USA Mr. K. Bhan Mr. Uffe Jacobsen Ministerio de Transportes y Comunicaciones The Urban Institute Economic Adviser 25 , Agustin de Benancourt Mr. John Dyer 2 IOO M Street, N.W. Ministry of Public Works Madrid 3 County Administrator Washington, D.C. 20037 Planning Department Spain Metropolitan/ Dade County Transit Authority USA Mellemleddet 7 911 Courthouse DK-2500 Valby M. Juan Claudio de Ramon Miami , Florida 33130 Mr. Richard Bradiey Denmark Delegado de Ohras y Servicios Urbanismo del USA Executive Director Ayuntamiento de Madrid Greater Bridgeport Transit District Mr. Leif Larsen Plaza de la Villa, 4 Miss Diane G. Enos Bridgeport Transportation Center Chef de Division Madrid Manager, Special Projects Bridgeport, Connecticut 06604 Ministeriel for offentlige arbejder Spa]n Office of Public Affairs USA Frederiksholms Kanai 27 Urban Mass Transportation Administration 1220 Copenhagen K M. Javier Valero U.S. Department of Transportation Mr. Norman Emerson Denmark Jefe del Departamento de Estudios y Proyectos del 400 7th Street, S.W. Regional Representative to the Secretary Metropolitano de Madrid Washington, D.C. 20590 U.S. Department of Transportation Mr. Kaj de Mylius Cavanilles, 58 USA 2 Embarcadero Center Civilingeni0r Madrid San Francisco, California 94 II I Skoldsgade 9 Spain Mr. Ron Fisher USA 2100 Copenhagen (J Director Denmark M. Jose Luis Zubieta Office of Service and Methods Demonstration Mr. David Gurin Ingeniero del Departamento de Estudios y Proyectos Urban Mass Transportation Administration Deputy Commissioner del Metropolitano de Madrid U.S. Department of Transportation New York City Department of Transportation Cavanilles, 58 400 7th Street, S.W. 151 Chambers Street Madrid Washington, D.C. 20590 New York, New York !0007 Spain USA USA

46 TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT Mr. Gary Hawthorn M. Juss i Kauno France M. Josse Transportat ion Poli cy Branch Planning Arc hitect M. Jean Cos1e1 Syndical des Transports Parisiens Transportation and ui nd Use Poli cy Ollice Town of Vanlaa Direc1eur GeneraJ des Transports JntCrieurs 9, avenue de Vill ars Off ice of Air, Noise and Rad iation Lummepolku 6 B l44. boulevard Sai nt Ger main 75007 Par is U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 01300 Vantaa 7500:- Paris France Washington, D.C. 20460 Finl and France USA M. Loui s- Michel Sanche Mr. Seppo Kesti M. Claude Gressier Ingenieur Charge des Acti ons Techniques Mr. Joel Horowit z Office Engi neer CETU R In1ernationaJes Department of Civil Engineering Town of Kuopio 8, avenue Aristide Briand Direction des Affaires Econom iques et Massac husetLs Institute of Technology Vuori Karn 27 A 9 22 20 Bagneux lntern ationaJes Cam bridge , Massachusetts 02 139 70 100 Kuopio 10 France 75007 Paris USA Finland France M. Michel Arrou-Vignod Mrs. Emily Lloyd M. Pekka Kontu Inspecteur Ge neral de l'Equi pement M. Stuyck-TaiUandier Commission er of Traffic and Parking Chairman of Cit y Co uncil Oirecteur du Centre de Rec herche d'Urbanisme Ministere des Affai res Etrangeres City HaU Town of Espoo 74, ru e de la Federation .