Bibliography

Primary Sources Persons Interviewed Ghader, 35/Male, Arab, university lecturer, ethnic activist. Interviewed in , by the author. Abdullah, 40/Male, Arab, PhD student, ethnic activist. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Majedeh, 30/Female, Arab, university student, ethnic activist. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Hoda, 25/Female, Arab, university student, law student. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Suzy, 26/Female, Arab, university student, law student. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Saeed, 47/Male, Arab, university lecturer, PhD in economics. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Reza, 27/Male, Arab, clerk, university graduate. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Ziba, 24/Female, Arab, university student, mixed ethnic parents. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Sara, 22/Female, Arab, university student, blogger. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Soad, 21/Female, Arab, university student, blogger. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Hadis, 17/Female, Arab, high school student. interviewed in Iran, by the author. Inas, 16/Female, Arab, high school student. interviewed in Iran, by the author. Neda, 27/Female, Arab, university graduate, social activist. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Yahya, 48/Male, Arab, social activist, tribal leader, secretary of former defense ministry. Interviewed in Iran, in Arabic and Persian, by the author. Kazim, 44/Male, Arab, college student, ethnic activist. Interviewed in Denmark, by the author. Yaghob, 29/Male, Arab, college student, ethnic activist. Interviewed in Denmark, by the author. Mehry, 26/Female, Arab, college student, ethnic activist. Interviewed in Denmark, by the author. Mohammad, 46/Male, Arab, self- employed, ethnic activist. Interviewed in the UK, by the author. 172 O Bibliography

Parvaneh, 60/Female, Azeri, former university lecturer, social researcher. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Ehteshami, 48/Male, Azeri, judiciary office clerk, PhD, university lecturer. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Mujtaba, 38/Male, Azeri, university lecturer, PhD. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Azita, 24/Female, Azeri, university student, ethnic activist. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Ali, 38/Male, Azeri, university lecturer in the UK, PhD. Interviewed in the UK, by the author. Ghazale, 21/Female, Azeri, university student. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Shams, 45/Male, Kurd, self- employed, Sunni religion. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Naser, 33/Male, Turkmen, self- employed, Sunni religion. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Fatemeh, 30/Female, Lur, bank clerk. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Najaf, 42/Male, Lur, university researcher, PhD. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Eghbal, 47/Male, Baluch, deputy of Iran’s Open University, PhD. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Keddi, 30/Female, Persian, self-employed, Ismailia religion. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Sina, 52/Male, Persian, psychologist, Baha’i religion, Former prisoner in Iran. Inter- viewed in the UK, by the author. Keywan, 38/Male, Persian, university lecturer, PhD. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Kian, 22/Male, Persian, university student. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Mehdi, 22/Male, Persian, university student. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Hamed, 36/Male, Persian, lawyer, journalist. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Javad, 33/Male, Persian, clerk. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Leyla, 28/Female, Persian, teacher. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Mahtab, 26/Female, Persian, university student. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Mansour, 46/Male, Persian, artist, former political prisoner. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Majid, 25/Male, Persian, self- employed. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Maryam, 24/Female, Persian, pool lifeguard. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Mehrad, 35/Male, Persian, computer technician. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Mohsen, 28/Male, Persian, clerk. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Siamak, 25/Male, Persian, soldier. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Ahmad, 29/Male, Persian, cleric. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Hasan, 28/Male, Persian, cleric. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Sajad, 31/Male, Persian, cleric. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Sadegh, 36/Male, Persian, cleric. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Hashim, 23/Male, Persian, university student. Interviewed in Iran, by the author. Babak, 24/Male, Persian, university student. Interviewed in the UK, by the author. Tima, 26/Female, Persian, university student. Interviewed in the UK, by the author. Vahideh, 27/Female, Persian, PhD student. Interviewed in the UK, by the author. Zahra, 32/Female, Persian, PhD student. Interviewed in the UK, by the author. Bibliography O 173

Secondary Sources Books In English Abrahamian, Ervand. Radical Islam: The Iranian Mojahedin. London: I. B. Tauris, 1989. ———. A History of Modern Iran. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. ———. Khomeinism, Essays on the Islamic Republic. London: I. B. Tauris, 1993. ———. Iran between Two Revolutions. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982. Adib- Moghadam, Arshin. Iran in World Politics: The Question of the Islamic Republic. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008. Afkhami, Gholam R. The : Thanatos on a National Scale. Washington, DC: Middle East Institute, 1985. Afrasiabi, K. L. After Khomeini: New Directions in Iran’s Foreign Policy. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1994. Afshar, Haleh. Iran: A Revolution in Turmoil. London: Macmillan, 1985. Akhavi, Shahrough. Religion and Politics in Contemporary Iran: Clergy- State Relations in the Pahlavi Period. New York: State University of New York Press, 1980. Alavi, Nasrin. We Are Iran. London: Portobello Books, 2005. Alter, Peter. Nationalism. London: Edward Arnold, 1994. Amirahmadi, Hooshang, and Manoucher Parvin. Post Revolutionary Iran. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1988. Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso, 1991. Ansari, Ali M. Confronting Iran. London: Hurst, 2006. ———. Iran under Ahmadinejad. London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 2007. ———. Modern Iran since 1921. London: Pearson Education, 2003. Arjomand, Said Amir, ed. FromNationalism to Revolutionary Islam: Essays on Social Move- ments in the Contemporary Near and Middle East. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984. Asgharzadeh, Alireza. Iran and the Challenge of Diversity, Islamic Fundamentalism, Ary- anist Racism, and Democratic Struggles. New York: Palgrave, 2007. Avery, Peter, Gavin Hambly, and Charles Melville, eds., The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 7. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991. Baldwin, A. David, ed. Neorealism and Neoliberalism: The Contemporary Debate. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993. Bashiriyeh, Hossein. The State and Revolution in Iran, 1962– 1982. New York: St. Mar- tin’s Press, 1984. Banuazizi, Ali, and Myron Weiner, eds. The State, Religion, and Ethnic Politics: Afghani- stan, Iran, and . Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1986. Beck, Lois. The Qashqai of Iran. London: Yale University Press, 1986. Benhabib, Seyla, Ian Shapiro, and Danilo Petranovic, eds., Identities, Affiliations, and Allegiances. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 2007. 174 O Bibliography

Berman, Ilan. Rising, Iran’s Challenge to the . Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. Bilgin, Pinar. Regional Security in the Middle East: A Critical Perspective. London: Rout- ledge Curzon, 2005. Bill, James, A. Musaddiq, Iranian Nationalism and Oil. London: I. B. Tauris, 1988. Binder, Leonard. Iran, Political Development in a Changing Society. : Univer- sity of Press, 1962. Boroujerdi, Mehrzad. Iranian Intellectuals and the West. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1996. Brown, Chris. Understanding International Relations. London: Macmillan, 1997. Brown, Michael E., ed. Ethnic Conflict and International Security. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993. ———. The International Dimensions of Internal Conflict. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996. Brown, Michael E., R. Cote Jr., M. Sean Lynn-Jones, and Miller E. Steven, eds. Nation- alism and Ethnic Conflicts. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001. Burchill, Scott, Andrew Linklater, Richard Devetak, Jack Donnelly, Mathew Paterson, Christian Reus-Smit, and Jacqui True. Theories of International Relations. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005. Buzan, Barry. The United States and the Great Powers. World Politics in the Twenty- First Century. Cambridge: Polity, 2004. Buzan, Barry, and Ole Wæver. Regions and Powers. The Structure of International Security. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ———. An Introduction to Strategic Studies. Military, Technology & International Rela- tions. London: Macmillan, 1991. Buzan, Barry, Ole Wæver, and J. De Wilde. Security: A New Framework for Analysis. London: Lynne Rienner, 1998. ———. People, States and Fear: An Agenda for International Security Studies in the Post- Cold War Era. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991. Buzan, Barry, C. Jones, and Richard Little. The Logic of Anarchy: Neorealism to Structural Realism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993. Byman, Daniel, Shahram Chubin, Anoushiravan Ehteshami, and Jerrold Green, ed. Iran’s Security Policy in the Post-Revolutionary Era. Santa Monica, CA: National Defense Research Institute Rand Corporation, 2001. Chubin, Shahram, and Charles Tripp. Iran-Saudi Arabia Relations and Regional Order. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996. ———. Whither Iran? Reform, Domestic Politics and National Security. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Chubin, Shahram, and Sepehr Zabih. The Foreign Relations of Iran: A Developing State in a Zone of Great- Power Conflict. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974. Cohen, Robin, and Paul Kennedy. Global Sociology. London: Macmillan, 2000. Collins, Alan, ed. Contemporary Security Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Connor, Walker. Ethnonationalism; the Quest for Understanding. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994. Bibliography O 175

Conversi, Daniele, ed. Ethnonationalism in the Contemporary World. Routledge: London, 2004. Cottam, Richard W. Nationalism in Iran. London: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1979. Croft, Stuart, and Terry Terriff, eds. Critical Reflections on Security and Change. London: Frank Cass, 2000. Cronin, Stephanie, ed. The Making of Modern Iran. London: Routledge, 2003. Dashefsky, Arnold, ed. Ethnic Identity in Society. Chicago: College Publishing Company, 1976. Davenport, Christian, Hank Johnson, and Carol Mueller, eds. Repression and Mobiliza- tion. London: University of Minnesota Press, 2005. De Vos, George, and Lola Romanucci- Ross, eds. Ethnic Identity, Cultural Continuities and Change. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield, 1975. Eagleton, William. The Kurdish Republic of 1946. London: Oxford University Press, 1963. Ehteshami, Anoushiravan. After Khomeini, The Iranian Second Republic. London: Rout- ledge, 1995. Ehteshami, Anoushiravan, and Mahjoob Zweiri. Iran and the Rise of Its Neoconservatives, the Politics of Tehran’s Silent Revolution. London: I. B. Tauris, 2007. Eickelman, Dale F. The Middle East and Central Asia, an Anthropological Approach. Lon- don: Upper Saddle River, 1998. Eisenberg, Avigail I., and Jeff Spinner- Halev, eds. Minorities within Minorities: Equality, Rights, Diversity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Enloe, Cynthia H. Ethnic Soldiers: State Security in Divided Societies. Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1980. Eriksen, Thomas H. Ethnicity & NationalismAnthropological Perspectives. London: Pluto Press, 1993. Esman, Milton J. Ethnic Politics. New York: Cornell University Press, 1994. ———. An Introduction to Ethnic Conflicts. Cambridge: Polity, 2004. Esman, Milton J., and Itamar Rabinovich, eds., Ethnicity, Pluralism, and the State in the Middle East. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988. Farsoun, Samih K., and Mehrdad Mashayekhi, eds. Iran, Political Culture in the Islamic Republic. London: Routledge, 1992. Fayazmanesh, Sasan. The United States and Iran, Sanctions, Wars and the Policy of Dual Containment. London: Routledge, 2008. Fenton, Steve. Ethnicity. Cambridge: Polity, 2003. Francis, Emerich K. Interethnic Relations: An Essay in Sociological Theory. New York: Elsevier, 1976. Ghamari- Tabrizi, Behrooz. Islam and Dissent in Postrevolutionary Iran. London: I. B. Tauris, 2008. Garthwaite, Gene. Khans and Shahs: The Bakhtiyari in Iran. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983. Gellner, Ernest. Nationalism. London: Phoenix Books, 1997. ———. Nations and Nationalism. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006. ———. Thought and Change. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1964. 176 O Bibliography

———. Encounters with Nationalism. Oxford: Blackwell, 1994. Ghirshman, Roman. Iran from the Earliest Times to the Islamic Conquest. Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1954. Goldstein, Joshua S., and Jon C. Pevehouse. International Relations. New York: Pearson Longman, 2009. Glassner, Martin Ira. Political Geography. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1996. Glazer, Nathan, and Daniel P. Moynihan, eds. Ethnicity, Theory and Experience. Cam- bridge: Press, 1975. Graham, Robert. Iran: The Illusion of Power. London: Croom Helm, 1978. Guibernau, Montserrat, and John Rex, eds. The Ethnicity Reader, Nationalism, Multicul- turalism and Migration. Cambridge: Polity, 1997. Gurr, Ted Robert. Why Men Rebel. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971. Gurr, Ted Robert, Jack A. Goldstones, and Farrokh Moshiri, eds. Revolutions of the Late Twentieth Century. Oxford: Westview Press, 1991. Gurr, Ted Robert, Peter N. Grabosky, and Richard C. Hula, eds. The Politics of Crime and Conflict, a Comparative History of Four Cities. London: Sage, 1977. Gurr, Ted Robert, Ivo K. Feirabend, and Rosalind L. Feirabend, eds. Anger, Violence, and Politics, Theories and Research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice- Hall, 1972. ———. Minorities at Risk. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1993. Gurr, Ted Robert, and Desmond S. King. The State and the City. London: Macmillan Education, 1987. Gutmann, A., ed. Multiculturalism. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994. , Mohammed M. Why Muslims Rebel. Repression and Resistance in the Islamic World. London: Lynne Rienner, 2003. Halliday, Fred. Iran: Dictatorship and Development. Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1979. Halliday, Fred, and Hamza Alavi, eds. Nation and Religion in the Middle East. London: Saqi Books, 2000. ———. State and Ideology in the Middle East and Pakistan. London: Macmillan Educa- tion, 1988. Hashim, Ahmed. The Crisis of the Iranian State: Domestic, Foreign and Security Policies in Post- Khomeini Iran. London: Oxford University Press, 1995. Haynes, Jeff. Third World Politics: A Concise Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996. Heikal, Mohamed. The Return of the Ayatollah. London: André Deutsch, 1981. Hinnebusch, Raymond A., and Anoushiravan Ehteshami, eds. The Foreign Policies of Middle East States. London: Lynne Rienner, 2002. ———. The International Politics of the Middle East. Manchester: Manchester Univer- sity Press, 2003. Hiro, Dilip. Iran under the Ayatollahs. London: Routledge, 1985. ———. Iran Today. New York: Politico’s, 2005. Hoeber, Rudolph, and J. Piscatori. Transnational Religion & Fading States. Oxford: West- view Press, 1997. Hoffman, John, and Paul Graham. Introduction to Political Theory. London: Pearson Longman, 2006. Bibliography O 177

Horowitz, Donald, L. The Deadly Ethnic Riot. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2002. ———. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985. Hunter, Shireen, T. Iran after Khomeini. New York: Praeger, 1992. ———. Iran and the World: Continuity in a Revolutionary Decade. Bloomington: Indi- ana University Press, 1990. Hutchinson, John, and Anthony D. Smith, eds. Ethnicity. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Jackson, Robert, and Georg Sorensen. Introduction to International Relations, Theories and Approaches. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Joireman, Sandra F. Nationalism and Political Identity. London: Continuum, 2003. Jones, Clive, and Emma C. Murphy, Israel: Challenges to Identity, Democracy and the State. London: Routledge, 2002. Kaldor, Mary. New and Old Wars, Organized Violence in a Global Era. Oxford: Polity, 2006. Kamrava, Mehran. The Political History of Modern Iran, from Tribalism to Theocracy. London: Praeger, 1992. Kashani, Firoozeh. Frontier Fictions, Shaping the Iranian Nation, 1804– 1946. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999. Katouzian, Homa. The Political Economy of Modern Iran: Despotism and Pseudo- Modernism, 1926– 1979. New York: New York University Press, 1981. Katouzian, Homa, and Hossein Shahidi, eds. Iran in the 21st Century. Politics, Economics & Conflicts. New York: Routledge, 2008. Katzenstein, Peter J. The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Poli- tics. New York: Columbia University Press, 1996. Kazemzadeh, Firuz. Russia and Britain in Persia, 1864– 1914. New Haven: Yale Univer- sity Press, 1968. Keddie, Nikki. R. Iran: Religion, Politics, and Society. London: Frank Cass, 1980. ———. Modern Iran, Roots and Results of Revolution. London: Yale University Press, 2003. ———. Religion and Politics in Iran. London: Yale University Press, 1983. ———. Roots of Revolution. An Interpretive History of Modern Iran. London: Yale Uni- versity Press, 1981. Keddie, Nikki. R., and Eric Hooglund, eds. The Iranian Revolution and the Islamic Republic. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1986. Keddie Nikki R., and Rudi Matthee, eds. Iran and the Surrounding World. Seattle: Uni- versity of Washington Press, 2002. Kedourie, Elie. Nationalism. London: Hutchinson, 1960. Kellas, James G. The Politics of Nationalism and Ethnicity. London: Macmillan, 1994. Khomeini, Ruhollah. Sahifeye Noor, vol 17. Accessed April 8, 2013, http://www.tebyan .net/newindex.aspx?pid=58950&vn=17. Kohn, Hans. The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origin and Background. New York: Macmillan, 1945. 178 O Bibliography

Kolodziej, Edward A., and Robert E. Harkavy, eds. Security Policies of the Developing Countries. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1982. Kurzman, Charles. The Unthinkable Revolution in Iran. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- versity Press, 2004. Lane, Jan- Eric, and Svante Ersson. Comparative Politics: An Introduction and New Approach. Cambridge: Polity, 1994. Lenczowski, George. Russia and the West in Iran, 1918– 1948. A Study in Big- Power Rivalry. New York: Cornell University Press, 1949. Lewis, Bernard, Charles Pellat, and Joseph Schacht, eds., Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. 2, 227– 30. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1965. Long, David E., and Christian Koch. Gulf Security in the Twenty-First Century. Abu Dhabi: The Emirates Centre for Strategic Studies and Research, 1997. Lowe, R., and C. Spencer, eds. Iran, Its Neighbours and the Regional Crisis. A Middle East Programme Report. London: Chatham House, 2006. MacNabb, David E. Research Methods for Political Science, Quantitative and Qualitative Methods. New York: M. E. Sharpe, 2004. Manheim, Jarol B., Richard C. Rich, and Lars Willnat. Empirical Political Analysis, Research Methods in Political Science. New York: Longman, 2002. Maoz, Zeev, ed. Regional Security in the Middle East. London: Frank Cass, 1997. Marashi, Afshin. Nationalizing Iran: Culture, Power, & the State, 1870–1940 . London: University of Washington Press, 2008. Marschall, Christin. Iran’s Persian Gulf Policy, From Khomeini to Khatami. London: Routledge, 2003. Marsh, David, and Gerry Stoker, eds. Theory and Methods in Political Science. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. Martin, Vanessa. Creating Islamic State, Khomeini and the Making of a New Iran. Lon- don: I. B. Tauris, 2000. McDowall, David. A Modern History of the Kurds. London: I. B. Tauris, 2004. ———. Migdal, Joel S. State in Society: Studying How States and Societies Transform and Constitute One Another. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. ———. Strong Societies and Weak States. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988. Migdal, Joel S., Atul Kohli, and Vivienne Shue, eds. State Power and Social Forces, Domi- nation and Transformation in the Third World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Minorsky, Vladimir, and Edmund C. Bosworth, eds. Iran and Islamin Memory of Vladi- mir Minorsky. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1971. Moaddel, Mansoor. Class, Politics, and Ideology in the Iranian Revolution. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993. Mohaddessin, Mohammad. Enemies of the Ayatollahs: The Iranian Opposition’s War on Islamic Fundamentalism. London: Zed Books, 2004. Motyl, Alexander J., ed. Encyclopaedia of Nationalism, Leaders, Movements, and Concepts. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2001. Mottahedeh, Roy. The Mantle of the Prophet: Religion and Politics in Iran. Harmond- sworth, England: Penguin Books, 1987. Bibliography O 179

Murden, W. Simon. Islam, the Middle East, and the New Global Hegemony. London: Lynne Rienner, 2002. Murray, Donette. US Foreign Policy and Iran, American- Iranian Relations since the Islamic Revolution. London: Routledge, 2010. Neshat, Guity, ed. Women and Revolution in Iran. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1983. Nonneman, Gerd, ed. Analyzing Middle East Foreign Policies. London: Routledge, 2005. Nye, Joseph S. Understanding International Conflicts, an Introduction to Theory and His- tory. New York: Pearson, 2007. Omid, Homa. Islam and the Post- Revolutionary State in Iran. London: St. Martin’s Press, 1994. Owen, Roger. State, Power & Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East. London: Routledge, 1992. Panah, Maryam. The Islamic Republic and the World: Global Dimensions of the Iranian Revolution. London: Pluto Press, 2007. Patterson, Orlando. Ethnic Chauvinism: The Reactionary Impulse. New York: Stein & Day, 1977. Pettee, George Sawyer. The Process of Revolution. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1938. Piscatori, J. P. Islam in a World of Nation- States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986. Postel, Danny. Reading Legitimation Crisis in Tehran: Iran and the Future of Liberalism. Chicago: Prickly Paradigm Press, 2006. Ramazani, Rouhollah K., ed. Iran’s Revolution: The Search for Consensus. Washington, DC: Indiana University Press, 1990. Romanucci-Ross, Lola, George De Vos, and Takeyuki Tsuda, eds. Ethnic Identity, Prob- lems and Prospects for the Twenty- First Century. Oxford: AltaMira Press, 2006. Roraback, Amanda. Iran in a Nutshell. Santa Monica, CA: Enisen, 2006. Roy, Olivier. Globalized Islam: The Search for a New Ummah. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004. Rush, Michael. Politics and Society, an Introduction to Political Sociology. London: Har- vester Wheatsheaf, 1992. Said, Edward. Orientalism, Western Conception of the Orient. London: Penguin Books, 1978. Sanasarian, Elize. Religious Minorities in Iran. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Savory, Roger. Iran under the Safavids. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980. Schwarzmantel, John. The State in Contemporary Society, an Introduction. London: Har- vester Wheatsheaf, 1994. Semati, Mehdi, ed. Media, Culture and Society in Iran. Living with Globalisation and the Islamic State. London: Routledge, 2008. Seung, Dal Yu. The Role of Political Culture in Iranian Political Development. Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing, 2002. Shaffer, Brenda. Borders and Brethren: Iran and the Challenge of Azerbaijani Identity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002. 180 O Bibliography

Shakeri, S. R. Islamic Bases of National Security in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Tehran: Strategic Studies Quarterly, 2006. Shaul, Bakhash. Iran: Monarchy, Bureaucracy, and Reform under the Qajars, 1858– 1896. London: Ithaca Press, 1978. Shaw, Martin. Global Society and International Relations. Cambridge: Polity, 1994. Shayegan, Daryush. Cultural Schizophrenia: Islamic Societies Confronting the West. Lon- don: Saqi Books, 1992. Sheehan, Michael. International Security, an Analytical Survey. London: Lynne Rienner, 2005. Short, John R. An Introduction to Political Geography. London: Routledge, 1993. Sigler, J. A. Minority Rights: A Comparative Analysis. London: Greenwood Press, 1983. SIPRI Yearbook. Armaments, Disarmaments, and International Security. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. Smith, Anthony D. National Identity. London: Penguin Books, 1991. ———. Theories of Nationalism. London: Duckworth, 1983. ———. Nationalism; Theory, Ideology, History. Cambridge: Polity, 2001. ———. The Ethnic Origins of Nations. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 2002. ———. The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. Song, Miri. Choosing Ethnic Identity. Cambridge: Polity, 2003. Stavenhagen, Radolfo. Ethnic Conflicts and the Nation-State . London: Macmillan, 1996. Swietochowski, Tadeusz. Islam and the Growth of National Identity in Soviet Azerbaijan. Muslim Communities Reemerge. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994. Tahir-Kheli, Shirin, and Shaheen Ayubi, eds. The Iran- Iraq War: New Weapons, Old Con- flicts. New York: Praeger, 1983. Tapper, Richard, ed. The Conflict of Tribe and State in Iran and . London: St. Martin’s Press, 1983. ———. The New Iranian Cinema, Politics, Representation and Identity. London: I. B. Tauris, 2002. Tareq, Ismael Y. International Relations of the Contemporary Middle East. New York: Syra- cuse University Press, 1986. ———. Iraq and Iran: Roots of Conflict. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1982. Taylor, Charles, and Amy Gutmann, eds. Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992. Taylor, Paul C. Race, A Philosophical Introduction. Cambridge: Polity, 2004. Telhami, Shibley, and Michael Barnett, eds. Identity and Foreign Policy in the Middle East. London: Cornell University Press, 2002. Turner, Jonathan H. The Structure of Sociological Theory. New York: Wadsworth, 1998. Vatikiotis, Panayiotis J. Arab Regional Politics in the Middle East. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1984. Vaziri, Mostafa. Iran as Imagined Nation. New York: Paragon House, 1993. Walker, Christopher. Countries at the Crossroads: A Survey of Democratic Governance. New York: Freedom House, 2005. Bibliography O 181

Walker, R. B. J. Inside/Outside: International Relations as Political Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Waltz, Kenneth N. Theory of International Politics. New York: McGraw- Hill, 1979. ———. Man, the State and War, a Theoretical Analysis. New York: Columbia University Press, 1962. Waltz, Kenneth N., and Robert J. Art, eds. The Use of Force, Military Power and Interna- tional Politics. New York: University Press of America, 1988. Watson, Adam. The Evolution of International Society. London: Routledge, 2005. Wæver, Ole, Barry Buzan, Morten Kelstrup, and Pierre Lemaitre, eds. Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe. London: Pinter, 1993. Wendt, Alexander. Social Theory of International Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- versity Press, 1999. Williams, Colin H. National Separatism. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1982. Williams, Paul D., ed. Security Studies, an Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2008. Williams, Michael C., ed. Realism Reconsidered: The Legacy of Hans J. Morgenthau in International Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Yildiz, Karim, and Tanyel B. Taysi. The Kurds in Iran; the Past, Present and Future. Lon- don: Pluto Press, 2007. Zabih, Sepehr. Iran since the Revolution. London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982.

In Persian Amiri, Salehi Reza. Moderiate Monazeaate Ghowmi Dar Iran. Tehran: Centre for Strate- gic Studies, 2007. Ahmadi, Hamid, ed. Iran, Hovieyat, Mellieyat, Ghomieyat. Tehran: Moasaseye Tah- ghighat va Toseeye Uloume Insani, 2004. ———. Qouwmiyat va Qouwm Garayi Dar Iran. Tehran: Nashre Nia, 2000. Blondel Sa’ad, Joya, Arabo- phobia in the Contemporary Iranian Literature. Tehran: Karang Publisher, 2004. Breton, Roland. Qouwm Shenasi Siasi. Tehran: Nashre Nia, 2001. Hajilori, A. Kankashi Dar Taghyeer Arzeshha Pas Az Pirozi Enghlabe Islami. Tehran: Nashre Maaref, 2002. Husian, Valipour Razmi. Goftemanhye Amniate Melli dar Jomhouri Islami Iran. Tehran: Strategic Studies, 2004. Iftekhari, Asghar. Dar Amadi Bar Khotote Ghermez Dar reghabathaye Siasi. Tehran: Cen- tre for Strategic Studies, 2003. Iftekhari, Asghar, ed. Motali’ate Amniat Melli. Tehran: Pajoheshkadeh Motaliate Rah- bordi, 2003. Iftekhari, Asghar. Motale’ate Melli. Tehran: Entesharat Pajoheshkadeh Motale’ate Rah- bordi, 2002. Kashi, Mohammad J. Jadouye goftar: Zehniat- e farhangi va nezam- e ma’ani dar entekha- bat- e dovom- e khordad. Tehran: Ayandeh Pouyan, 2000. Khatami, M. Pishrafthaye Siasi, Pishrafthaye Eghtesadi wa Amniat. Tehran: Tarhe Noo, 2001. Larni, Manouchehr. Naghd va Tahlil dar Masaeele Ejtemaee Iran. Tehran: Bhineh, 2008. 182 O Bibliography

Maghsodi, Mujtaba. Tahavolate Qouwmi Dar Iran. Tehran: Institute of National Stud- ies, 2001. Nazar Pour, Mehdi. Ashenayi Ba Nezame Joumhori Islami Iran. Qom, Iran: Centre of Islamic Studies, 2008. Rahpeik, Siamak. Security Law, Social Control and Media. Tehran: Strategic Studies Quarterly, 2006. Shiakhavandi, D. Nasionalism Va Hoviate Irani. Tehran: The Centre of Islamic and Ira- nian Studies, 2001. Tajic, M. Negahi Be Masaeele Amniyati Iran. Tehran: Research Institute of Strategic Stud- ies, 2003. Walipour, H. Goftemanhaye Amniate Melli Dar Goumhori Islami Iran. Tehran: Research Institute of Strategic Studies, 2004. Yardshahin, Esmail. Tabar Shenasi Qoumi va Hayate Melli. Tehran: Farzan, 2001. Zahiri, A. Islamic Revolution and National Identity. Qom, Iran: Zolal Kouthar, 2002.

In Arabic Abdulnasir, V. Iran Derasa Ani Al- Thouwra Va Al- Douwla. Cairo: Dar-Alshourogh, 1997. Ezadi, B. Al- siyasah Al- Kharigiyah Li Gomhouryat Iran Al- Islamiah. Cairo: Al- Dar Al- Thaghfia Lilnashr, 2000. Iesa, H. M. Al- moshkelah Al- Kurdiya Fi Al- Shargh Al- Awsat. Cairo: Madboli, 1992.

Newspapers and Journals In English Ahmadi, H. “Unity within Diversity: Foundations and Dynamics of National Identity in Iran.” Critique: Critical Middle Eastern Studies 14, no. 1 (2005): 132. Ajami, Foad. “Iran: The Impossible Revolution.” Foreign Affairs (Winter 1988–89): 138– 39. Amirahmadi, Hooshang. “A Theory of Ethnic Collective Movements and Its Applica- tion to Iran.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 10, no. 4 (1987): 365– 68. Ansari, A. M. “Iran under Ahmadinejad. The Politics of Confrontation.” Adelphi Paper 393 (2007): 77. Aslan, Senem. “Citizen, Speak Turkish!: A Nation in the Making.” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 13, no. 2 (2007): 246. Atabaki, Touraj. “Ethnic Diversity and Territorial Integrity of Iran: Domestic Harmony and Regional Challenges.” Iranian Studies 38, no. 1 (2005): 41. Azodanloo, H. G. “Characteristics of Ayatollah Khomeini’s Discourse and the Iran- Iraq War.” Orient 34 (1993): 408. Bilgin, Pinar. “Individual and Societal Dimensions of Security.” International Studies Review 5, no. 2 (2003): 211. Boroujerdi, Mehrzad. “Iranian Islam and the Faustian of Western Modernity.” Journal of Peace Research 34, no. 1 (1997): 4. Bibliography O 183

Bradley, J. R. “Iran’s Ethnic Tinderbox.” The Washington Quarterly 30, no. 1 (Winter 2006– 7): 181. Buzan, Barry. “Rethinking Security after the Cold War.” Co-operation and Conflicts 32, no. 1 (1997): 6– 21. Chubin, Shahram, and Robert S. Litvak. “Debating Iran’s Nuclear Aspirations.” The Washington Quarterly 26, no. 4 (Autumn 2003): 99– 114. Cohen, J. “Iran’s Young Opposition: Youth in Post- Revolutionary Iran.” SAIS Review 26, no. 2 (Summer– Fall 2006): 6. Cole, J. R. I. “Marking Boundaries, Marking Time. The Iranian Past and the Construc- tion of the Self by Qajar Thinkers.” Paper presented at the Conference of the Middle East Studies Association of North America, University of Michigan, 1995. Accessed August 19, 2010, http://www- personal.umich.edu/~jrcole/boundar.htm. The Collection of Imam Khomeini’s Speeches. 1982. Vol. 8: 248, vol. 9, 142. Centre of Cultural Documents of the Islamic Republic, Tehran. Dawisha, Adeed. “Arab Nationalism and Islamism: Competitive Past, Uncertain Future.” International Studies Review 2 (2000): 79– 90. Diamond, L. “Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflicts.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 25, no. 1 (1987): 122. Dorraj, M., and M. Dodson. “Neo- Populism in Comparative Perspective: Iran and Venezuela.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 29, no. 1 (2009): 145. Eftekhari, A. “Geosecurity; A Normative Perspective,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 6, no. 2 (2006): 16. Ehsani, Kaveh, and Arang Keshavarzian. “Norma Claire Moruzzi.” Middle East Report. Accessed June 28, 2009, http://www.merip.org/mero/mero062809.html. Engelhardt, J. “Patriotism, Nationalism and Modernity.” Nations and Nationalism 13, no. 2 (2007): 214. Floyd, Rita. “Human Security and the Copenhagen School’s Securitization Approach: Conceptualizing Human Security as a Securitizing Move.” Human Security journal 5 (2007): 41. Furman, U. “Minorities in Contemporary Islamist Discourse.” Middle Eastern Studies, 36, no. 4 (2000): 2– 3. Gurr, T. R. “People against States: Ethnopolitical Conflict and the Changing World System.” International Studies Quarterly 38, no. 3 (1994): 348– 52. Harrison, S. S. “Nightmare in Baluchistan.” Foreign Policy 32 (1978): 138– 39. Hassan, Hussein D. “Iran: Ethnic and Religious Minorities.” CRS Report for Congress (2008): 7. Accessed April 5, 2013, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL34021. pdf. Hen- Tov, E. “Understanding Iran’s New Authoritarianism.” The Washington Quarterly 30, no. 1 (2006– 7): 163. Hosseinpoor, Ahmad, et al. “Socioeconomic Inequality in Infant Mortality in Iran and across Its Provinces.” Bulletin of the World Health Organization (November 2005): 841. 184 O Bibliography

Human Rights Watch. Middle East Watch, Guardian of Thought: Limits on Freedom of Expression in Iran. New York: , 1993: appendix B, 136. “Iran Country Profile.” Economist Intelligence Unit (2008): 8. Jafari, Aliakbar. “Two Tales of a City: An Exploratory Study of Cultural Consumption among Iranian Youth.” Iranian Studies 40, no. 3. (June 2007): 381. Jervis, Robert. “Cooperation under the Security Dilemma.” World Politics 30 (1978): 169. Kashani-Sabet, Firoozeh. “Fragile Frontiers: The Diminishing Domains of Qajar Iran,” IJMES 29 (1997): 227. Kasravi, Ahmad. “The Turkish Language in Iran.” Journal of Azerbaijan Studies 1, no. 2 (1998): 50. Keddie, Nikki. “Iran: Understanding the Enigma: A Historian’s View.” Meria 2, no. 3 (1998): 1– 7. ———. “Iranian Women’s Status and Struggles since 1979.” Journal of International Affairs 60, no. 2 (2007): 29. Keshavarzian, Arang. “Regime Loyalty and Bazari, Representation under the Islamic Republic of Iran: Dilemmas of the Society of Islamic Coalition.” IJMES 41 (2009): 233. Kia, A. Mehrdad. “Persian Nationalism and the Campaign for Language Purification.” Middle Eastern Studies 34 (1998): 12. Kurzman, Charles. “Waving Iran into the Tree of Nation.” International Journal of Mid- dle East Studies 37 (2005): 137– 66. Mason, W. “Iran’s Simmering Discontent.” World Policy Journal (2002): 72. Middle East Briefing. “Iran: Discontent and Disarray.” International Crisis Group no. 11 (October 15, 2003): 2. Nasibzade, Nasib. “The Azeri Question in Iran: A Crucial Issue for Iran’s Future.” Accessed April 9, 2013, http://www.zerbaijan.com/azeri/nasibzade2.html. Ollapally, Deepa. M. “Foreign Policy and Identity Politics: Realist versus Culturalist Les- sons.” International Studies 35, no. 3 (1998): 7. Okata, Frank. “Regime Change in Iran: An Analytic Framework.” Strategic Insights 2, no. 2 (2003): 1. “Polling Iranian Public Opinion: An Unprecedented Nationwide Survey of Iran.” Terror Free Tomorrow (2007). Accessed August 1, 2010, http://www.terrorfreetomorrow.org. Posen, Barry. R. “The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conflicts.” Survival 35, no. 1 (1993): 27. Rahpeik, S. “Security Law, Social Control and Media.” Strategic StudiesQuarterly 6, no. 2 (2006): 41. Roe, Paul. “The Interstate Security Dilemma: Ethnic Conflicts as a ‘Tragedy’?” Journal of Peace Research 36, no. 2 (1999): 185. Roosevelt, Archie, Jr. “The Kurdish Republic of Mahabad.” Middle East Journal 1 (1947): 256– 57. Romano, David. “Modern Communications Technology in Ethnic Nationalist Hands: The Case of the Kurds.” Canadian Journal of Political Science (March 2002): 128. Bibliography O 185

Rubin, Michael. “Iran’s Burgeoning Discontent.” Washington Institute Policy Watch no. 628 (May 30, 2002): 1. Sadjadpour, Karim. “How Relevent Is the Iranian Street?” The Washington Quarterly 30, no. 1 (Winter 2006– 7): 158. Saikal, Amin. “Iran’s New Strategic Entity.” Australian Journal of International Affairs 61, no. 3 (2007): 298. Samii, A. William. “The Nation and Its Minorities: Ethnicity, Unity and State Policy in Iran.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 20, no. 1–2 (2000): 129– 30. Sariolghalam, Mahmood. “Understanding Iran: Getting Past Stereotypes and Mythol- ogy.” The Washington Quarterly 26, no. 4 (2003): 79. Shaffer, Brenda. “The Formation of Azerbaijan Collective Identity in Iran.” Nationalities Papers 28, no. 3 (2003): 450. Shakeri, S. R. “Islamic Bases of National Security in the Islamic Republic of Iran from a Constitutional Perspective.” Strategic Studies Quarterly 6, no. 2 (2006): 65. Smith, Steve. “Mature Anarchy, Strong States and Security.” Contemporary Security Policy 12, no. 2 (1991): 333. Tilly, Charles. “States and Nationalism in Europe 1492– 1992.” Theory and Society 23 (1994): 133. Walt, Stephan M. “The Renaissance of Security Studies.” International Security Quarterly 2 (1991): 213. ———. “Revolution and War.” World Politics 44 (1992): 321– 68. Watson, Scott D. “Agents in Search of an Actor: Societal Security for the Palestinians and Turkish Kurds.” AllAcademia. University of British Columbia. Accessed August 11, 2010, http://www.ligi.ubc.ca/sites/liu/files/Publications/Watson_ISA.pdf. Waxman, Dov. “The Islamic Republic of Iran: Between Revolutionary and Realpolitik.” Conflict Studies 308 (1998): 11– 12. Vahdat, Farzin. “Religious Modernity in Iran: Dilemmas of Islamic Democracy in the Discourse of Mohammad Khatami.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 25, no. 3 (2005): 650. Vakil, Sanam. “Iran: The Gridlock between Demography and Democracy.” SAIS Review 24, no. 2 (Summer– Fall 2004): 47. Vali, Abbas. “The Kurds and Their Fragmented ‘Others’: Fragmented Identity and Frag- mented Politics.” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa, and the Middle East 21, no. 1– 2 (2002): 82– 94. ———. “The Kurds and Their ‘Others’: Fragmented Identity and Fragmented Politics.” Comparitive Studies of Africa, South Asia and the Middle East 18, no. 2 (1998): 91. Van Evera, S. “Hypotheses on Nationalism and War.” International Security 18, no. 4 (1994): 8. Vucetic, Srdjan. “Traditional versus Societal Security and the Role of Securitization.” Southeast European Politics 3, no. 1 (June 2002): 71– 76. Zahed, Said. “Iranian National Identity in the Context of Globalization: Dialogue or Resistance?” CSGR Working Paper 162, no. 5 (May 2004): 2– 10. 186 O Bibliography

Zahedi, Ashraf. “Contested Meaning of the Veil and Political Ideologies of Iranian Regimes.” Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies 3, no. 3 (2007): 88.