\ 7, quai d'Orsay Boston, Massachusetts 02201 Kaupungint alo 7501 5 Paris 75007 Par is USA Espoon katu 5 France France 02770 Espoo 77 Professo r M. Manheim Finland M. Alai n Bieber Observers Head, Transpo rtation Systems Division I.RT Mme. Bacquier Departm ent of Civil Engineering Mr. Hans Korsback 2, ave nue du Ge neral MaUeret-Joinvill e Ministere de !'Environn ement el du Cadre de Vie Massachusetts Institute of Technology Deput y Mayor B.P. 28 34, rue de Ia Feder ati on Cambridge, Massachusetts 02 l.l 9 Tow n of Espoo 94 I 14 Arc ueil 75015 Paris USA 02 770 Espoo 77 France France Finland Mr. Neal Peirce M. Alain llonnafous Mm e. Deak c/ o National Journal Mr. Mauri MyUylii Professeur des Sciences Economiques a J'Ins1i1u1 de Mi nistf re de I 'Environnement et du Cadre de Vie 1730 MS treet, N.W Traffic Engineer Lyon II 34, rue de la Federation Washi ng ton, D.C 20036 Town of Oulu Ins1i1u1 des E1udes Economiques 750 15 Paris USA Pakkahuoneenkatu 22 B 16, quai Ciaude Bernard France 90 100 Oulu 10 69007 Lyon Professor Daniel Roos Finland France MUe. Jardi n Director Ministere de l'Environnement et du Cadre de Vie Center fo r Transportati on Studies Mr. Erkki Nieminen M. Bru .l4, rue de Ia Federation Massachusetts Institute of Technology Deput y Director lnge nieur charge des Problemes de bruit et de 75015 Paris Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 Board of Administ ration of Finnish Railways pollution des source mobiles France USA c/ o Ministere des Communications Ministere de L' Envi ronn emenl et du Cadre de Vie Aleksanterinkatu 3 D 14. boulevard du General Lec lerc M. uipeyre Mr. Howard Slavi n SF-00 170 Helsinki 17 92521 Neuillv Les Droils du Pieton Chief, Evaluation Branch Finl and France .l 1, ru e d'Enghien U.S. Department of Transportation 75010 Paris Transportation Systems Center Mr. Juhani Paajanen M. Thierry Cham bolle France KendaU Square Programming Engineer Directeur de la Preventi on des Po llu tions Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142 Town of Va nl aa Mi nistere de l'Environnemenl et du Cadre de Vie Mme. Muhlrad USA Niinii jii nku ja 2 B 14, boulevard du General Leclerc ONSER 01660 Vantaa 66 92 521 NeuiUy 2, aven ue du General MaUe ret-Joi nville Mr. James L. SuUiva n Finland France 94 I 10 Arcueil City Manager France Cit y Hall Mr. Erkki Rajala M. Ernst 795 Mass. Ave. Traffi c En gineer R.A.T.P. M. Jean-Philippe Pill et Cambridge, Massachusetts Town of Pori 53 ter, quai des Grands Augusti ns Age nce pour les Economies d'Energie USA Po ri n Kaupungin Rakennusvirastu 75006 Paris 39, rue Cambronne Ant inkatu 15 France 75737 Paris Mrs . Bene TreadweU Pori 10 Cedex 15 Special Assistant 10 the Executive Director Finland ~I. Fi cheur France Nati onal League of Cities Directeur du Metro de LiUe 1620 Eye Street , N.W. Mr. Hcikki Salo EPALE - Service Metro Greece Washington, D.C 20006 Deputy Director PC ricent re M. Giann opo uJ os USA Board for Local Coordination of Metropolitan Area rue Van Gogh Professor of Transportation Planni ng in the Sii hkoniijankatu 1 59650 ViUeneuve d'Asca Universit y of Saloni ca Finland 00520 Helsi nki 52 Fr ance Salo nica Mr. A. Aarval a Finland Greece Ministry of Communication M. Jea n-Raymond Fradin Department of Trallic Planning Mr. Marni Tieaho I.A.U. R.I.F. M. Nicholas E. Damas P.B. 235 Member of City Council 21-23, rue MioUis Executive Vice President 00 131 Helsinki 13 Town of Es poo 75732 Paris OAS Finland Kaupungintalo Cedex 15 