In Persian Afshar, M. “The Problem of Nationality and the National Unity of Iran.” Ayandeh (November 2, 1926): 559– 69, 761– 74. Afshar, M. “Our First Desire: The National Unity of Iran.” Ayandeh (June 1, 1925): 5–6. Bashiriyeh, H. “Ideologi-ye Siasi va Hoveyat-e Ejtema’I Iran.” Iran Nameh 23, no. 3 (1382/2003): 271– 85. Bani Hashemi, Mirghasim. “Ethnic Azerbaijan Nationalism: An Overview in Iran.” Strategic Studies Quarterly 5, no. 2 (2002): 573– 81. Ghasemi, Mohammad Ali. “New Societal Movements: The Case of Azerbaijan,” Strate- gic Studies Quarterly 10, no. 1 (2007): 79. Ghasemi, Mohammad Ali. “The Minorities in the Iran’s Islamic Republic Constitu- tion,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 6, no. 4 (2003): 868. Kaviani Rad, Morad. “Political Regionalism in Iran, The Case of Iranian Baluchestan,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 10, no. 1 (2007): 89– 121. Maleki, Hamid. “Societal Solidarity among Ethnic Groups, The Case of Gulistan Prov- ince.” Strategic Studies Quarterly 10, no. 1 (2007): 142. Morshedizade, Ali. “Elites and Ethnic Movements in Iran,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 6, no. 3 (2003): 85. Pour Saeed, Farzad. “Diversity and Unity in the Iranian Societies,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 10, no. 1 (2007): 45. Rouhani, Hasan. “Dar Amadi Bar Mashroueyate Wa Karamadi.” Strategic Studies Quar- terly 18 Tehran (2000): 7. “Special Issue on Ethnicity in Iran,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 1, no. 1 (1998): 246. The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Tehran: Nashr Douran, 2005. Aftab Newspaper (online) Baztab (online) Ettela’at Newspaper (online) Fars News Agency (online) Irane Farda (online) Islamic Republic News Agency (IRNA) Keyhan Newspaper Keyhan International Newspaper (online) Markaze Motaleaate Rahbordi (Center for Strategic Studies) Resalat Newspaper Shargh Newspaper Voice of Iran (Online)

In Arabic Alahram (Online) Alhayat Newspaper Asharghalawsat Newspaper Notes

Introduction 1. A. Vali, “The Kurds and Their Fragmented ‘Others’: Fragmented Identity and Fragmented Politics,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa, and the Middle East 21, no. 1– 2 (2002): 82– 94. 2. “The government belongs to those who know Islamic jurisprudence, the rule of the supreme jurist or the top theologian”; E. Sanasarian, Religious Minorities in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), xix. 3. Human Rights Watch, Middle East Watch, Guardian of Thought: Limits on Freedom of Expression in Iran (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1993), appendix B, 136. 4. N. R. Keddie, Modern Iran, Roots and Results of Revolution (London: Yale Univer- sity Press, 2003), 313. 5. Jerrold D. Green, Frederic Wehrey, Charles Wolf, Jr. National Security Research Division. Understanding Iran, accessed April 6, 2013, http://www.rand.org/con- tent/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/2008/RAND_MG771.pdf. 6. J. B. Manheim, R. C. Rich, and L. Willnat, Empirical Political Analysis, Research Methods in Political Science (New York: Longman, 2002), 10. 7. S. Chubin and C. Tripp, Iran- Saudi Arabia Relations and Regional Order (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 61.

Chapter 1 1. B. Buzan and O. Wæver, Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security (Cambridge: Cambridge Press, 2003), 196. 2. Ibid., 194. 3. B. Buzan, O. Wæver, and J. De Wilde, Security: A New Framework for Analysis (London: Lynne Rienner, 1998), 119. 4. Ibid., 132. 6. A. Dawisha, “Arab Nationalism and Islamism: Competitive Past, Uncertain Future,” International Studies Review 2 (2000): 79– 90. 7. M. Sheehan, International Security: An Analytical Survey (London: Lynne Rienner, 2005), 84. 8. A. Jafari, “Two Tales of a City: An Exploratory Study of Cultural Consumption among Iranian Youth,” Iranian Studies 40, no. 3 (June 2007): 381. 9. Buzan, Wæver, and De Wilde, Security, 119. 188 O Notes

10. B. Buzan, “Rethinking Security after the Cold War,” Co- operation and Conflicts 32, no. 1 (1997): 17. 11. Buzan, Wæver, and De Wilde, Security, 133. 12. M. Sheehan, International Security, 90. 13. Buzan, Wæver, and De Wilde, Security, 124. 14. P. Bilgin, “Individual and Societal Dimensions of Security,” International Studies Review 5, no. 2 (2003): 211. 15. B. Buzan, People, States and Fear: An Agenda for International Security Studies in the Post- Cold War Era (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), 19. 16. Ibid. 17. O. Wæver, B. Buzan, M. Kelstrup, and P. Lemaitre, eds., Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe (London: Pinter, 1993), 26. 18. Ibid., 25. 19. Ibid., 24. 20. Ibid., 17. 21. Ibid. 22. Ibid., 23. 23. P. J. Katzenstein, The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 18. 24. Wæver, Buzan, Kelstrup, and Lemaitre, eds., Identity, 43. 25. L. Diamond, “Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflicts,” The Journal of Modern African Studies 25, no. 1 (1987): 122. 26. Wæver, Buzan, Kelstrup, and Lemaitre, eds., Identity, 43. 27. Ibid. 28. Ibid., 23. 29. Buzan, People, States and Fear, 36. 30. Wæver, Buzan, Kelstrup, and Lemaitre, eds., Identity, 43. 31. Buzan, “Rethinking Security,” 18. 32. R. Jervis, “Cooperation under the Security Dilemma,” World Politics 30 (1978): 169. 33. P. Roe, “The Societal Security Dilemma,” Copenhagen Peace Research Institute, 6. 34. B. R. Posen, “The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conflicts,” Survival 35, no. 1 (1993): 27. 35. S. Aslan, “Citizen, Speak Turkish!: A Nation in the Making,” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 13, no. 2 (2007): 246. 36. B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1991): 7. 37. C. Tilly, “States and Nationalism in Europe 1492–1992,” Theory and Society 23 (1994): 133. 38. Aslan, “Citizen, Speak Turkish!” 247. 39. Wæver, Buzan, Kelstrup, and Lemaitre, eds., Identity, 46. 40. Ibid., 190. 41. Ibid., 23. 42. Buzan, People, States and Fear, 75. 43. Ibid., 76–77. 44. Ibid., 92. 45. Wæver, Buzan, Kelstrup, and Lemaitre, eds., Identity, 191. Notes O 189

46. P. Alter, Nationalism (London: Edward Arnold, 1994), 12. 47. M. Kaldor, New and Old Wars, Organised Violence in a Global Era (Oxford: Polity, 1999), 69. 48. Buzan, People, States and Fear, 147. 49. E. Kedourie, Nationalism (London: Hutchinson, 1960), 115. 50. K. Krause and M. C. Williams, Critical Security Studies (London: Routledge, 1997), 48. 51. J. S. Migdal, Strong Societies and Weak States (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988), 32. 52. M. E. Brown, ed., Ethnic Conflict and International Security (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 8. 53. Gianfranco Poggi, quoted in Migdal, Strong Societies, 33. 54. Kaldor, New and Old Wars, 140. 55. H. Walipour, Goftemanhaye Amniate Melli Dar Goumhori Islami Iran (Tehran: Research Institute of Strategic Studies, 2004), 20. 56. Ibid., 31. 57. Ibid., 28. 58. S. Smith, “The Increasing Insecurity of Security Studies: Conceptualizing Secu- rity in the Last Twenty Years,” in Critical Reflections on Security and Change, ed. S. Croft and T. Terriff (London: Frank CASS, 2000), 83. 59. P. Roe, “The Interstate Security Dilemma: Ethnic Conflicts as a ‘Tragedy’?” Journal of Peace Research 36, no. 2 (1999): 199. 60. S. D. Watson, “Agents in Search of an Actor: Societal Security for the Palestin- ians and Turkish Kurds,” All Academia, University of British Columbia, accessed April 10, 2013, http://www.ligi.ubc.ca/sites/liu/files/Publications/Watson_ISA .pdf. Referent objects refer to things such as the following: individuals, social/societal groups, states, or regions that are perceived to be, in Buzan’s words, “existentially threatened and that have a legitimate claim to survival”; B. Buzan, “Rethinking Security,” 36. 61. Smith, “The Increasing Insecurity,” 77. 62. P. Roe, “Societal Security,” in Contemporary Security Studies, ed. A. Collins (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 179. 63. Alter, Nationalism, 12. 64. T. R. Gurr, Why Men Rebel (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971), 23. 65. Ibid., 39. 66. Ibid., 60. 67. Ibid., 87. 68. J. A. Goldstones, T. R. Gurr, and F. Moshiri, Revolutions of the Late Twentieth Cen- tury (Oxford: Westview Press, 1991), 332– 36. 69. I. K. Feirabend, R. L. Feirabend, and T. R. Gurr, Anger, Violence, and Politics, Theories and Research (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice- Hall, 1972), 145. 70. Gurr, Why Men Rebel, 136. 71. J. S. Migdal, State in Society: Studying How States and Societies Transform and Con- stitute One Another (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 150. 72. Katzenstein, The Culture of National Security, 15. 73. Gurr, Why Men Rebel, 125. 190 O Notes

74. Ibid., 13. 75. Ibid. 76. M. J. Esman, An Introduction to Ethnic Conflict (Cambridge: Polity, 2004), 30–40. 77. S. F. Joireman, Nationalism and Political Identity (London: Continuum, 2003), 38. 78. Ibid., 54. 79. A. Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- sity Press, 1999), 314. 80. R. A. Schermerhorn, Comparative Ethnic Relations: A Framework for Theory and Research (New York: Random House, 1970), 12. 81. M. E. Brown, “Causes and Implications of Ethnic Conflict,” in The Ethnicity Reader: Nationalism, Multiculturalism and Migration, ed. M. Guibernau and J. Rex (Cambridge: Polity, 1997), 82. 82. C. McPhail and J. D. McCarth, “Protest Mobilization, Protest Repression, and Their Interaction,” in Repression and Mobilization, ed. C. Davenport, H. Johnson, and C. Mueller (London: University of Minnesota Press, 2005), 3. 83. C. Kauffman, “Possible and Impossible Solutions to Ethnic Civil Wars,” in Nation- alism and Ethnic Conflict, ed. O. Cote, L.-J. Sean, and M. Steven (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1997), 267. 84. R. Hardin, One for All: The Logic of Group Conflict (Princeton: Princeton Univer- sity Press, 1995), 142. 85. M. E. Brown, “The Causes and Regional Dimensions of Internal Conflict,” in The International Dimensions of Internal Conflict, ed. M. E. Brown (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996), 579. 86. Ibid., 577. 87. J. Snyder and K. Ballentine, “Nationalism and the Marketplace of Ideas,” in Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict, ed. O. Cote, L.-J. Sean, and M. Steven (Cam- bridge, MA: MIT Press, 1997), 66– 67. 88. T. R. Gurr, “People against States: Ethnopolitical Conflict and the Changing World System,” International Studies Quarterly 38, no. 3 (1994): 348– 52. 89. Gurr, Why Men Rebel, 12. 90. J. N. Rosenau, International Aspects of Civil Strife (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964), 82; also see S. M. Walt, “Revolution and War,” World Politics 44 (1992), 321– 68. 91. R. Ganguly and R. Taras, Understanding Ethnic Conflict: The International Dimen- sion (New York: Addison- Wesley Longman Education, 1998), 81– 82 92. C. Taylor, “The Politics of Recognition,” in Multiculturalism, and “The Politics of Recognition,” ed. C. Taylor and A. Gutmann (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 38. 93. M. E. Brown, “The Causes of Internal Conflict: An Overview,” in Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict, ed. O. Cote, L.- J. Sean, and M. Steven (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1997), 11.

Chapter 2 1. H. Walipour, Goftemanhaye Amniate Melli Dar Goumhori Islami Iran (Tehran: Research Institute of Strategic Studies, 2004), 24. Notes O 191

2. R. Cottam, “Inside Revolutionary Iran,” in Iran’s Revolution: The Search for Con- sensus, ed. R. K. Ramazani (Washington, DC: Indiana University Press, 1990), 3. 3. S. Maloney, “Identity and Change in Iran’s Foreign Policy,” in Identity and For- eign Policy in the Policy in the Middle East, ed. S. Telhami and M. Barnett (New York: Cornell University Press, 2002), 88. 4. E. Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), 529. 5. Valayat Faqih, Keyhan International, April 12, 1981. 6. Quoted in H. Omid, Islam and the Post-Revolutionary State in Iran (London: St. Martin’s Press, 1994), 59– 60. 7. Quoted in S. K. Farsoun and M. Mashayekhi, Iran, Political Culture in the Islamic Republic (London: Routledge, 1992), 133. 8. M. Tajic, Negahi Be Masaeele Amniyati Iran (Tehran: Research Institute of Strategic Studies, 2003), 45. 9. D. M. Ollapally, “Foreign Policy and Identity Politics: Realist versus Culturalist Lessons,” International Studies 35, no. 3 (1998): 7. 10. Walipour, Goftemanhaye Amniate Melli, 44– 45. 11. Ollapally, “Foreign Policy and Identity Politics,” 17. 12. Quoted in David Menashri, “Iran’s Regional Policy: Between Radicalism and Prag- matism,” Journal of International Affairs 60, no. 2 (2007): 154. 13. Quoted in D. Waxman, “The Islamic Republic of Iran: Between Revolutionary and Realpolitik,” Conflict Studies 308 (1998): 11. 14. Ahl al- Dhimma refers to protected people in Islamic communities; E. Sanasarian, Religious Minorities in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), xviii. 15. C. L. Cahen, “Dhimmi,” in Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. 2, ed. B. Lewis, C. Pellat, and J. Schacht (Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1965), 227– 301. 16. D. McDowall, A Modern History of the Kurds (London: I. B. Tauris, 2004), 271. 17. U. Furman, “Minorities in Contemporary Islamist Discourse,” Middle Eastern Studies 36, no. 4 (2000): 2– 3. 18. The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran (Tehran: Nashr Douran, 2005), 31. 19. A. Vali, “The Kurds and Their ‘Others’: Fragmented Identity and Fragmented Politics,” Comparative Studies of Africa, South Asia and the Middle East 18, no. 2 (1998): 91. 20. Quoted in Cottam, “Inside Revolutionary Iran,” 14. 21. CIA World Factbook, accessed April 22, 2013, https://www.cia.gov/library/ publications/the- world- factbook/geos/ir.html. 22. C. Walker, Countries at the Crossroads, A Survey of Democratic Governance (New York: Freedom House, 2005), 305. 23. UN Doc. E/CN.4/2002/42, Commission on Human Rights, 58th Session (Janu- ary 16, 2002), 9. 24. Iran. Const. art. CXV. 25. R. Khomeini, “Friday Prayer Sermons at Tehran University,” Voice of the Islamic Republic of Iran, December 17, 1999. 26. D. F. Eickelman, The Middle East and Central Asia, an Anthropological Approach (London: Upper Saddle River, 1998), 201. 27. Mehregan Magazine 12, no. 1– 2 (Spring & Summer 2003): 16. 192 O Notes