Athens Area Urban Transpo rt Organi,.alion Espoonkatu 5 France Athenes Mr. Seppo Heinii nen 02 770 Espoo 77 Greece Deputy Mayor Finla nd M. Girardot Town of Va ntaa Administrateur Civil M. John RizomiLiotis Kuki ntie 8 A Mr. Erkki Tuomioja Direction des Routes et de la Circulati on Routif re Civil Engineer 01620 Va ntaa 62 Deputy Mayor 208, rue Raymon d Losserand Mi nistry of Communications Finland City of Helsinki 75014 Paris 13 Xenophontos Street City Hall Fr ance Athenes (11 8) M. Seppo Hirvonen Pohj oises pl anadi , 11 -13 Greece Chief Engineer 001 70 Helsinki 17 M. Hue Ministry of the Interior Finland lnge nieur des Ponts et Chausseee M. Tzitzis El. Esplanadi 10 Chef du Departeme nt Transports Urbains du Ce nt re Delegation de Grece pres l'OCDE 601 30 Helsi nki 13 d'Etudes Tec hniques de l'Equip('ment (CET) de Rouen 15. villa Said Finland Chemin de la Poudriere 750 16 Par is 76120 Grand QueviUy Fr ance France

TRANSPORTATION AND TifE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 47 Ireland M. Toshihide Miwa M. Fukumoto M. Johan Filseth Mr. D. O'Mahony Director Keiso Manufacturing Co. Ltd . Ministry of Communications Head of Planning Unit Department of City Planning Postboks 80 IO Dep. Department of Tourism and Transport Comprehensive Planning Bureau M. Hamanokami Oslo I Kildare Street Osaka Municipal Government Public Corporation for the Urban Expressways in Norway Dublin 2 Osaka National Capital Region Ireland Japan Tokyo M. Fl0 Japan Secretar y of the Storting* Mr. T. Power M. Tatsuhiko Miyazaki Standing Committee on Local Government and Secretary Deputy Director M. Haruya llirooka Environment Transport Consu ltative Commission Regional Planning Division Professor of Transport Economics at Hosei University Hoxtvedtueien, 28 Hume House Minister's Secretariat 8 Tomihisa-cho, Shinjuku-ku 1430 A.s Ballsbridge Ministry of Transport Tokyo Norway Dublin 4 Tokyo Japan Ireland Japan M. T. E. Granquist M. Kanai Transport0konomisk lnstitull Mr. D. de Buitleir M. Keisuke Morita Nippon Dry Distillation Co . Ltd. Postboks 6 I IO - Euerstad Principal Officer Department of Coordination 6-13 Tsukijimachi Nishiku Oslo 6 Department of Economic Planning and Development Comprehensive Planning Bureau Yahata Kitakyusiu City Norway Upper Merrion Street Osaka Municipal Government Japan Dublin 2 Osaka M. G. Gravdal Ireland Japan Mrs. Kaneda Mayor Association of Mothers for Traffic Safety in Saitama Baerum Municipalit y Italy M. Michio Nakano Prefecture Baerum Radhus M. le Professeur Gilberto Creco Department of Environment 1300 Sandvika Ministero dei Trasporti Environment and Health Bureau M. Kenzo Mori Norway Piazza della Croce Rossa, I Osaka Municipal Government Manager, Electrical & Mechanical Products Division 001 61 Rome Osaka l00 Maeda-Oho, Totsuka-ku MT. Gr0nli Italy Japan Yokohama Ministry of Communications Japan Postboks 80IO Dep. M. Mario Canevelli H. lliroako Ogawa Oslo I lngenieur City Planning Division M. Otsuka Norway Ministero dei Trasporti City Bureau Sumitomo 3M Co. Ltd . Piazza della Croce Rossa, I Ministry of Construction Sales and Marketing Manager M T. Gystad 00161 Rome Tokyo 1-12 Utsukushigaoka, Midoriku Member of the Storting' Italy Japan Yokohama Stortinget Japan Karl Johansg. 2 2 Observer M. Yasuhi Oshima Oslo I M. G. Caron Mayor of Osaka M. Shindo Norway Relazioni Esterne 1-3-20 Nakanoshima, Kita-ku Sumitomo Electric Industry Co. Ltd . FIAT Osaka 1-5-4 Kurihira, Tama-ku M. T. Haug Corso G. Maueotti 26 Japan Kawasaki 215 City of Oslo l0121 Torino Japan Kommunikasjonsradmannen Italy M. Kazuo Ota Oslo Kommune Director M. Shirai Oslo I Japan Mayor's Office Nippon Signal Co. Ltd . Norway M. Takeshi Mishima Osaka Municipal Government Director Osaka M. Takada M. Jervell-Peuersen Department of Traffic Safety Japan Tateishi Denki Co. Ltd. Hardaland fylkeskommune Prime Minister's Office 895-4 7, Tomioka-cho, Kanayawa-ku Plan- og utbyggingsavdelingen Tokyo M. Seigo Sakaki Yokohama 5000 Bergen Japan Road Administration Division Japan Norway Road Bureau M. Hironori Hamanaka Ministry of Construction M. Yamazaki M. S. Johnsen First Secretary Tokyo Public Corporation for the Urban Expressways in Member of the Storting' Permanent Delegation to the OECD Japan Hanshin Region Stortinget 5, rue Leonard de Vinci Karl Johansg. 22 750 16 Paris M. Masaichi Shiba Luxembourg Oslo I France Assistant Director M. Georges Simon Norway Administrative Coordination Division 38, boulevard de la Foire M. Junko Hamanoue Minister's Secretariat Luxembourg M. J. Kielland 1-36 Takinoi 3-Chome Funavashi Ministry of Construction State Pollution Control Authority City Ciba-Ken Tokyo Norway Postboks 8100 Dep. Japan Japan Mrs . 0. Pettersen Oslo I Member of the Stoning' Norway M. Hiroshi Inoue M. Sukeaki Tatsuichi Stortinget Chief by Rector of Japan Director Karl Johansg. 22 Mrs. R. Krosshavn Transport Economics Research Center General Affairs Division Oslo I Ministry of Environment 1-3-6 Toranomon , Minato-ku General Affairs Bureau Norway Postboks 8013 Tokyo Municipal Government of Fukuoka Oslo I Japan Fukuoka M. Aksnes Norway Japan Civil Engineer M. Yuzo Iseki Public Roads Administration M. T. D. Lien Mayor 's Office M. lliromichi Toya Postboks 8109 Dep. Counsellor Osaka Municipal Government First Secretary Oslo I Ministry of Communications Osaka Permanent Delegation to the OECD Norway Postboks 80IO Dep. Japan 5, rue Leonard de Vinci Oslo I 750 16 Paris M. Bj0rvig Norway M. Tasuo Matsutomi France Public Roads Administration Department of Traffic Safety Postboks 8109 Dep. M. C. F. Lowzow Prime Minister's Office Observers Oslo I Member of the Storting' Tokyo M. Endo Norway Stortinget Japan Matsushita Communication Industry Co Ltd . Karl Johansg. 22 Oslo I •Parliament of Norway Norway

48 TRANSPORTATION AND 111E URBAN ENVIRONMENT M. Mellbye M. Bill Williams Portugal Thames House South Public Roads Administ ration City Planner M. A. C. Carneiro Aires Millbank Postboks 8109 Dep. Christchurch City Council Directeur General des Transports Terrestres London SWI Oslo I New Zealand D.G.T.T. England Norway 40 Avenida das For~as Armadas Netherlands Lisbonne M. D. Glassborow Mrs. S. Moe Dr. F. Van Dam Portugal Chairman, Economic and Research Committee Ministry of Communications Ministry of Transport , Waterwa)~ and Confederation of British Road Passenger Transport Postboks 8010 Dep. Communications M. Guilherme Almeida Ferreira Sardinia House Oslo I Passenger Transport Directorate D.G.T.T. 52 , Lincolns Inn Fields Norway Plesmanweg 1-6 Campo Alegre, 1459-1° London WC2 The Hag ue Porto