28. E. Abrahamian, A History of Modern Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 165. 29. A. Eftekhari, “Geosecurity; A Normative Perspective,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 6, no. 2 (2006): 16. 30. The Collection of Imam Khomeini’s Speeches, 1982, vol. 8: 248, vol. 9: 142, Centre of Cultural Documents of the Islamic Republic, Tehran. 31. Walipour, Goftemanhaye Amniate Melli, 45. 32. Ollapally, “Foreign Policy and Identity Politics,” 24. 33. A. J. Motyl, ed., Encyclopaedia of Nationalism: Leaders, Movements, and Concepts, vol. 2 (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2001), 239. 34. Ollapally, “Foreign Policy and Identity Politics,” 15. 35. Quoted in F. Ajami, “Iran: The Impossible Revolution,” Foreign Affairs (Winter 1988– 89): 138– 139. 36. Cottam, “Inside Revolutionary Iran,” 51. 37. Maloney, “Identity and Change,” 100. 38. For clarification, in this study, Persian refers to the Persian ethnic group, while Iranian refers to all Iranian nationals of all ethnicities. 39. Walipour, Goftemanhaye Amniate Melli, 55. 40. A. W. Samii, “The Nation and Its Minorities: Ethnicity, Unity and State Policy in Iran,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 20, no. 1– 2: 129. 41. Quoted in Walipour, Goftemanhaye Amniate Melli, 145. 42. L. Diamond, “Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflicts,” The Journal of Modern African Studies 25, no. 1 (1987): 121. 43. B. Shaffer, Iran and the Challenge of Azarbaijani Identity (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002): 142–143. 44. D. M. Ollapally, “Foreign Policy and Identity Politics,”, 1. 45. Maloney, “Identity and Change,” 106. 46. Walipour, Goftemanhaye Amniate Melli, 138. 47. M. Moaddel, Class, Politics, and Ideology in the Iranian Revolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 219. 48. Walipour, Goftemanhaye Amniate Melli, 240. 49. Maloney, “Identity and Change,” 90. 50. Walipour, Goftemanhaye Amniate Melli, 138. 51. Ollapally, “Foreign Policy and Identity Politics,” 2. 52. Maloney, “Identity and Change,” 105. 53. R. Khomeini, Sahifeye Noor, vol. 17, accessed April 8, 2013, http://www.tebyan .net/newindex.aspx?pid=58950&vn=17. 54. Quoted in H. G. Azodanloo, “Characteristics of Ayatollah Khomeini’s Discourse and the Iran- Iraq War,” Orient 34 (1993): 408. 55. Walipour, Goftemanhaye Amniate Melli, 269. 56. The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran (Tehran: Nashr Douran, 2005), 70– 71. 57. Waxman, “The Islamic Republic of Iran,” 12. 58. Jalal- din Farsi, a longtime disciple of Khomeini, was prevented from standing in the presidential election of 1980 because of his Afghani origin; E. Abrahamian, Notes O 193

Khomeinism, Essays on the Islamic Republic (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 15. 59. R. Graham, Iran:The Illusion of Power (London: Croom Helm, 1978), 191. 60. Abrahamian, A History of Modern Iran, 188. 61. Nader Naderpour (1929– 2000) was an Iranian poet and thinker and was nomi- nated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1993. 62. “Nader Naderpour,” accessed May 22, 2010, http://www.naderpour.com/ AllPages/Main- and- Index.html. 63. L. Binder, Iran, Political Development in a Changing Society (Los Angeles: Univer- sity of California Press, 1962), 77. 64. K. Yildiz and T. B. Taysi, The Kurds in Iran; the Past, Present and Future (London: Pluto Press, 2007), 31. 65. “Khomeini would not allow either group to go too far because ultimately the sur- vival of the Islamic Revolution mattered most”; Hashim, Ahmed, The Crisis of the Iranian State. Domestic, Foreign and Security Policies in Post- Khomeini Iran (Lon- don: Oxford University Press, 1995), 9. 66. “Polling Iranian Public Opinion: An Unprecedented Nationwide Survey of Iran,” Terror Free Tomorrow (2007): 2– 3, accessed August 1, 2010, http://www.terrorfree tomorrow.org. 67. Moaddel, Class, Politics, and Ideology, 4. 68. H. Rouhani, “Dar Amadi Bar Mashroueyate Wa Karamadi,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 18 (2000): 7. 69. Waxman, “The Islamic Republic of Iran,” 24. 70. Hashim, The Crisis of the Iranian State, 3. 71. Ibid., 22. 72. A. Ehteshami, After Khomeini: The Iranian Second Republic (London: Routledge, 1995), 27. 73. Waxman, “The Islamic Republic of Iran,” 8. 74. Ibid., 9. 75. Walipour, Goftemanhaye Amniate Melli, 380. 76. Ibid., 394. 77. A. Eftekhari, Dar Amadi Bar Khotote Ghermez Dar reghabathaye Siasi (Tehran: Centre of Strategic Studies, 2003), 63. 78. Walipour, Goftemanhaye Amniate Melli, 519. 79. T. R. Gurr, Why Men Rebel (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971), 9. 80. Ibid. 81. The Second of Khordad Movement, the Iranian reform movement that refers to the date of Khatami’s landslide election victory in the Iranian Calendar, was a political movement by a group of political parties and organizations in Iran who supported Mohammad Khatami’s plans to change the system to include more democratic aspects. 82. M. Khatami, Pishrafthaye Siasi, Pishrafthaye Eghtesadi wa Amniat (Tehran: Tarhe Noo, 2001), 128. 83. Ibid., 129. 84. Ibid., 143. 85. Ibid., 53. 194 O Notes

86. Hashim, The Crisis of the Iranian State, 17. 87. Walipour, Goftemanhaye Amniate Melli, 404. 88. A. Zahiri, Islamic Revolution and National Identity (Qom, Iran: Zolal Kouthar, 2002), 198. 89. Quoted in S. Razavi and H. Alizadeh, Golbange Sar Bolandi (Tehran: Rouznamee Salam, 2001), 40. 90. Khatami, Political Development, 44. 91. Waxman, “The Islamic Republic of Iran,” 13. 92. Motyl, Encyclopaedia of Nationalism, vol. 2, 237. 93. The Arab member of the Iranian cabinet was Iran’s defense minister, Admiral Ali Shamkhani. 94. R. Izadi, ed., H. AhmadiIran, Hovieyat, Mellieyat, Ghomieyat (Tehran: Moasaseye Tahghighat va Toseeye Uloume Insani, 2004), 412. 95. Semati, Media, Culture and Society in Iran, 6. 96. S. Chubin, Whither Iran? Reform, Domestic, Politics and National Security (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 21. 97. S. Chubin and C. Tripp, Iran- Saudi Arabia Relations and Regional Order (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 5. 98. Hashim, The Crisis of the Iranian State, 13. 99. Walipour, Goftemanhaye Amniate Melli, 437– 59. 100. Quoted in Waxman, “The Islamic Republic of Iran,” 9. 101. “Polling Iranian Public Opinion,” 2– 4. 102. N. Keddie, “Iranian Women’s Status and Struggles since 1979,” Journal of Interna- tional Affairs 60, no. 2 (2007): 29. 103. Semati, Media, Culture and Society in Iran, 7– 8. 104. M. Boroujerdi, “Iranian Islam and the Faustian of Western Modernity,” Journal of Peace Research 34, no. 1 (1997): 4. 105. B. Buzan, People, States and Fear: An Agenda for International Security Studies in the Post- Cold War Era (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), 123. 106. Maloney, “Identity and Change,” 116. 107. M. Karami, “Varunegi- ye Siasi” [“Political Inversion”], Shargh (January 22, 2004): 1. 108. Chubin, Whither Iran? 113. 109. S. Chubin and R. S. Litvak, “Debating Iran’s Nuclear Aspirations,” The Washing- ton Quarterly 26, no. 4 (Autumn 2003): 99– 114. 110. “The Khatami era has been judged profoundly positively in terms of transfor- mation of Iran’s international image and opportunities”; Maloney, “Identity and Change,” 114. 111. Ahmadinejad called the Holocaust a “fabricated legend,” and on another occasion he quoted Khomeini’s statement that “Israel should be wiped off from the map of the world.” “Iranian Leader Denies Holocaust,” BBC News, accessed April 8, 2013, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4527142.stm. 112. “President’s Speech in the Parliament,” Kayhan, 31 Mordad 1384 (August 22, 2005), accessed November 18, 2006, http://www.kayhannews.ir/840531/3.htm#other302. 113. A. Saikal, “Iran’s New Strategy,” Australian Journal of International Affairs 61, no. 3 (2007), 296. 114. Buzan, People, States and Fear, 82. Notes O 195

115. “President’s Speech in the Parliament.” 116. Maloney, “Identity and Change,” 89.

Chapter 3 1. M. Sariolghalam, “Understanding Iran: Getting Past Stereotypes and Mythology,” The Washington Quarterly 26, no. 4 (Autumn 2003): 79. 2. B. Buzan, People, States and Fear: An Agenda for International Security Studies in the Post- Cold War Era (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), 72. 3. S. Zahed, Iranian National Identity in the Context of Globalization: Dialogue or Resistance? CSGR Working Paper 162, no. 5 (May 2004): 10, accessed April 10, 2013, http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/1957/1/WRAP_Zahed_wp16205.pdf. 4. J. R. I. Cole, “Marking Boundaries, Marking Time. The Iranian Past and the Con- struction of the Self by Qajar Thinkers,” paper presented at the Conference of the Middle East Studies Association of North America, University of Michigan, 1995, accessed August 19, 2010, http://www- personal.umich.edu/~jrcole/boundar.htm. 5. F. Ajami, “Iran: The Impossible Revolution,” Foreign Affairs (Winter 1988/89): 137. 6. B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1991), 7. 7. C. Tilly, “States and Nationalism in Europe 1492–1992,” Theory and Society 23 (1994): 133. 8. S. Aslan, “Citizen, Speak Turkish!: A Nation in the Making,” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 13, no. 2 (2007): 246. 9. A. D. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 2002), 135. 10. A. D. Smith, National Identity (London: Penguin Books, 1991), 11. 11. E. Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006), 1. 12. E. Gellner, Thought and Change (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1964), 169. 13. E. Gellner, Nationalism (London: Phoenix Books, 1997), 3. 14. H. Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York: Macmillan, 1944), 6– 10. 15. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 33– 36. 16. E. Said, Orientalism, Western Conception of the Orient (London: Penguin Books, 1978), 43. 17. A. Smith, Nationalism; Theory, Ideology, History (Cambridge: Polity, 2001), 9. 18. S. F. Joireman, Nationalism and Political Identity (London: Continuum, 2003), 12. 19. Quoted in M. E. Brown, O. Cote Jr., M. S. Lynn- Jones, and E. S. Miller, eds., Nationalism and Ethnic Conflicts (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 2001), 128– 29. 20. M. J. Esman, An Introduction to Ethnic Conflicts (Cambridge: Polity, 2004), 41– 44. 21. S. Fenton, Ethnicity (Cambridge: Polity, 2003), 162– 65. 22. E. Kedourie, Nationalism (London: Hutchinson, 1960), 1. 23. A. Smith, Theories of Nationalism (London: Duckworth, 1983), 20– 21. 24. R. W. Cottam, Nationalism in Iran (London: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1979), 6. 25. J. S. Migdal, State in Society: Studying How States and Societies Transform and Con- stitute One Another (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 5. 26. W. Walker, Ethnonationalism; the Quest for Understanding (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 29. 196 O Notes

27. C. Tilly, Stories, Identities, and Political Change (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), chs. 5– 12. 28. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 6. 29. Zahed, Iranian National Identity, 6. 30. J. H. Turner, The Structure of Sociological Theory (New York: Wadsworth, 1998), 375– 82. 31. Kedourie, Nationalism, 39. 32. Ibid., 1. 33. D. Hume, Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary: Part I, Essay XXI Of National Char- acters, accessed April 6, 2013, http://www.econlib.org/library/LFBooks/Hume/ hmMPL21.html. 34. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 6. 35. Said, Orientalism, 43. 36. A. Shlaim, “A Betrayal of History,” Guardian, February 22, 2002, accessed April 4, 2013, http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,2763,654054,00.html. 37. J. Haynes, Third World Politics. A Concise Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), 101. 38. Quoted in S. Maloney, “Identity and Change in Iran’s Foreign Policy,” in Identity and Foreign Policy in the Policy in the Middle East, ed. S. Telhami and M. Barnett (New York: Cornell University Press, 2002), 102. 39. Kedourie, Nationalism, 115. 40. K. Mulaj, “On Bosnia’s Borders and Ethnic Cleansing,” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 11, no. 1 (2005): 9. 41. Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Nations, 135. 42. Ibid., 135. 43. A. R. Sheikholesalmi, “From Religious Accommodation to Religious Revolution: The Transformation of Shi’ism in Iran,” in The State, Religion, and Ethnic Poli- tics, ed. A. Banuaziz and M. Wiener (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1986), 227– 56. 44. F. Kashani- Sabet, “Fragile Frontiers: The Diminishing Domains of Qajar Iran,” IJMES 29 (1997): 227. 45. H. Ahmadi, “Unity within Diversity: Foundations and Dynamics of National Identity in Iran,” Critique: Critical Middle Eastern Studies 14, no. 1 (2005): 132. 46. Said, Orientalism, 3. 47. Cole, “Marking Boundaries,” 1. 48. M. Vaziri, Iran as Imagined Nation (New York: Paragon House, 1993), 7. 49. M. Boroujerdi, Iranian Intellectuals and the West (New York: Syracuse University Press, 1996), 14. 50. Ibid., 7. 51. Vaziri, Iran as Imagined Nation, 62. 52. Zahed, Iranian National Identity, 10. 53. D. Shayegan, Cultural Schizophrenia: Islamic Societies Confronting the West (Lon- don: Saqi Books, 1992), 153. 54. Quoted in W. Forbis, Fall of the Peacock Throne. The Story of Iran (New York: Harper & Row, 1980), 26. Notes O 197

55. F. Kashani- Sabet, “The Evolving Polemic of Iranian Nationalism,” in Iran and the Surrounding World, ed. Nikki R. Keddie and Rudi Matthee (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002). 56. R. Graham, Iran: The Illusion of Power (London: Croom Helm, 1978), 190. 57. A. Loreti, “More Authentic or Less?” The Iranian, 2002, accessed April 6, 2013, http://www.iranian.com/Opinion/2002/August/Identity/index.html. 58. Kashani-Sabet, “The Evolving Polemic”; and J. R. Cole, “Marking Boundaries, Marking Time: The Iranian Past and the Construction of Self by Qajar Thinkers,” Iranian Studies 29 (1996): 36– 56. 59. G. E. Fuller, The Center of the Universe: The Geopolitics of Iran (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1991), 2. 60. R. Hinnebusch and A. Ehteshami, eds., The Foreign Policies of Middle East States (London: Lynne Rienner, 2002), 284. 61. H. Algar, “Religious Forces in Twentieth Century in Iran,” in The Cambridge His- tory of Iran, vol. 7, ed. P. Avery, G. Hambly, and C. Melville (Cambridge: Cam- bridge University Press, 1991), 763– 64. 62. J. Kashi, Jadouye goftar: Zehniat- e farhangi va nezam- e ma’ani dar entekhabat- e dovom- e khordad (Tehran: Ayandeh Pouyan, 2000), 326– 34. 63. F. Farhi, “Crafting a National Identity Amidst Contentious Politics in Con- temporary Iran,” in Iran in the 21st Century. Politics, Economics & Conflicts, ed. H. Katouzian and H. Shahidi (New York: Routledge, 2008), 16. 64. International Crisis Group, Iran’s Political/Nuclear Ambitions and U.S. Policy Options, accessed April 8, 2013, http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/publication - type/speeches/2006/irans- political- nuclear- ambitions- and- us- policy- options .aspx. 65. The Greater and Lesser Tunbs and the Abu Musa Islands are islands on the eastern side of the Persian Gulf. These islands are claimed by both Iran and the United Arab Emirates. Iran controls the islands and has been administering them as part of the province Hormozgan since 1971. 66. H. Katouzian and H. Shahidi, eds., Iran in the 21st Century. Politics, Economics & Conflicts (New York: Routledge, 2008), 16. 67. M. Rubin, “Domestic Threats to Iranian Stability: Khuzistan and Baluchistan,” Middle East Forum, accessed April 9, 2013, http://www.meforum.org/788/ domestic- threats-to- iranian- stability- khuzistan. 68. Karbala is an Iraqi city where the shrine of the third Shi’a Imam, Husain, is located. 69. Maloney, “Identity and Change,” 102. 70. E. Sanasarian, Religious Minorities in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 1. 71. H. Ahmadi, Qoumiyat va Qoum Garayi dar Iran (Tehran: Nashre Nia, 2000), 76. 72. E. Renan, quoted in Shlaim, “A Betrayal of History.” 73. Anderson, Imagined Communities, 33– 36. 74. Zahed, Iranian National Identity, 19. 75. M. Moaddel, Class, Politics, and Ideology in the Iranian Revolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 152. 76. Sariolghalam, “Understanding Iran,” 69. 198 O Notes

77. Mehrdad Mashayekhi, “The Politics of National Culture,” in Iran, Political Culture in the Islamic Republic, ed. S. K. Farsoun and M. Mashayekhi (London: Routledge, 1992), 85. 78. Hinnebusch and Ehteshami, eds., The Foreign Policies, 287. 79. On this point, see S. Chubin and R. S. Litvak, “Debating Iran’s Nuclear Aspira- tions,” The Washington Quarterly 26, no. 4 (Autumn 2003): 99– 114. 80. G. F. Giles, The Crucible of Radical Islam: Iran’s Leaders and Strategic Culture, 146, accessed April 8, 2013, http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/cpc- pubs/know _thy_enemy/giles.pdf. 81. D. Waxman, “The Islamic Republic of Iran: Between Revolutionary and Realpoli- tik,” Conflict Studies 308 (1998): 12. 82. Cole, “Marking Boundaries.”

Chapter 4 1. All figures taken from CIA Factbook, accessed May 28, 2010, https://www.cia .gov/library/publications/the- world- factbook/geos/ir.html. 2. G. R. G. Hambly, “The Pahlavi Autocracy: Reza Shah, 1921–41,” in The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 7 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 234– 35. 3. J. W. Limbert, Iran: At War with History (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1987), 87. 4. R. W. Cottam, Nationalism in Iran (London: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1979), 21. 5. W. L. Cleveland, A History of the Modern Middle East (Oxford: Westview Press, 2000), 410. 6. D. Hiro, Iran under the Ayatollahs (London: Routledge, 1985), 111. 7. S. Zabih, Iran since the Revolution (London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), 84. 8. N. R. Keddie, Modern Iran, Roots and Results of Revolution (London: Yale Univer- sity Press, 2003), 313. 9. E. Sanasarian, Religious Minorities in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 9– 14. 10. E. Abrahamian, Khomeinism, Essays on the Islamic Republic (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 123. 11. Ibid., 124. The Tudeh Party (founded in 1941) is an Iranian communist party. Its full name in Persian is Hezb- e Tudeh- ye Iran, which literally means “Party of the Masses of Iran.” 12. R. Khomeini, “The Report on Jews Differs from That on the Zionists,” Ettela’at Newspaper, May 11, 1979. 13. C. Walker, Countries at the Crossroads, A Survey of Democratic Governance (New York: Freedom House, 2005), 305. 14. UNHCR, “Chronology of Events in Iran” (April 2004), accessed April 9, 2013, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/country,,,CHRON,IRN,,4133432c4,0.html. 15. R. Hinnebusch and A. Ehteshami, eds., The Foreign Policies of Middle East States (London: Lynne Rienner, 2002), 285. 16. “Iranian Minister of Intelligence Hiadar Muslehi,” accessed April 2, 2013, http:// www.tabnak.ir/fa/pages/?cid=102326. Notes O 199

17. E. Abrahamian, “The Causes of the Constitutional Revolution in Iran,” Interna- tional Journal of Middle East Studies 10, no. 3 (1979), 389. 18. E. Abrahamian, A History of Modern Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 195. 19. M. Moaddel, Class, Politics, and Ideology in the Iranian Revolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 51. 20. E. Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), 388– 415. 21. Intrigues among the Bakhtiari Tribes, Foreign Service Dispatch 414, 788.521/28, November 1952, Box 4109, Record Group- 59, National Archives, Washington, DC; Foreign Service Dispatch, 738, 788.00, March 10, 1953 22. L. Beck, The Qashqai of Iran (London: Yale University Press, 1986), 153– 54. 23. S. S. Harrison, “Nightmare in Baluchistan,” Foreign Policy 32 (1978), 138– 39. 24. A. Roosevelt, “The Kurdish Republic of Mahabad,” Middle East Journal 1 (1947): 256– 57. 25. B. Shaffer, Iran and the Challenge of Azarbaijani Identity (Cambridge, MA: Har- vard University Press, 2002), 77. 26. Zabih, Iran since the Revolution, 84. 27. L. Diamond, “Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflicts,” The Journal of Modern African Studies 25, no. 1 (1987): 122. 28. S. Jalili, quoted in W. Samii, “The Nation and Its Minorities: Ethnicity, Unity and State Policy in Iran,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East xx, no. 1– 2 (2000): 137. 29. F. Halliday, Iran: Dictatorship and Development (Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1979), 12. 30. The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran (Tehran: Nashr Douran, 2005), 31. 31. The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran (Tehran: Nashr Douran, 2005), 29. 32. “Iran: New Government Fails to Address Dire Human Rights Situation,” accessed November 9, 2008, http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/MDE13/ 010/2006. 33. K. Ehsani, “Prospects for Democratization in Iran” (2004), accessed April 2, 2013, http://peace.concordia.ca/pdf/kaveh_ehsani_paper.pdf. 34. A. J. Motyl, ed., Encyclopaedia of Nationalism, Leaders, Movements, and Concepts, vol. 2 (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2001), 237. 35. H. Ahmadi, ed., Iran, Hovieyat, Mellieyat, Ghomieyat (Tehran: Moasaseye Tah- ghighat va Toseeye Uloume Insani, 2004), 412. 36. N. Nasibzade, “The Azeri Question in Iran: A Crucial Issue for Iran’s Future,” accessed April 9, 2013, http://www.zerbaijan.com/azeri/nasibzade2.html. 37. M. Sababi, “The Possibility of Federalism as a State System in Iran,” Annual CESS Conference, Bloomington University, October 14– 16, 2004. 38. Human Rights Watch, “Iran: Religious and Ethnic Minorities,” accessed April 9, 2013, http://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1997/iran/Iran- 06.htm#P397_84566. 39. T. Atabaki, “Ethnic Diversity and Territorial Integrity of Iran: Domestic Harmony and Regional Challenges,” Iranian Studies 38, no 1 (2005): 41. 40. E. Hobsbawm, Nation and Nationalism since 1780; Programme, Myth, Reality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 102. 200 O Notes

41. N. Nasibzade, “The Azeri Question in Iran.” 42. Mahmud Ali Chehregani was an Azeri candidate for the Parliament from Tabriz in 1996. Chehregani demanded implementation of Article 15 of the constitution. He was arrested and disqualified from his candidacy. Azeris in Tabriz demonstrated against this decision. 43. H. D. Hassan, “Iran: Ethnic and Religious Minorities,” CRS Report for Congress (2007): 7, accessed April 5, 2013, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RL34021 .pdf. 44. Shaffer, Iran and the Challenge, 142. 45. Abrahamian, A History of Modern Iran, 176. 46. Human Rights Watch, “Iran Report,” 4, accessed May 29, 2010, http://www.hrw .org/wr2k8/pdfs/iran.pdf. 47. Human Rights Watch, “Iran: Religious and Ethnic Minorities.” 48. D. F. Eickelman, The Middle East and Central Asia, an Anthropological Approach (London: Upper Saddle River, 1998), 203. 49. Nazila Ghanea-Hercock. Ethnic and Religious Groups in the Islamic Republic of Iran: Policy Suggestions for the Integration of Minorities through Participation in Pub- lic Life, 8. Commission on Human Rights, Sub-Commission on Promotion and Protection of Human Rights Working Group on Minorities: 9th Session, May 12–16, 2003. 50. A. Ansari, Modern Iran since 1921 (London: Pearson Education, 2003), 88. 51. A. Vali, “The Kurds and Their ‘Others’: Fragmented Identity and Fragmented Politics,” Comparitive Studies of Africa, South Asia and the Middle East 18, no. 2 (1998): 88. 52. Zabih, Iran since the Revolution, 85. 53. Sanasarian, Religious Minorities in Iran, 14. 54. M. Maghsodi, Tahavolate Quomi dar Iran (Tehran: Institute of National Studies, 2001), 297. 55. Zabih, Iran since the Revolution, 85. 56. Hiro, Iran under the Ayatollahs, 152. 57. Zabih, Iran since the Revolution, 85. 58. Human Rights Watch, “Iran: Religious and Ethnic Minorities.” 59. UK Home Office Immigration and Nationality Directorate (IND CIPU), Coun- try Information and Policy Unit, Country Report Iran, April 2005, s. 6, 121. 60. Z. Khalilzad, “The Politics of Ethnicity in Southwest Asia: Political Development or Political Decay?” Political Science Quarterly 99, no. 4 (1984– 85): 677. 61. The four Kurdish opposition leaders were assassinated at the Mykonos restaurant in Berlin, Germany. 62. M. Monshipour, Islamism, Secularism, and Human Rights in the Middle East (Lon- don: Lynne Rienner, 1998), 194. 63. “Iran Hangs Five ‘Kurdish Rebels,’” BBC News, accessed April 10, 2013, http:// news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8672384.stm. 64. Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty, “Iran Reportedly Training Kurds for Counter- insurgency,” Iran Report, November 15, 2004. 65. Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty, “Plans Proliferate for Intelligence and Security Ministry Reorganisation,” Iran Report, October 11, 2004. Notes O 201

66. Human Rights Watch. “Ethnic Minorities,” accessed May 19, 2013, http://www .hrw.org/reports/1997/iran/Iran-06.htm. 67. “Open Letter: Stop Iran from Suppressing the Kurds and Interfering in Kurdish Affairs,” accessed July 25, 2010, kurdishmedia.com. 68. The resignations were later withdrawn. 69. Hassan, “Iran,” 6. 70. Human Rights Watch, “Iran: Religious and Ethnic Minorities.” 71. Halliday, Iran, 227. 72. Jamestown Foundation, “Iraqi Militants Encourage People of Khuzestan to Launch Jihad against Iran, October 14, 2011,” Terrorism Monitor 9 (37), accessed April 9, 2013, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4e9c21782.html. 73. Maghsodi, Tahavolate Quomi, 355. 74. Human Rights Watch, “Iran Report.” 75. H. Dilip, Iran under the Ayatollahs (London: Routledge, 1985), 112– 13. 76. The group called itself Democratic Revolutionary Movement for the Liberation of Arabistan. 77. Ansari, Modern Iran, 231. 78. “SAS Rescue Ends Iran Embassy Siege,” BBC News, accessed April 8, 2013, http:// news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/5/newsid_2510000/2510873.stm. 79. B. Samii, “Emergency in Khuzistan,” RFE/RL Iran Report, November 6, 2000. 80. Several times, Abtahi denied writing the letter. 81. G. Smyth, “Tehran Puzzled by Forged ‘Riots’ Letter,” Financial Times, accessed April 9, 2013, http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/58622d88- b13a- 11d9- 9bfc- 00000 e2511c8.html#axzz2PucaAKhb. 82. “Fallout from Ahvaz Unrest Could Lead to Televised Confessions,” RFE/RL Iran Report, vol. 8, no. 17, April 25, 2005, accessed April 9, 2013, http://www.rferl. org/content/article/1342635.html. 83. “Iran Rocked by Series of Blasts,” BBC News, accessed April 9, 2013, http://news .bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4084908.stm. 84. “Bomb Blast Hits Iranian Oil City,” BBC News, accessed April 9, 2013, http:// news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4769724.stm. 85. Human Rights Watch, “Iran Report,” 4, accessed August 10, 2010, http://www .hrw.org/wr2k8/pdfs/iran.pdf. 86. Halliday, Iran, 228. 87. Ibid., 228. Also see Human Rights Watch, “Report on Iran,” accessed April 9, 2013, http://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/1997/iran/Iran- 06.htm#P397_84566. 88. Hassan, “Iran,” 6. 89. Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization, West Balochistan, 6, accessed April 5, 2013, http://www.unpo.org/images/member_profile/westbalochistan profilepublisherjune%202010.pdf. 90. Human Rights Watch, “Report on Iran,” accessed April 9, 2013, http://www.hrw .org/legacy/reports/1997/iran/Iran- 06.htm#P397_84566. 91. Ibid. 92. US Department of State, “Iran Report on Human Rights Practices for 1996,” accessed April 9, 2013, www.state.gov/www/global/human_rights/1996_hrp _report/iran.html. 202 O Notes

93. M. Rubin, “Domestic Threats to Iranian Stability: Khuzistan and Baluchistan,” Middle East Forum, accessed April 8, 2013, http://www.meforum.org/788/ domestic- threats-to- iranian- stability- khuzistan. 94. Quoted in Sanasarian, Religious Minorities in Iran, 63. 95. W. Samii and C. Recknagel, “Iran’s War on Drugs,” accessed April 8, 2013, http://carrythemessage.com/include/iran/2000- irans- war- on- drugs.pdf. 96. W. Samii, “The Nation and Its Minorities: Ethnicity, Unity and State Policy in Iran,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East xx, no. 1–2 (2000): 135. 97. M. Ansari, “Pakistan Joins U.S. in Attacking Iran over Support for Terror,” Sun- day Telegraph (London), January 23, 2005. 98. “Iran: Country’s Drug Problems Appear to be Worsening,” RFE/RL Iran Report, July 18, 2005. 99. “Three Portuguese Kidnapped in Iran,” BBC News, September 28, 1999, accessed July 7, 2010, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/459739.stm. 100. “Press Release re: Kidnapping of Two German and One Irish Tourist in Baluch- istan of Iran,” Baluchistan United Front of Iran, December 10, 2003, accessed June 05, 2008, http://www.balochfront.com/statements/Press2.pdf. 101. Sanasarian, Religious Minorities in Iran, 13. 102. Moaddel, Class, Politics, and Ideology, 240. 103. Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions, 120. 104. Shaffer, Iran and the Challenge, 56. 105. F. Kashani-Sabet, Frontier Fictions, Shaping the Iranian Nation, 1804–1946 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), 211. 106. O. Roy, “The Iranian Foreign Policy toward Central Asia,” accessed November 18, 2008, http://www.eurasianet.org/resource/regional/royoniran.html. 107. Ansari, Modern Iran, 89. 108. T. Swietochowski, Islam and the Growth of National Identity in Soviet Azerbai- jan. Muslim Communities Reemerge (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994), 55– 56. 109. Keddie, Modern Iran, 314. 110. R. Lowe and C. Spencer, eds., Iran, Its Neighbours and the Regional Crisis. A Middle East Programme Report (London: Chatham House, 2006), accessed May 18, 2013, http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Middle%20 East/iran0806.pdf. 111. J. Chipman, “Managing the Politics of Parochialism,” in Ethnic Conflict and Inter- national Security, ed. M. E. Brown (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 247. 112. Shaffer, Iran and the Challenge, 1–2. 113. D. M. Ollapally, “Foreign Policy and Identity Politics: Realist versus Culturalist Lessons,” International Studies 35, no. 3 (1998): 1. 114. Shaffer, Iran and the Challenge, 1– 2. 115. Quoted in Shaffer, Iran and the Challenge, 2. 116. Shaffer, Iran and the Challenge, 174. 117. Quoted in Shaffer, Iran and the Challenge, 187. Notes O 203

118. N. Nasibzade, “The Azeri Question in Iran.” For the first point, see also Shaffer, Iran and the Challenge, 185. 119. Ali Akbar Velayati was the foreign minister from 1981 to 1997. 120. A. Kasravi, “The Turkish Language in Iran,” Journal of Azerbaijan Studies 1, no. 2 (1998): 50. 121. Shaffer, Iran and the Challenge, 2. 122. K. Rahder. Iran: Stifling the Azeri Minority, accessed April 8, 2013, http://www.isn .ethz.ch/isn/Digital- Library/Articles/Detail/?lng=en&id=53156. 123. Shaffer, Iran and the Challenge, 174. 124. A. Ehteshami and M. Zweiri, Iran and the Rise of Its Neoconservative, the Politics of Tehran’s Silent Revolution (London: I. B. Tauris, 2007), 102. 125. Khalilzad, “The Politics of Ethnicity,” 674. 126. Anonymous, quoted in “Iran’s Ethnic Minorities Stew,” Washington Times, accessed April 10, 2013, http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2006/ jul/18/20060718- 095128- 6151r/?page=all. 127. Ibid. 128. P. O’Toole, “Iran Blast Points to Ethnic Tensions,” BBC News, accessed April 8, 2013, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/6363181.stm. 129. “Iran Jundullah Leader Claims US Military Support,” BBC News, accessed April 9, 2013, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/8537567.stm. 130. Abdulmalek Rigi was arrested by the Iranian security forces on February 23, 2010. I. Black, “Iran Captures Sunni Insurgent Leader Abdolmalek Rigi,” Guard- ian, accessed April 10, 2013, http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/feb/23/ iran- abdolmalek- rigi- arrest. 131. Shaffer, Iran and the Challenge, 1. 132. H. Ahmadi, “Unity within Diversity: Foundations and Dynamics of National Identity in Iran,” Critique: Critical Middle Eastern Studies 14, no. 1 (2005): 132. 133. D. Byman, S. Chubin, A. Ehteshami, and J. Green, eds., Iran’s Security Policy in the Post- Revolutionary Era (Santa Monica, CA: National Defense Research Insti- tute Rand Corporation, 2001), 1. 134. J. A. Sigler, Minority Rights: A Comparative Analysis (London: Greenwood Press, 1983), 189. 135. The Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran (Tehran: Nashr Douran, 2005), 24. 136. Hinnebusch and Ehteshami, The Foreign Policies, 283– 307. 137. N. L. Nassibli, “Azerbaijan- Iran Relations: Challenges and Prospects,” event sum- mary, Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, accessed April 8, 2013, http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/12750/azerbaijan_iran_relations .html. 138. B. Shaffer, “The Formation of Azerbaijan Collective Identity in Iran,” Nationalities Papers 28, no. 3 (2003): 450. 139. C, Bogert, “They All Get Along,” Newsweek, 31, May 26, 1997. 140. Touraj Atabaki. “From Multilingual Empire to Contested Modern State,” in Iran in the 21st Century. Politics, Economics & Conflicts, ed. H. Katouzian and H. Sha- hidi (New York: Routledge, 2008), 60. 204 O Notes

141. M. J. Esman and I. Rabinovich, eds., Ethnicity, Pluralism, and the State in the Middle East (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988), 20. 142. Sanasarian, Religious Minorities in Iran, 9. 143. Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions, 527. 144. Motyl, Encyclopaedia of Nationalism, vol. 2, 239. 145. Rafsanjani’s interviews with George A. Nader, editor of Middle East Insight, were reproduced in “From Tehran to Waco,” Washington Post, July 9, 1995.