England M. Gustav Nielsen Netherlands Portugal Transport0konomisk lnstitutt Mrs . E. Hitchins Postboks 6 I IO - Etterstad M. J. N. Groeneveld M. J. F. Moutinho Correia Local Transportation and Roads Oslo 6 Municipalit y of Rotterdam D.G.U. Department of Transport Norway Coulsingel 40 Campo Alegre, 1459- 1° 2, Marsharn Street Rotterdam Porto London SWI M. L. K. Odegird Netherlands Portugal England Secretary of Transport Committee Stortinget Drs. H. P. Heeger M. Mario Paiva M. S. P. Kerridge Karl Johansg. 22 Ministry of Housing and Physical Planning Technicien du Service des Transports Collectifs de la Economist Oslo I Urban Structure Division ville de Porto Confederation of British Road Passenger Transport Norway Willem Witsenplein 6 Rua S. Joaa de Brito- 38- 1° Esp. Sardinia House The Hague 4100 Porto 52, Lincolns Inn Fields M. Pr0esch Netherlands Portugal London WC2 Transport0konomisk lnstitutt England Grenseu 86 Drs. C. L. A Heij ster M. A. C. Quaresma Oslo 6 Minist ry of Transport, Waterwa)~ and D.G.T.T. Mrs. L. Leech Obe Norway Communications 40 Avenida das For~as Armadas c/ o Association of Metropolitan Authorities Road Safety Directorate Lisbonne 36, Old Queen Street M. M. R0ed Kanaalweg 3 Portugal London SW I Ministry of Environment The Hague England Postboks 8013 Netherlands W. & J. Rapp S.A . Oslo I Hochstrasse 100 Professor May Norway M. Hoogema Ch-4018 Bale University of Leeds Municipality of Groningen Switzerland Leeds M. Sanderud Traffic Division England Municipal Administrator Gro ningen Observers City of Drammen Netherlands M . Jacques Vuille M. I. Phillips Drammen !Udhus D.G.T.T. Group Planning Director 3000 Drammen Drs. A. P. Mes ker Campo Alegre, 1459-1° London Transport Executive Norway Ministry of Transport and Public Works Porto 55, Broadway Passe nger Transport Directorate Portugal London SWI Mrs. I. L. Skarstei n Plesmanweg 1-6 England Member of the Starting• The Hague M. Freddy Wittwer Stortinget Netherlands D.G.T.T. M. D. Pickering Karl Johansg. 22 Campo Alegre , 1459- 1° Jamieson Mackay and Partners Oslo I Ir. Ossewaarde Porto 3, Mandeville Place Norway Director Municipal Transport Portugal Wigmore Street Company of Amsterdam London SWI M. R. Udjus Stadhouderskade I United Kingdom England Member of the Starting• Amsterdam M. A. J. Fairclough Stortinget Netherlands International Transport Directorate Councillor D. F. Silverman Karl Johansg. 22 Department of Transport Association of Metropolitan Authorities Oslo I Ir. W. Schoonderbeek 2, Marsham Street 36, Old Queen Street Norway Ministry of Health and Environment Protection London SWI London SWI Section Noise England England *Parliament of Norway v.d. Stamstraat l Leidschendam M. David Bayliss M. Webster New Zealand Netherlands Greater London Council Transport and Road Research Laboratory M. W. J. Wendelken County Hall Crowthorne, Berkshire Deputy Secretary Ir. J. P. Van Klaveren London SE I 7PB England . Commission for the Environment Ministry of Transport and Public Works England Wellington International Transport Policy Directorate M. J.B. Wilson New Zealand Ples manweg 1-6 M. Terrence Bendixson Superintending Planner The Hague 18, Ifield Road Inner Cities Directorate M. R. H. Carey Netherlands London SWIO 9AA Department of the Environment Deputy