Chapter 5 1. O. Roy, Globalized Islam: The Search for a New Ummah (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004), 9. 2. O. Wæver, B. Buzan, M. Kelstrup, and P. Lemaitre, eds., Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe (London: Pinter, 1993), 24. 3. M. Moaddel, Class, Politics, and Ideology in the Iranian Revolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), 5. 4. B. Buzan, People, States and Fear: An Agenda for International Security Studies in the Post- Cold War Era (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), 37. 5. E. Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), 5. 6. Moaddel, Class, Politics, and Ideology, 24. 7. T. R. Gurr, Why Men Rebel (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971), 121. 8. C. Jones, Soviet Jewish Aliyah, 1989 to 1992: Impact and Implications for Israel and the Middle East, PhD diss., University of Wales, Aberystwyth (1994), 11. 9. Roy, Globalized Islam, 90– 91. 10. Gurr, Why Men Rebel, 33. 11. Ibid., 60. 12. M. Rubin and P. Clawson, “Patterns of Discontent: Will History Repeat in Iran?” Middle East Review of International Affairs (2006): 2. 13. A. Hashim, The Crisis of the Iranian State: Domestic, Foreign and Security Policies in Post- Khomeini Iran (London: Oxford University Press, 1995), 17. 14. F. Moshiri, “Iran: Islamic Revolution against Westernization,” in Revolutions of the Late Twentieth Century, ed. T. R. Gurr, J. A. Goldstones, and F. Moshiri (Oxford: Westview Press, 1991), 126. 15. C. H. Williams, National Separatism (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1982), 1– 2. 16. J. A. Goldstones, T. R. Gurr, and F. Moshiri, eds., Revolutions of the Late Twentieth Century, 334. 17. Gurr, Why Men Rebel, 87. 18. E. Sanasarian, Religious Minorities in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 9. 19. Buzan, People, States and Fear, 104–105. 20. Gurr, Why Men Rebel, 185. 21. Hashim, The Crisis of the Iranian State, 22. 22. S. Chubin and C. Tripp, Iran- Saudi Arabia Relations and Regional Order (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 63. Notes O 205

23. R. W. Cottam, Nationalism in Iran (London: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1979), 156. 24. Gurr, Why Men Rebel, 185. 25. M. Dorraj and M. Dodson, “Neo- Populism in Comparative Perspective: Iran and Venezuela,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 29, no. 1 (2009): 145. 26. Hashim, The Crisis of the Iranian State, 3. 27. Ibid., 7. 28. Ibid., 13. 29. Ibid., 10. 30. Ibid., 18. 31. A. Keshavarzian, “Regime Loyalty and Bazari, Representation under the Islamic Republic of Iran: Dilemmas of the Society of Islamic Coalition,” IJMES 41 (2009): 233. 32. I. Berman, Tehran Rising, Iran’s Challenge to the United States (Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005), 131. 33. Gurr, Why Men Rebel, 251. 34. Berman, Tehran Rising, 131. 35. Political Risk Services, “Iran Country Conditions,” 14, December 1, 2003, accessed May 1, 2008, http://www.prsgroup.com. 36. M. Rubin, “Iran’s Burgeoning Discontent,” Washington Institute Policy Watch no. 628 (May 30, 2002): 1. 37. Quoted in W. Mason, “Iran’s Simmering Discontent,” World Policy Journal (2002): 72. 38. Rubin and Clawson, “Patterns of Discontent,” 13. 39. M. Amir-Ebrahimi, “Transgression in Narration: The Lives of Iranian Women in Cyberspace,” Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies 4, no. 3 (2008): 97. 40. “Polling Iranian Public Opinion: An Unprecedented Nationwide Survey of Iran,” Terror Free Tomorrow (2007): 2– 4, accessed August 1, 2010, http://www.terrorfree tomorrow.org. 41. Gurr, Why Men Rebel, 136. 42. “Iran Country Profile (2008),” Economist Intelligence Unit, 8, accessed June 3, 2010, http://store.eiu.com/product/30000203IR.html. 43. Quoted in N. Alavi, We Are Iran (London: Portobello Books, 2005), 291. 44. F. Okata, “Regime Change in Iran: An Analytic Framework,” Strategic Insights 2, no. 2 (2003): 1. 45. Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions, 532. 46. S. Chubin, Whither Iran? Reform, Domestic, Politics and National Security (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 18. 47. Chubin and Tripp, Iran- Saudi Arabia, 66. 48. Political Risk Services, “Iran Country Conditions,” 12. 49. “Iran Faces ‘Social Explosion,’” BBC News, accessed June 3, 2009, http://news .bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1991684.stm. 50. Political Risk Services, “Iran Country Conditions,” 13. 51. M. Panah, The Islamic Republic and the World. Global Dimensions of the Iranian Revolution (London: Pluto Press, 2007), 123. 206 O Notes

52. A. Ansari, Modern Iran since 1921 (London: Pearson Education, 2003), 64. 53. “Iran: Discontent and Disarray,” Middle East briefing, International Crisis Group no. 11 (October 15, 2003): 1– 2. 54. Gurr, Why Men Rebel, 148– 149. 55. Chubin, Whither Iran? 18. 56. Rubin and Clawson, “Patterns of Discontent,” 15. 57. “Iran: Discontent and Disarray,” 2. 58. Mason, “Iran’s Simmering Discontent,” 72. 59. Ansari, Modern Iran, 64. 60. Dorraj and Dodson, “Neo- Populism in Comparative Perspective,” 142. 61. Gurr, Why Men Rebel, 267– 71. 62. Hashim, The Crisis of the Iranian State, 26– 27. 63. A. Asgharzadeh, Iran and the Challenge of Diversity, Islamic Fundamentalism, Ary- anist Racism, and Democratic Struggles (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), x. 64. N. R. Keddie, Modern Iran, Roots and Results of Revolution (London: Yale Univer- sity Press, 2003), 315. 65. M. J. Esman, An Introduction to Ethnic Conflict (Cambridge: Polity, 2004), 25. 66. Moshiri, “Iran: Islamic Revolution,” 131. 67. G. R. Fazel, “Tribes and State in Iran,” in Iran: A Revolution in Turmoil, ed. H. Afshar (London: Macmillan, 1985), 94– 96. 68. Williams, National Separatism, 1. 69. Such officials include Minister Sadegh Mahsouli; General Amir Hayat Mogha- dam, the governor of Khuzestan Provence; and Mohammad Reza Faleh Zadeh Abarghoyi, the governor of Yazd Provence. 70. H. Ahmadi, ed., Iran, Hovieyat, Mellieyat, Ghomieyat (Tehran: Moasaseye Tah- ghighat va Toseeye Uloume Insani, 2004), 171. 71. M. Maghsodi, Tahavolate Quomi dar Iran (Tehran: Institute of National Studies, 2001), 40– 49. 72. H. Amirahmadi and M. Parvin, eds., Post Revolutionary Iran (Boulder, CO: West- view Special Study on the Middle East, 1988), 63. 73. Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions, 537. 74. “Ethnic Demands and the Election,” BBC Persian, accessed April 9, 2013, http:// www.bbc.co.uk/persian/iran/2009/05/090512_mf- ir88- aalami.shtml. 75. Quoted in Wæver, Buzan, Kelstrup, and Lemaitre, Identity, 49. 76. J. R. Bradley, “Iran’s Ethnic Tinderbox,” The Washington Quarterly 30, no. 1 (Win- ter 2006– 7), 181. 77. Asgharzadeh, Iran and the Challenge of Diversity, 22. 78. Hashim, The Crisis of the Iranian State, 25. 79. Gurr, Why Men Rebel, 108. 80. Bradley, “Iran’s Ethnic Tinderbox,” 183. 81. Ibid., 184–85. 82. L. Athanasiadis, “Stirring the Ethnic Pot,” Asia Times Online, accessed April 9, 2013, http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/GD29Ak01.html. 83. Quoted in A. W. Samii, “The Nation and Its Minorities: Ethnicity, Unity and State Policy in Iran,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 20, no. 1– 2 (2000): 130. Notes O 207

84. CQ Press, The Middle East, 11th ed. (Washington: CQ Press, 2007), 237. 85. Samii, “The Nation and Its Minorities,” 131. 86. Ibid., 132. 87. Bradley, “Iran’s Ethnic Tinderbox,” 187. 88. R. Cottam, “Inside Revolutionary Iran,” in Iran’s Revolution: The Search for Con- sensus, ed. R. K. Ramazani (Washington, DC: Indiana University Press, 1990), 13. 89. Sanasarian, Religious Minorities in Iran, 14. 90. Samii, “The Nation and Its Minorities,” 130. 91. Ibid., 129–36. 92. G. Dinmore, “Tackling Iran’s Ethnic Divide,” Financial Times, September 18, 2000. 93. S. Javan, “A Kurd Letter to Khatami,” Irane Farda, October 6, 1999. 94. C. Walker, Countries at the Crossroads: A Survey of Democratic Governance (New York: Freedom House, 2005), 305. 95. Bradley, “Iran’s Ethnic Tinderbox,” 184. 96. Ibid., 182. 97. N. Tohidi, “Iran: Regionalism, Ethnicity, and Democracy,” OpenDemocracy.net, accessed April 7, 2013, http://www.opendemocracy.net/democracy- irandemocracy/ regionalism_3695.jsp. 98. Samii, “The Nation and Its Minorities,” 129. 99. F. Pour Saeed, “Diversity and Unity in the Iranian Societies,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 10, no. 1 (2007): 49. 100. “Human Right Dossier on Ahwazi Arabs,” report prepared by British Ahwazi Friendship Society Ahwaz Human Rights Organization, Ahwaz Education and Human Rights, Foundation Ahwaz Studies Center, July 16, 2007, accessed April 2, 2013, http://www.hic- mena.org/documents/dossier.pdf. 101. Y. A. Bani Torof, “National Inequality in Iran,” accessed February 8, 2011, http:// ebookbrowse.com/national- inequality- in- iran- doc- d19643516. 102. B. Amirahmadian, “The Development Degree in Iranian Provinces and National Harmony,” National Studies Quarterly 1, no. 1 (Autumn 1999), 104–10. For the case of Baluchistan, see also M. Kaviani Rad, “Political Regionalism in Iran, The Case of Iranian Baluchestan,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 10, no. 1 (2007): 110. 103. “Shadegan Unemployment Rate: 40 Percent,” Fars News Agency, May 12, 2010, accessed April 7, 2013, http://www.farsnews.net/newstext.php?nn=8902221274. 104. M. Larni, Naghd va Tahlil dar Masaeele Ejtemaee Iran (Tehran: Bhineh, 2008), 126. 105. “Human Right Dossier on Ahwazi Arabs,” 9– 15. 106. A. Hosseinpoor, K. Mohammad, R. Majdzadeh, M. Naghavi, F. Abolhassani, A. Sousa, N. Speybroeck, H. Reza Jamshidi, and J. Vega, “Socioeconomic Inequal- ity in Infant Mortality in Iran and across Its Provinces,” Bulletin of the World Health Organization (November 2005), 841. 107. R. S. Amiri, Moderiate Monazeaate Ghowmi Dar Iran (Tehran: Centre for Strategic Studies, 2007), 200– 14. 108. Ahwaz Human Rights Organization, Submission to the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Universal Periodic Review: 7th Session of the UPR Working Group, February 1, 2010, accessed April 5, 2013, http://lib.ohchr 208 O Notes

.org/HRBodies/UPR/Documents/Session7/IR/AHRO_UPR_IRN_S07_2010 _AhwazHumanRightsOrganization.pdf. 109. A. Yosefi, “Sense of Ethnic Commitment in Iran,” Kavoush, Islamic Republic of Iran, Ministry of Interior, Social Affairs, Research Articles 1 (2004): 82. 110. Foundation on Inter- Ethnic Relations, “The Lund Recommendations on the Effective Participation of National Minorities in Public Life,” accessed July 8, 2010, http://www.osce.org/item/2929.html. 111. Ibid., 4. 112. Ibid., 6–7 113. UN Doc. E/CN.4/1996/95/Add.29, para. 18, accessed June 3, 2010, http://www .unhchr.ch/huridocda/huridoca.nsf/AllSymbols/09521F127B6419D0C1256D2 50047D9E6/$File/G0314153.pdf?OpenElement. 114. Bradley, “Iran’s Ethnic Tinderbox,” 182. 115. J. Kucera, “US: Stirring Up Minority Discontent in Iran,” EurasiaNet, 3, accessed March 18, 2008, http://www.ocnus.net/artman2/publish/International _3/Strirring_Up_Discontent_in_Iran_printer.shtml. 116. D. Plesch and M. Butcher, “Considering a War with Iran: A Discussion Paper on WMD in the Middle East,” SOAS University of London, September 2007, 33. February 23, 2006, accessed May 20, 2013, http://www.cisd.soas.ac.uk/Editor/ assets/iran%20study%2007.07.pdf. 117. Samii, “The Nation and Its Minorities,” 129. 118. E. Hen- Tov, “Understanding Iran’s New Authoritarianism,” The Washington Quar- terly 30, no. 1 (2006– 7): 163. 119. Ibid., 163. 120. Ibid., 165. 121. Dorraj and Dodson, “Neo- Populism in Comparative Perspective,” 144. 122. E. Hen- Tov, “Understanding Iran’s New Authoritarianism,” 166. 123. Gurr, Why Men Rebel, 353. 124. Touraj Atabaki, “From Multilingual Empire to Contested Modern State,” in Iran in the 21st Century. Politics, Economics & Conflicts, ed. H. Katouzian and H. Sha- hidi (New York: Routledge, 2008), 60. 125. Bradley, “Iran’s Ethnic Tinderbox,” 182.

Chapter 6 1. T. R. Gurr, Why Men Rebel (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971), 46. 2. Ibid., 9. 3. M. J. Esman, Ethnic Politics (New York: Cornell University Press, 1994), 11. 4. M. Vaziri, Iran as Imagined Nation (New York: Paragon House; 1993), 31. 5. S. Benhabib, I. Shapiro, and D. Petranovic, eds., Identities, Affiliations, and Alle- giances (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 2– 3. 6. R. Stavenhagen, Ethnic Conflicts and the Nation-State (London: Macmillan, 1996), 66. 7. Esman, Ethnic Politics, 29– 30. 8. M. Maghsodi, Tahavolate Quomi dar Iran (Tehran, Institute of National Studies, 2001), 450. Notes O 209

9. “Especial Report: Causes of Azerbaijan Crisis in June 2007,” Center for Strategic Studies (Tehran, 2008), 9. 10. Yaghob. Copenhagen, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 21, 2009. 11. Mohammad. Sheffield, UK. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 25, 2009. 12. T. H. Eriksen, Ethnicity & Nationalism, Anthropological Perspectives (London: Pluto Press,1993), 60. 13. Esman, Ethnic Politics, 256– 57. 14. Kazim. Faxe, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 16, 2009. 15. Kazim. Faxe, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 16, 2009. 16. Majedeh. Khorramshahr, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, Sep- tember 2, 2009. 17. Yahya. Abadan, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 10, 2009. 18. Shadegan is a city located in the Khuzestan province with an over 95 percent Arab population. 19. “Shadegan Unemployment Rate: 40 Percent,” Fars News Agency, May 12, 2012, accessed April 7, 2013, http://www.farsnews.net/newstext.php?nn=8902221274. 20. Abdullah. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, August 28, 2009. 21. Yaghob. Copenhagen, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 21, 2009. 22. Abdullah. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, August 28, 2009. 23. Mehry. Faxe, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 19, 2009. 24. Yaghob. Copenhagen, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 21, 2009. 25. Reza. Khorramshahr, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 13, 2009. 26. Naser. Mashhad, Iran. Ethnicity: Turkmen. Interviewed by the author, September 25, 2009. 27. Hoda. Khorramshahr, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, Septem- ber 2, 2009. 28. Hadis. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 22, 2009. 29. Abdullah. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, August 28, 2009. 30. Majedeh. Khorramshahr, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, Sep- tember 2, 2009. 31. Mehrad. Karaj, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, September 1, 2009. 32. Ali. Leeds, UK. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, July 26, 2009. 33. Mehrad. Karaj, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, September 1, 2009. 210 O Notes

34. Azita. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, September 4, 2009. 35. Ghazale. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, August, 2009. 36. N. Glazer and D. P. Moynihan, eds., Ethnicity, Theory and Experience (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975), 103. 37. Quoted in A. W. Samii, “The Nation and Its Minorities: Ethnicity, Unity and State Policy in Iran,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 20, no. 1– 2 (2000): 129. 38. Kazim. Faxe, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 16, 2009. 39. Mohsen. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, September 1, 2009. 40. Parvaneh. Mashhad, Iran. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, September 24, 2009. 41. Mohammad. Sheffield, UK. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 25, 2009. 42. Reza. Khorramshahr, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 13, 2009. 43. Abdullah. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, August 28, 2009. 44. Majedeh. Khorramshahr, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, Sep- tember 2, 2009. 45. Yahya. Abadan, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 10, 2009. 46. Mehry. Faxe, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 19, 2009. 47. Neda. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 25, 2009. 48. F. Pour Saeed, “Diversity and Unity in the Iranian Societies,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 10, no. 1 (2007): 45. 49. D. Romano, “Modern Communications Technology in Ethnic Nationalist Hands: The Case of the Kurds,” Canadian Journal of Political Science (March 2002): 128. 50. M. M. Hafez, Why Muslims Rebel. Repression and Resistance in the Islamic World (London: Lynne Rienner, 2004), 20. 51. F. Alikhah, “The Politics of Satellite Television in Iran,” In Culture and Society in Iran, Living with Globalization and the Islamic State, ed. M. Semati (London: Routledge, 2008), 106. 52. M. J. Esman, An Introduction to Ethnic Conflicts (Cambridge: Polity, 2004), 18. 53. Eriksen, Ethnicity & Nationalism, 121. 54. Ibid., 150. 55. Esman, An Introduction to Ethnic Conflicts, 25. 56. Kazim. Faxe, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 16, 2009. 57. Ghader. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 15, 2009. 58. M. A. Ghasemi, “The Minorities in the Iran’s Islamic Republic Constitution,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 6, no. 4 (2003): 868. 59. Reza. Khorramshahr, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 13, 2009. Notes O 211

60. Mehry. Faxe, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 19, 2009. 61. Mahtab. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, August 31, 2009. 62. M. Bani Hashemi, “Ethnic Azerbaijan Nationalism: An Overview in Iran,” Strate- gic Studies Quarterly 5, no. 2 (2002): 573– 80. 63. Ibid., 573–75. 64. Romano, “Modern Communications,” 128. 65. Alikhah, “The Politics of Satellite Television in Iran,” 51– 53. 66. M. A. Ghasemi, “New Social Movements: The Case of Azerbaijan,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 10, no. 1 (2007): 79. Also see M. Kaviani Rad, “Political Regionalism in Iran, The Case of Iranian Baluchestan,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 10, no. 1 (2007): 114. 67. Ali. Leeds, UK. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, July 26, 2009. 68. Kazim. Faxe, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 16, 2009. 69. K. Yildiz and T. B. Taysi, The Kurds in Iran; the Past, Present and Future (London: Pluto Press, 2007), 109. 70. Azita. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, September 25, 2009. 71. Romano, “Modern Communications,” 134. 72. Naser. Mashhad, Iran. Ethnicity: Turkmen. Interviewed by the author, September 25, 2009. 73. Ghasemi, “New Societal Movements,” 78– 79. 74. “Causes of Azerbaijan Crisis,” 10– 11. 75. Javad. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, September 28, 2009. 76. Unrest in the ethnic Azeri community erupted in May 2006 when a state- run newspaper, Iran, published a cartoon with an article the Azeris believed depicted them as cockroaches. 77. Ghasemi, “New Societal Movements,” 72– 73. 78. Romano, “Modern Communications,” 128. 79. Ibid., 137. 80. Yaghob. Copenhagen, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 21, 2009. 81. Ghader. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 15, 2009. 82. Yaghob. Copenhagen, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 21, 2009. 83. Ali. Leeds, UK. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, July 26, 2009. 84. Babak. Leeds, UK. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, July 31, 2009. 85. Ehteshami. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, August 28, 2009. 86. Mohammad. Sheffield, UK. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 25, 2009. 87. Majedeh. Khorramshahr, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, Sep- tember 2, 2009. 88. Yaghob. Copenhagen, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 21, 2009. 212 O Notes

89. Mansour. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, September 16, 2009. 90. Naser. Mashhad, Iran. Ethnicity: Turkmen. Interviewed by the author, September 25, 2009. 91. M. Kaviani Rad, “Political Regionalism in Iran, The Case of Iranian Baluchestan,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 10, no. 1 (2007): 103–114. See also R. Salehi Amiri, Mode- riate Monazeaate Ghowmi Dar Iran (Tehran: Centre for Strategic Studies, 2007), 84. 92. Rad, “Political Regionalism in Iran,” 102. 93. Fatemeh. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, September 28, 2009. 94. “Asharq Al- Awsat,” accessed April 8, 2013, http://www.aawsat.com/details.asp? section=4&article=551624&issueno=11362. 95. D. L. Horowitz, The Deadly Ethnic Riot (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2002), 1. 96. Ibid., 27. 97. Naser. Mashhad, Iran. Ethnicity: Turkmen. Interviewed by the author, September 25, 2009. 98. Kazim. Faxe, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 16, 2009. 99. O. Wæver, B. Buzan, M. Kelstrup, and P. Lemaitre, eds., Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe (London: Pinter, 1993), 43. 100. Human Rights Watch, “Iran, Religious and Ethnic Minorities; Discrimination in Law and Practice,” Human Rights Watch, Middle East 9, no. 7 (1997), accessed April 5, 2013, http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6a8240.html. 101. E. Sanasarian, Religious Minorities in Iran (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 14. 102. Kaviani Rad, “Political Regionalism in Iran, The Case of Iranian Baluchestan,” 103. 103. Selig S. Harrison, “Ethnicity and Politics in Pakistan: The Baluch Case,” in J. Hutchinson and A. D. Smith, eds., Ethnicity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 296. 104. Kazim. Faxe, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 16, 2009. 105. Yildiz and Taysi, The Kurds in Iran, 109. 106. Esman, An Introduction to Ethnic Conflicts, 128. 107. Ibid., 179. 108. Harrison, “Ethnicity and Politics,” 299. 109. S. Van Evera, “Hypotheses on Nationalism and War,” International Security 18, no. 4 (1994): 8. 110. J. Haynes, Third World Politics: A Concise Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), 96– 97. 111. Ibid., 98. 112. R. Scott Wilson, “Making Hakka Spaces: Resisting Multicultural Nationalism in Taiwan,” Identities, Global Studies in Culture and Power 16, no. 4 (2009): 414. 113. M. Kamrava, The Political History of Modern Iran, From Tribalism to Theocracy (London: Praeger, 1992), 121. 114. S. Fenton, Ethnicity (Cambridge: Polity, 2003), 7. 115. Kamrava, The Political History of Modern Iran, 122. Notes O 213

116. Ibid., 136. 117. M. Maghsodi, Ethnic Developments in Iran, Causes and Reasons (Tehran: National Research Institution, 2002), 342. 118. Yaghob. Copenhagen, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 21, 2009. 119. Keywan. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, August 29, 2009. 120. Horowitz, The Deadly Ethnic Riot, 546. 121. Mansour. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, September 16, 2009. 122. Inas. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 22, 2009. 123. Suzy. Khorramshahr, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 2, 2009. 124. Hoda. Khorramshahr, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 2, 2009. 125. Mahtab. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, August 31, 2009. 126. Maryam. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, August 27, 2009. 127. Mahtab. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, August 31, 2009. 128. Kian. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, August 30, 2009. 129. Ziba. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, August 26, 2009. 130. Fenton, Ethnicity, 147. 131. Wæver, Buzan, Kelstrup, and Lemaitre, eds., Identity, 43. 132. Ali. Leeds, UK. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, July 26, 2009. 133. G. A. De Vos, quoted in L. Romanucci-Ross, G. A. De Vos, T. Tsuda, eds., Eth- nic Identity, Problems and Prospects for the Twenty- First Century (Oxford: Altamira Press, 2006), 9. 134. Hutchinson and Smith, Ethnicity, 118. 135. Mehrad. Karaj, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, September 1, 2009. 136. Keywan. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, August 29, 2009. 137. Mehdi. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, August 30, 2009. 138. J. Blondel Sa’ad, Arabo- phobia in the Contemporary Iranian Literature (Tehran: Karang Publisher, 2004), 31. See also Kamrava, The Political History of Modern Iran, 136. 139. A. Hashim, The Crisis of the Iranian State. Domestic, Foreign and Security Policies in Post- Khomeini Iran (London: Oxford University Press, 1995), 43. 140. Javad. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, September 28, 2009. 141. T. Tsuda, quoted in Romanucci-Ross, De Vos, and Tsuda, eds., Ethnic Identity, 233. 214 O Notes

142. Mehry. Faxe, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 19, 2009. 143. Majedeh. Khorramshahr, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, Sep- tember 2, 2009. 144. Reza. Khorramshahr, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 13, 2009. 145. Hoda. Khorramshahr, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 2, 2009. 146. Romano, “Modern Communications,” 145. 147. “Especial Report: Ethnic Nationalism and Ethnic Baluch in Iran” (Tehran: Centre forStrategic Studies, 2003), 16. 148. D. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 141– 84. 149. Ali. Leeds, UK. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, July 26, 2009. 150. Yaghob. Copenhagen, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 21, 2009. 151. Yahya. Abadan, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 10, 2009. 152. Ali. Leeds, UK. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, July 26, 2009. 153. Kazim. Faxe, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 16, 2009. 154. Ghasemi,“New Societal Movements,” 73. 155. Kaviani Rad, “Political Regionalism in Iran, The Case of Iranian Baluchestan,” 103. 156. Ghader. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 15, 2009. 157. Abdullah. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, August 28, 2009. 158. Ghader. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 15, 2009. 159. Naser. Mashhad, Iran. Ethnicity: Turkmen. September 25, 2009. 160. Quoted in Romanucci- Ross, De Vos, and Tsuda, eds., Ethnic Identity, 1. 161. Mahtab. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, August 31, 2009. 162. Sina. Leeds, UK. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, August 03, 2009. 163. Shams. Andeshe, Iran. Ethnicity: Kurd. Interviewed by the author, September 29, 2009. 164. Mujtaba. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, August 30, 2009. 165. Yahya. Abadan, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 10, 2009. 166. Majedeh. Khorramshahr, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, Sep- tember 2, 2009. 167. Ali. Leeds, UK. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, July 26, 2009. 168. Azita. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, September 4, 2009. 169. Mujtaba. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, August 30, 2009. 170. H. Maleki, “Societal Solidarity among Ethnic Groups, The Case of Gulistan Prov- ince,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 10, no. 1 (2007): 142. Notes O 215

Chapter 7 1. M. M. Hafez, Why Muslims Rebel. Repression and Resistance in the Islamic World (London: Lynne Rienner, 2004), 17. 2. T. R. Gurr, Why Men Rebel (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1971), 14. 3. M. Rush, Politics and Society, an Introduction to Political Sociology (London: Har- vester Wheatsheaf, 1992), 212. 4. M. J. Esman, Ethnic Politics (New York: Cornell University Press, 1994), 28. 5. Gurr, Why Men Rebel, 15. 6. Hafez, Why Muslims Rebel, 17. 7. H. Amirahmadi, “A Theory of Ethnic Collective Movements and Its Application to Iran,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 10, no. 4 (1987): 365– 68. 8. Esman, Ethnic Politics, 237. 9. Gurr, Why Men Rebel, 15. 10. Hafez, Why Muslims Rebel, 18. 11. Ibid. 12. A. Roosevelt, “The Kurdish Republic of Mahabad,” Middle East Journal 1 (1947): 256– 57. 13. B. Rahimi, “The Politics of the Internet in Iran,” in Culture and Society in Iran, Living with Globalization and the Islamic State, ed. M. Semati (London: Rout- ledge, 2008), 51– 53. 14. N. Siamdoust, “Can Iran’s Minorities Help Oust Ahmadinejad?” Time, May 30, 2009, accessed May 21, 2013, http://www.time.com/time/world/arti- cle/0,8599,1901667,00.html. 15. “Aljazeera Office in Iran Closed Down,” Radio Farda, accessed April 9, 2013, http://www.radiofarda.com/content/news/299049.html. 16. “Guardian’s Tehran Correspondent Expelled without Explanation,” Guardian, accessed April 5, 2013, http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2008/jan/05/press andpublishing.iran. 17. M. Kaviani Rad, “Political Regionalism in Iran, The Case of Iranian Baluchestan,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 10, no. 1 (2007): 115. 18. A. W. Samii, “Ethnic Tension Could Crack Iran’s Firm Resolve against the World,” Christian Science Monitor, accessed April 25, 2010, http://www.csmonitor .com/2006/0530/p09s02- coop.html. 19. Kazim. Faxe, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 16, 2009. 20. M. E. Brown et al., Nationalism and Ethnic Conflicts (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2001), 128– 29. 21. M. Maghsodi, Tahavolate Qouwmi Dar Iran (Tehran: Institute of National Studies, 2001), 455. 22. “Especial Report: Strategic Studies of the Ethnic Issues in Azerbaijan” (Tehran: Centre forStrategic Studies, 2008), 19. 23. O. Wæver, B. Buzan, M. Kelstrup, and P. Lemaitre, eds., Identity, Migration and the New Security Agenda in Europe (London: Pinter, 1993), 43. 24. J. Haynes, Third World Politics: A Concise Introduction (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), 102. 25. Esman, Ethnic Politics, 14. 26. M. J. Esman, An Introduction to Ethnic Conflicts (Cambridge: Polity, 2004), 3. 216 O Notes

27. R. Stavenhagen, Ethnic Conflicts and the Nation- State (London: Macmillan, 1996), ix. 28. Ibid., 2. 29. Ibid., 12. 30. Amirahmadi, “A Theory of Ethnic Collective Movements,” 387. 31. Stavenhagen, Ethnic Conflicts, 197. 32. Ibid., 192. 33. Esman, Ethnic Politics, 5. 34. Amirahmadi, “A Theory of Ethnic Collective Movements,” 370. 35. Ibid., 383. 36. Esman, An Introduction to Ethnic Conflicts, 63. 37. Mohammad. Sheffield, UK. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 25, 2009. 38. Saeed. Abadan, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 14, 2009. 39. Abdullah. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, August 28, 2009. 40. Amirahmadi, “A Theory of Ethnic Collective Movements,” 363– 64. 41. Brown et al., Nationalism and Ethnic Conflicts, 55. 42. Maghsodi, Tahavolate Quomi, 345. 43. J. Lane and S. Ersson, Comparative Politics: An Introduction and New Approach (Cambridge: Polity, 1994), 134– 35. 44. Esman, An Introduction to Ethnic Conflicts, 67. 45. Brown et al., Nationalism and Ethnic Conflicts, xi. 46. Ibid., 53–54. 47. Ibid., xii. 48. Ali. Leeds, UK. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, July 26, 2009. 49. Quoted in Brown et al., Nationalism and Ethnic Conflicts, 128. 50. Saeed. Abadan, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 14, 2009. 51. Wæver, Buzan, Kelstrup, and Lemaitre, eds., Identity, 43. 52. Hoda. Khorramshahr, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, Septem- ber 2, 2009. 53. Suzy. Khorramshahr, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 2, 2009. 54. Ghader. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 15, 2009. 55. Eghbal. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Baluch. Interviewed by the author, September 27, 2009. 56. Mohsen. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, September 1, 2009. 57. Ghader. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 15, 2009. 58. M. Kamrava, The Political History of Modern Iran, from Tribalism to Theocracy (London: Praeger, 1992), 121. Notes O 217

59. A. Morshedizade, “Elites and Ethnic Movements in Iran,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 6, no. 3 (2003): 85. 60. Abdullah. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 28, 2009. 61. Ghader. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 15, 2009. 62. Amirahmadi, “A Theory of Ethnic Collective Movements,” 364. 63. Yaghob. Copenhagen, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 21, 2009. 64. Gurr, Why Men Rebel, 12. 65. S. Fenton, Ethnicity (Cambridge: Polity, 2003), 52. 66. S. F. Joireman, Nationalism and Political Identity (London: Continuum, 2003), 12. 67. Esman, An Introduction to Ethnic Conflicts, 41. 68. Stavenhagen, Ethnic Conflicts, 3. 69. Esman, Ethnic Politics, 2. 70. Ibid., 27. 71. Yaghob. Copenhagen, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 21, 2009. 72. Mohammad. Sheffield, UK. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 25, 2009. 73. Abdullah. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, August 28, 2009. 74. L. Romanucci- Ross, G. A. De Vos, and T. Tsuda, eds., Ethnic Identity, Problems and Prospects for the Twenty- First Century (Oxford: Altamira Press, 2006), 6. 75. Stavenhagen, Ethnic Conflicts, 100. 76. Wæver, Buzan, Kelstrup, and Lemaitre, eds., Identity, 23. 77. Kaviani Rad, “Political Regionalism in Iran, The Case of Iranian Baluchestan,” 124. 78. Ghader. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 15, 2009. 79. M. Bani Hashemi, “Ethnic Azerbaijan Nationalism Overview in Iran,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 5, no. 2 (2002): 581. 80. Maghsodi, Tahavolate Quomi, 420– 21. 81. Yaghob. Copenhagen, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 21, 2009. 82. Suzy. Khorramshahr, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 2, 2009. 83. Kaviani Rad, “Political Regionalism in Iran, The Case of Iranian Baluchestan,” 114. 84. E. A. Kolodziej and R. E. Harkavy, eds., Security Policies of the Developing Countries (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1982), 250. 85. Samii, “Ethnic Tension.” 86. A. Hashim, The Crisis of the Iranian State. Domestic, Foreign and Security Policies in Post- Khomeini Iran (London: Oxford University Press, 1995), 73. 87. Ali. Leeds, UK. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, July 26, 2009. 218 O Notes

88. Vahideh. Leeds, UK. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, July 29, 2009. 89. Kamrava, The Political History of Modern Iran, 157. 90. This interview was conducted on August 30, 2009. Abdulmalek Rigi, however, was arrested by the Iranian security forces on February 23, 2010. Two days later, in the confession, Rigi stated that he had ties to the United States and that he had been supported by the CIA. “Iran Arrests Leader of Sunni Militants Jundullah,” BBC News, accessed April 10, 2013, http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle _east/8529625.stm. 91. Mujtaba. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, August 30, 2009. 92. M. Guibernau and J. Rex, eds., The Ethnicity Reader, Nationalism, Multiculturalism and Migration (Cambridge: Polity, 2003), 95– 96. 93. Abdullah. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, Agust 28, 2009. 94. Naser. Mashhad, Iran. Ethnicity: Turkmen. Interviewed by the author, September 25, 2009. 95. Kaviani Rad, “Political Regionalism in Iran, The Case of Iranian Baluchestan,” 144. 96. Kamrava, The Political History of Modern Iran, 123. 97. J. Hutchinson and A. D. Smith, eds., Ethnicity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 298. 98. Stavenhagen, Ethnic Conflicts, 204. 99. D. L. Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 287. 100. Ibid., 274. 101. M. Vaziri, Iran as Imagined Nation (New York: Paragon House, 1993), xiii. 102. Ibid., 178. 103. S. Benhabib, I. Shapiro, and D. Petranovic, eds., Identities, Affiliations, and Alle- giances (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 160. 104. C. Jones, “Soviet Jewish Aliyah, 1989 to 1992: Impact and Implications for Israel and the Middle East,” PhD diss., University of Aberystwyth (1994), 7. 105. A. Marashi, Nationalizing Iran. Culture, Power, & the State, 1870–1940 (London: University of Washington Press, 2008), 4. 106. Haynes, Third World Politics, 91. 107. R. Baubock, “Political Boundaries in a Multilevel Democracy,” in Benhabib, Sha- piro, and Petranovic, eds., Identities, Affiliations, and Allegiances, 94, [also] accessed April 8, 2013, http://ocw.uniovi.es/file.php/36/1C_C13796_BING_0910/Reading _materials_for_the_first_paper/bauboeck- PoliticalBoundariesMultilevelDemocracy .pdf. 108. Kazim. Faxe, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 16, 2009. 109. Yaghob. Copenhagen, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 21, 2009. 110. Mansour. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Persian. Interviewed by the author, September 16, 2009. Notes O 219

111. Mujtaba. Tehran, Iran. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, August 30, 2009. 112. Brown et al., Nationalism and Ethnic Conflicts, 158– 59. 113. M. E. Brown, ed., Ethnic Conflict and International Security (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 20. 114. Baubock, “Political Boundaries in a Multilevel Democracy,” 101. 115. Jones, “Soviet Jewish Aliyah,” 10. 116. Brown, ed. Ethnic Conflict, 20. 117. Ali. Leeds, UK. Ethnicity: Azeri. Interviewed by the author, July 26, 2009. 118. Yaghob. Copenhagen, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 21, 2009. 119. Esman, Ethnic Politics, 5. See also Stavenhagen, Ethnic Conflicts, 1. 120. Haynes, Third World Politics, 91. 121. Joireman, Nationalism and Political Identity, 1. 122. Saeed. Abadan, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 14, 2009. See also “Strategic Studies,” 9. 123. Ghader. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 15, 2009. 124. “Especial Report: Causes of Azerbaijan Crisis in June 2007” (Tehran: Centre of Strategic Studies, 2008), 4. 125. Brown, Ethnic Conflict, 18. 126. Morshedizade, “Elites and Ethnic Movements in Iran,” 86. 127. K. Yildiz and T. B. Taysi, The Kurds in Iran; the Past, Present and Future (London: Pluto Press, 2007), 113. 128. D. Plesch and M. Butcher, “Considering a War with Iran: A Discussion Paper on WMD in the Middle East,” SOAS University of London, September 2007, 33– 34. February 23, 2006, accessed April 3, 2013, http://www.cisd.soas.ac.uk/Editor/ assets/iran%20study%2007.07.pdf. 129. G. Dinmore, “Us Marines Probe Tensions among Iran’s Minorities,” Financial Times, accessed April 9, 2013, http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ed436938-a49d- 11da - 897c- 0000779e2340.html#axzz2Q0UvaxQh. 130. “Basij Deals with Soft Threats,” BBC Persian, accessed April 5, 2013, http://www .bbc.co.uk/persian/lg/iran/2009/02/090209_mg_basij_jafari.shtml. 131. “We Are on the Brink of War,” BBC Persian, accessed April 6, 2013, http://www .bbc.co.uk/persian/iran/2008/11/081123_ka_rashid.shtml. 132. J. Haghpanah, The Kurds and the Islamic Republic of Iran’s Foreign Policy (Tehran: Cultural Research Institution, 2009), 248– 50. 133. Wæver, Buzan, Kelstrup, and Lemaitre, eds., Identity, 46. 134. Kazim. Faxe, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 16, 2009. 135. Maghsodi, Tahavolate Qouwmi, 412. 136. Amirahmadi, “A Theory of Ethnic Collective Movements,” 369. 137. Ibid., 383. 138. Kazim. Faxe, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 16, 2009. 139. M. A. Ghasemi, “New Societal Movement: The Case of Azerbaijan,” Strategic Studies Quarterly 10, no. 1 (2007): 81. 220 O Notes

140. Quoted in A. W. Samii, “The Nation and Its Minorities: Ethnicity, Unity and State Policy in Iran,” Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 20, no. 1– 2 (2000): 129. 141. Yaghob. Copenhagen, Denmark. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, July 21, 2009. 142. Ghader. Ahvaz, Iran. Ethnicity: Arab. Interviewed by the author, September 15, 2009. 143. N. R. Keddie, Modern Iran, Roots and Results of Revolution (London: Yale Univer- sity Press, 2003), 311. 144. J. A. Bill, Musaddiq, Iranian Nationalism and Oil (London: I. B. Tauris, 1988), 280. 145. R. Hinnebusch and A. Ehteshami, eds., The Foreign Policies of Middle East States (London: Lynne Rienner, 2002), 284. 146. J. Lancaster, “U.S. Plans Major Gesture To Iran: Overture Acknowledges Past Meddling in Affairs,” Washington Post, March 17, 2000, accessed April 10, 2013, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp- srv/WPcap/2000- 03/17/042r- 031700- idx .html. 147. S. Maloney, “Identity and Change in Iran’s Foreign Policy,” in Identity and Foreign Policy in the Policy in the Middle East, ed. S. Telhami and M. Barnett (New York: Cornell University Press, 2002), 96. 148. Bill, Musaddiq, Iranian Nationalism, 280. 149. Quoted in E. Abrahamian, Khomeinism, Essays on the Islamic Republic (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 111. 150. A. J. Motyl, ed., Encyclopaedia of Nationalism, Leaders, Movements, and Concepts, vol. 2 (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2001), 239. 151. H. Ahmadi, Qoumiyat va Qoum Garayi dar Iran (Tehran: Nashre Nia, 2000), 181. 152. Keddie, Modern Iran, 311. 153. Maghsodi, Tahavolate Quomi, 140. 154. Kaviani Rad, “Political Regionalism in Iran, The Case of Iranian Baluchestan,” 114. 155. D. Romano, “Modern Communications Technology in Ethnic Nationalist Hands: The Case of the Kurds,” Canadian Journal of Political Science (March 2002): 128. 156. R. Izadi and H. Ahmadi, eds., Iran, Identity, Nationality, Ethnicity (Tehran: Research and Human Science Development Institute, 2005), 412.