Permanent Representative England 2, Marsham Street Permanent Delegation to the OECD M. Wallage London SWI 5, rue Leonard de Vinci Deput y Mayor/ Alderman for traflic M. R. Bird England 75016 Paris Hofst raat 6A Association of Metropolitan Authorities France Groningen 36, Old Queen Street Observer Netherlands London SWI M. Michael Thomson M A E A Gollin England Kentchurch Old Rectory Economics Division Ir. B. Westerduin Hereford HR2 ODA Ministry of Transport Traffic & Transportation Division M. J. C. Collier England Wellington National Waterways and Communications Local Transportation and Roads New Zealand Komingskade 4 Department of Transport Sweden The Hague 2, Marsham Street M. Claus Eric Norrbom M. N. Grigg Netherlands London SWI Deputy Leader Secretary of State City Engineer England Ministry of Transport & Communications Lower Hutt City Council Mlle. de Winkel Fack New Zealand Delegation Permanente Dr. M. A. Eggington S- I03 20 Stockholm 5, rue Leonard de Vinci Department of Energy Sweden 75016 Paris France TRANSPORTATION AND TIIE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 49 M. Birger Astrom M. J. L. Kolb Ivory Coast Dr. Tongchat-Hongladaromp Ministry of Housing Architecte Urbaniste M. Arnaud General Manager Box 16398 Senice d·urbanisms Directeur des Services Techniques Expressway and Rapid Transit Authorit y S- I03 27 Stockholm Direction des Travaux Municipaux de la ville d.Abidjan Bangkok Sweden Beausejour 8 Abidjan Thailand Lausanne Ivory Coast M. Bo Blide Switzerland Dr. A. Diekm ann City of Gothenburg International Organizations President du Comite MI'S Box 2554 M. Marc Levy B.P.I.C. A. S-403 17 Gothenburg Municipal C.E.C. 4, rue de Berri Sweden Oirec1ion des Travaux M Mulcahy 75008 Paris 1006 Lausanne Directorate General for Transport France M. Jan Karlsson Switzerland 200, rue de la Loi Environmen1 Protecti on Administration !040 Bruxelles M. J L. Vlach Fack M. Nicolas Mayor Belgium President du Sous-Comite. ·· Ve hicules UtiLitai res·· du S- 171 20 Solna lnstitut Technique des Transports Comite MVS Sweden Ecole Polytechnique Federate de Lausanne E.C.E. 2, rue de Presbourg CH-1006 Lausanne M. K. Leonhardt 75008 Paris M. Bo Kohlmark Switzerland Division de !'Environnement et de rHabitat France City of Stoc kholm Palais des Nations Gatukontoret M. Martin Rotach CH-1211 Geneve IO M. D K Willis Fack Professeur Switzerland Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association of the S- I04 20 Stockholm lnstitut ftir Verkehrsplanung und Transporttechnik United States, Inc. Sweden ETH - Honggerberg M. M. Bernhard 1909 K Street, N.W. CH-8093 Zurich Econ omic Affairs Officer Washington , D.C. 20006 M. Lennart Loo[ Switzerland Division des Trans por ts USA Deputy Mayor Palais des Nations City Hall M. Rudein CH-1211 Geneve JO M. M. Marmy I0 5-35 Stockholm Delegati on permanente aupres de l'OCDE Switzerland Affaires Techni<1ues Sweden 5, rue Leonard de Vinci LR. U. 75016 Paris Council of Europe I. rue de Warembe M. Lars Lunding France Mlle. Brianzoni B. P. 44 Cit y of Sundsvall Bureau de Paris du Conseil de !'Europe 1211 Geneve lO 85 1 85 Sundsvall I M. W. Stohler 55, avenue Kleber Switzerland Sweden lngf nieur bureau 75784 Paris W. J Rapp S.A. Cedex 16 I.U.L.A. M. S. Ake Norling Hoc hstrasse JOO France M. j. G. Van Putten Deputy Mayor CH 4018 Bale Secretairc General City of Gothenburg Switzerland World Bank 45, Wasscnaarseweg Box 2554 M. Harold B. Dunkerley 2596 CG - La Haye S-403 17 Gothenburg Turkey Senior Adviser Netherlands Sweden M. Zafer Besiroglu Urban Projects Departm ent Economist 1818 H Street, N.W. U.1.'IP. M. Bjorn Refsnes Head of International Transportat ion Section Washington , D.C. 20435 M. Andre J. Jacobs City of Gothenburg Ministry of Transport USA Secretaire Ge neral Box 255 4 Ulastirma Bakanugi 19, avenue de l' Vruguav S-403 17 Gothenburg Kara Ulatirmasi gene! Miidiirlugii M. Peter Watson !050 BruxeUes Sweden Ankara Urban Projects Department Belgium Turkey 1818 H Street, N.W. M. Karl -Otto Sicking Washington , D.C. 204.l.l Staff of the Organization for Economic Technical Director M. Ciineyt Elker USA Coordination and Development National Road Administration Senior Transportation Planner OECD Fack Ministr y of Reconstruction and Resetdemcnt U.N.E.P. 2, rue Andre Pascal S- I02 30 Stockholm Yti ksel Caddesi, 23 Katz Mr. Maurice C1 avel 75775 Paris Sweden Ankara Senior Con sultant for Motor Vehicles Cedex 16 Turkey 17, rue Marguerite Paris Switzerland 750 17 Paris France M. Arthur Harm ann M. Muhitt in Ozdirim France Directeur du Ge nie Civil du Departement des Travaux Chef du Departement de la Technologie OECD Secretariat Publi cs Atatii rk Bulvar i 125/ 5 Mr. John Haines M. Gerard Eldin, Sec retaire Ge neral Adj oint 5, rue David Dufour Arge Programme Management Officer \1. Herbert Lahner, Administrateur Principal 1200 Geneve Ankara Industry and Environm ent Office Switzerland Turkey 17, rue Marguerite Environment Directorate 75017 Paris M. Jim MacNeill , Directeur M J M. Boulgaris Yugoslavia France M. Gabriel Scimemi, Directeur Adjoint Co nseiller M. Zyonimir Bauer M. Jorg Kuhnemann , Chef de la Division Urbaine Delegation permanente aupres de l'OCDE Chef de Division Mr. Rafael Oely M. Ariel Alexandre, Administrateur Principal 5, rue Leonard de Vinci Planifi cation des Transports Architect M. Christian Avernus , Admi nistrateur 7501 6 Paris Institute of Transport Sciences Cit y of Curitiba Mlle. E. L. Macfarlane, Admi nistrateur France Gruika 2l Rua Brigaderio Franco, 1877 Zagreb Apt - 71 ECMT Secretariat M. Ketterer Yugos lavia Curitiba (80.000) Panama M. Georges Billet, Secretaire General Conseiller administrat if de la ville de Geneve Brazi l M. Gerhard Aurbach, Chef de Division Hotel Municipal M. Plavsic M. Arthur Oe Waele, Chef de Division Ge neve Zavod za izgraduju Grada Mr. Rafael Pozas-Garza M. Fernando Esteban Alonso, Administrateur Principal Switzerland Ul . R. Lakic Br. 3 Scientific Anache M. Alain Rathery, Administrateur Sarajevo Mexican Embassy M. Raoul Kohler Yugoslavia Represe nting Mayor of Cit y of Mexico Road Research Cooperation Program Conseiller National Mexico Mme. Jeannette Turgel, Chef de Division Conseiller Municipal de la ville de Bienne M. Rozga M. Burkhard Horn , Administrateur Principal 3 5, rue du Faucon Zavod za Planiranje Razvoja Grada Mr. Walmor Letzow M. C. A. Morin CH-2 500 Bienne Saraj evo jva 24 Cit y of Curitiba Switzerland Yugoslavia Brazi l Consultants, Environment Directorate M. M. Brian Pearce M. Christopher Kissling

50 TRANSPORTATION AND 11IE URBAN ENVIRONMENT