Conclusion 1. J. R. Bradley, “Iran’s Ethnic Tinderbox,” The Washington Quarterly 30, no. 1 (2006– 7): 182. 2. D. Waxman, “The Islamic Republic of Iran: Between Revolutionary and Realpoli- tik,” Conflict Studies 308. (1998): 12. 3. R. Izadi and H. Ahmadi, eds., Iran, Identity, Nationality, Ethnicity (Tehran: Research and Human Science Development Institute, 2005), 412. Index

Abdol- Aziz, Molavi, 73 discrimination against, 99, 114, Abrahamian, Ervand, 35, 40, 61, 85, 93 117– 18 Abtahi, Mohammad Ali, 71 increased ethnic awareness of, 118 Abu Musa Islands, 55 intermarriage and, 127– 28 Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud, 6 Iranian Embassy takeover and, 71 accusations against “foreign enemies,” literacy rates of, 97 100 persecution of, 70– 71 in Ardabil governorship, 113 Persian hostility to, 127 election of, 42 population of, 59, 70 increased repression by, 169 poverty of, 81, 98, 112, 134– 35, 144 minority rights and, 93 resistance of, 71– 72 and revival of fundamental stereotype of, 127 revolutionary ideas, 26 unemployment rate of, 98 and revival of Islamic civilization, 43 See also Khuzestan Revolutionary Guard and, 101 Arab Political Cultural Organization, 71 Ahwaz Human Rights Organization, Armenia 99 Iran’s relations with, 78, 81 Albright, Madeleine, 159 Nagorno- Karabakh conflict and, 81 Alikhah, Fardin, 116, 118– 19 Aryanism, national identity construction Aljazeera News network, Iranian closure and, 53 of, 140 assimilationist policies, 65, 92, 142– 44 Alzahi, Abdolhamid, 123 ethnic relocation and, 143 Amini, Ebrahim, 90 interviewee statements about, 128– 30 Amirahmadi, Hooshang, 138, 143, 158 promotion of, 63 Amnesty International, report on resistance to, 10, 126, 146– 47, 165 discriminatory practices, 64 See also language restrictions amniate nezam, 34 Azerbaijan, Republic of. See Republic of Amuzegar, Jamshid, 54 Azerbaijan Anderson, Benedict, 13, 46, 49, 50 Azeri autonomy, Soviet support of, 76 Ansari, Ali, 71, 90 Azeri language, banning of, 66. See also Arab minority, 3, 55 language restrictions background on, 70– 72 Azeri minority, 3 cross- border connections of, 59 Article 15 and, 66 demands of, 79, 96 background on, 66– 67 222 O Index

Azeri minority (continued ) Pakistan’s policies in, 12 communications technology and, violence in, 94 119– 20 Baubock, Rainer, 155– 56 cross- border connections of, 59 Bazargan, Mehdi, 32 demands of, 95 Bilgin, Pinar, 11 discrimination against, 114 Bogert, Carroll, 82 grievances of, 120 Boroujerdi, Mehrzad, 53 increased ethnic awareness of, 118 Bradley, John, 93, 96 influence of, 83 British Ahwazi Friendship Society, 97, language restrictions and, 67 98 numbers of, 30, 59, 66 Brown, Michael, 16, 20, 141, 145, 155, protests by, 78– 79 157 secession potential of, 157 Buzan, Barry, 9, 10– 15, 41, 45, 85, 87, stereotype of, 127 93, 124, 128, 141 student activism and, 151 on ethnic conflict, 9– 10 Azeri separatist movement, Pahlavi on mobilization of identities, 15 suppression of, 62 on multinational state, 14 societal identity and, 33 Baha’is, repression of, 60 Bakhtiari movement, Reza Shah and, 62 censorship, state, 139– 40. See also Baluchi minority, 3 repression background of, 72– 74 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), cross- border linkages of, 59, 153 Musaddiq coup and, 159– 60 educational opportunities and, 97– 98 Chehregani, Mahmud Ali, 66 grievances of, 94, 123 Chipman, John, 76 insurgency of, 141 Christians interviews with, 122– 25 percentage of population, 29 Islamic Revolution and, 63 repression of, 60 numbers of, 59 Chubin, Shahram, 40, 87– 88, 90 in Pakistan, 153 citizenship, defined, 2 potential secession by, 95 civic nationalism, 48 poverty of, 72, 74 civil society/civil rights stereotype of, 127 Khatami and, 38– 40 Sunni Islam and, 3 strengthening of, 2 suppression of, 72 clandestine activities, 150– 51 threat from, 79– 80 clerical rulers unemployment rate of, 98 increased unpopularity of, 87– 89 uprisings and separatist campaigns of, See also Islamic Republic; Khamenei, 72– 73 Ali; Khomeini, Ruhollah Baluchi separatist movements Clinton, Bill, 159 leftist/secular support of, 63 Cohn, Hans, 47 Pahlavi suppression of, 62 Cold War, end of, 36– 37, 156 Baluchistan Cole, Juan, 52 criminal networks in, 73– 74 communication technology government security concerns and, impacts of, 116– 21, 137, 165, 168– 69 157 interviewee statements about, 118– 21 Index O 223

See also Internet access; satellite in Baluchi region, 141 television causes of, 113 consociation model, 143 definitions of, 20, 169 Constitutional Revolution of 1905, 52 deprivation and, 109 Constitutional Revolution of 1906, discriminative policies and, 21 nationalism and, 46 external factors in, 75– 82, 81– 82 Cottam, Richard, 29, 49, 87, 95 factors leading to, 20– 21, 85– 86, 93– 94, 125– 26, 141– 42 decision making, exclusion from, 98– 100 increased, 102, 166 De Luce, Dan, 140 internalization of, 21 democracy justifications of, 21 demand for, 2, 92, 131 Pahlavi era and, 62 foreign intervention and, 159– 60 provinces experiencing, 94– 95 lack of, 102 solutions for, 141 spread of, 126 See also relative deprivation demographic diversity, 61 ethnic diversity, in early twentieth De Vos, George A., 132, 150 century, 61 Dhimmi, Islamic law and, 28 ethnic identity Diamond, Larry, 63 awareness of, 109, 117– 18 discriminatory policies, 22 construction of, 109 interviewee statements about, 110– 15 interviewee statements about, 117– 21, See also assimilationist policies; relative 132– 33 deprivation perceived threat of, 29 preservation of, after Islamic economic conditions, 1980s policies and, Revolution, 61 37 strengthening of, 83 economic sanctions, 159 ethnicity education definitions of, 20 in Arab regions, 115 versus nationhood, 149– 50 in ethnic languages, 128– 29 rejection of, 6 interviewee statements about, 116 ethnicity- based political parties, state ban minority access to, 97 of, 140– 41 Ehteshami, Anoushiravan, 37, 54, 79, ethnic minorities 159 absence of leadership for, 144 Elchibey, Abulfez, 76 Ahmadinejad and, 42 employment/unemployment cross- border linkages of, 2– 3, 59, 66, impacts of, 102 76, 92, 133, 151, 153– 55 interviewee statements about, 110– 13 demands of, 134 lack of, 111 discontentment of, 7 (see also minority Persian versus ethnic minority, 98 discontent) See also poverty discrimination against, 21 (see Esman, Milton, 48, 109– 10, 117, 125, also assimilationist policies; 137– 38, 142, 145, 149, 156 repression) ethnic cleansing, 15 education access by, 97 ethnic conflict/violence, 9– 23, 59– 84, external factors affecting, 81, 100, 93– 94 151– 59 224 O Index ethnic minorities (continued ) political mobilization of, 2 geographical concentrations of, 91– 92 rights violations of, 112 grievances of, 92– 93, 109 umma and, 29 impacts on neighboring countries, See also ethnic minorities; and specific 155 minorities increased demands of, 136 Evera, Stephen, 47, 125 Khatami and, 39– 40 expansionism, umma and, 26– 33 lack of international support for, 152 marginalization of, 65 Farsi, Jalalol- din, 35 and mobilization against state, 18– 19 federal system, 93, 169 as nations, 150 argument for, 160 non- Persian, 2– 3 defined, 14 as obstacle to national identity, 28 versus imperial state, 14 participation in Islamic Revolution, option of, 133, 147 62– 63 Fenton, Steve, 48, 126, 149 percentage of Iranian population, 59 , Abul- Qāsim, 54 political decision- making process and, foreign policy 98– 100 actors in, 81 potential for secession by, 87 with Azerbaijan, 77– 78 during Rafsanjani/Khatami eras, 7– 38 domestic security challenges and, 3 regional geopolitical changes and, ethnic minority impacts on, 164 96– 97 ideological versus realpolitik approach relocation of, 143 to, 81 role in ethnonationalism, 52 intraethnic tensions related to, 75– 82 state neglect of, 1 Islamic principles and, 81 symptoms of relative deprivation foreign powers among, 4 Ahmadinejad and, 100 threat posed by, 59– 60, 164 (see also democracy and, 159– 60 separatist option) ethnic conflicts and, 21 unfulfilled expectations of, 146– 47 separatist option and, 100 See also Arab minority; Azeri minority; Furman, Uriah, 29 Baluchi minority; ethnoreligious minorities; Kurd minority; Ganjavi, Nezami, 54 Turkmen minority Gellner, Ernest, 47 ethnic separatism. See separatist option Ghasemi, Mohammad Ali, 119, 131 ethnonationalism Giles, Gregory F., 57 concerns about, 76– 77 globalization definitions of, 48 impacts of, 41, 165 emergence in Iran, 52 separatism and, 117 religious affinity with, 11 threat to Iran, 10 ethnoreligious minorities Graham, Robert, 54 assimilationist policies and, 121 Gulbuddin Hekmatyar Party, 80 global and regional developments and, Gurr, Ted, 17– 19, 21, 38, 85– 89, 92, 92 94, 101, 109, 137– 38, 149. See increased identity awareness of, 122 also relative deprivation; Relative national security and, 25, 60, 83 Deprivation Theory Index O 225

Hafez, Mohammed, 116, 137, 139 Imagined Communities (Anderson), 13, Halliday, Fred, 72 49. See also Anderson, Benedict Hambly, Gavin R. G., 59 imperial state versus federative state, 14 Harrison, Selig S., 125 infant mortality in ethnic provinces, 98 Hashemi, Mirghasim Bani, 118 intermarriage, rejection of, 127– 28 Hashim, Ahmed, 36, 38, 86, 87– 88, 92, International Crisis Group, study of, 152 90– 91 Haynes, Jeff, 125, 156 Internet access Hen- Tov, Elliot, 101 empowerment through, 92 Hobsbawm, Eric, 66 impacts of, 89, 110, 160, 168– 69 Horowitz, Donald L., 123, 127, 154 state control of, 140 human rights violations See also communication technology; Amnesty International report on, 64 satellite television See also repression interviewee responses Human Rights Watch re assimilationist policies, 128– 30 on Arab persecution, 70– 72 re communications technology and on Azeri and Kurd repression, 67 ethnic identity, 118– 21 on Baluchistan, 73 re discriminative state policies, 110– 15 Hume, David, 50 re education, 116 Hussein, Saddam, 138 re employment issues/political power, fall of, 71 110– 13 Khuzestan Arabs and, 55 re ethnic cultural resistance, 130– 31 re ethnic identity awareness, 117– 18 identity(ies) re ethnic self- identification, 132– 33 as basis of society, 10 re national identity crisis, 125– 33 collective, 20 re Persianization, 115– 16 conflicts of, 15 re poverty in ethnic regions, 113– 15 construction of, 13 re relative deprivation/societal cultural versus national, 2 insecurity, 109– 10 definitions of, 21 re stereotyping, 126– 28 ethnic versus national, 99 interviewees individual- collective transition of, 49 classification and characteristics of, mobilization of, 15 4– 5 overarching, 9– 10 profiles of, 106– 8 pan- Islamist concept of, 28– 29, 31 interviews, 105– 36 scholarly approaches to, 20 conclusions drawn from, 134– 36 societal security and, 2 individual/focus group, 4 threats to, 10, 12, 85 locations of, 5 See also ethnic identity; ethnoreligious Iran minorities; national identity; as artificial national entity, 154 Persian identity border security challenges to, 54 (see identity politics also ethnic minorities: cross- basis for, 49– 50 border linkages of) and emergence of ethnonational states, chemical/nuclear weapon capabilities 77 of, 157 ideological states, examples of, 14 and fear of external interference, 61 226 O Index

Iran (continued ) Iran- Iraq War, 33– 35 as imagined nation, 46, 50 ethnic group suppression during, 79 Iraqi invasion of, 54 (see also Iran- Iraq and relations with ethnic minorities, War) 67 Iraq’s relationship with, 154 security discourse and, 26 Muslim– non- Muslim division in, 28 Iraq non- Muslim partners of, 81 autonomous Kurd region of, 92 nuclear ambitions of, 3 and claims to Iranian lands, 55 population under age 25, 40 Iran’s relationship with, 154 power struggles after Khomeini’s Kurd minority in, 153, 154 death, 36 Islam sociopolitical shifts in, 56 as collective source of identity, 31 US relations with, 3 as legitimacy device, 87 See also Islamic Republic and nonrecognization of ethnicity/ Iranian constitution nationality, 32 Article 3 of, 81 Islamic identity Article 12 of, 63 barriers to, 10 Article 14 of, 73 Iran- Iraq War and, 33– 35 Article 15 of, 63, 65, 66, 80, 115, Islamic ideology, nationalism and, 166– 123, 131 67 Article 19 of, 29, 63 Islamicness, dichotomy with Iranianness, Article 64 of, 30 55– 57 Article 100 of, 100 Islamic Republic Article 115 of, 30, 35 coercive strategies of, 139– 42 (see minority rights in, 63 also assimilationist policies; principle of nondiscrimination in, repression) 29 consociation model of, 143 unrealized hopes for, 148 control policies of, 152– 53 Iranian Embassy, siege of, 71 information and media control by, Iranian national identity, 45– 58 139– 40 anti- other sentiments and, 56 internal threats to, 37 construction of, 51 methods for marginalizing minorities, ethnic resistance to, 52 111– 12 influences on, 44 phases of, 43 Iranianness/Islamic dichotomy of, 6, and promotion of socioeconomic 39, 55, 57, 167 deprivation, 144– 45 nationalism- Islamism dichotomy in, and reshaping of Iranian identity, 25 57 shifts in governance of, 101 Orientalism and, 46, 52– 53, 58 societal discontent and, 93 politicization of, 166 threats to legitimacy of, 87– 102 reconstruction of, 46– 55 See also Iran sources of, 45 Islamic Revolution of 1979 Iranian nationalism, complexity of, 51 anti- Islamic stance preceding, 58 Iranianness, dichotomy with Islamicness, Arab participation in, 70 55– 57 avoidance of nationalist concepts and, Iranian Revolution of 1979, 54 27– 28 Index O 227

Azeris and, 66 Khamenei, Ali, 160 changes following, 26, 60 claims about external enemies, 79 ethnic minorities and, 60, 62– 63 as successor to Khomeini, 35– 36 factors leading to, 85– 86 Khatami, Mohammad, 6, 26, 38– 42, 86 goals and impacts of, 26– 27 civil society, civil rights and, 38– 40 internationalist nature of, 27– 28 failed expectations for, 88– 89 Iran’s security discourse after, 6 hardliner opposition and, 40 Islamic identity as focus of, 10 Kurdistan visit of, 95 Kurds and, 68 policy failures of, 90– 91 national identity and, 2 priorities of, 37, 38, 43 and preservation of ethnic identity, 61 promises of, 64– 65, 67 Turkmen and, 75 and shift from internationalism to umma concept and, 6 nationalism, 39 Islamic rule, Khomeini’s concept of, 27 Khomeini, Ruhollah Islamic state, national identity and, 50 death of, 35, 37, 87 Islamic values, hardliner commitment Iranian identity and, 45– 46 to, 7 Kurds and, 68– 69 Islamism nationalism concept and, 31– 32 challenges to, 167 and pan- Islamist concept of identity, dichotomy with nationalism, 46 28– 29 nationalism and, 25 postelection promises of, 89– 90 Israel, Azerbaijan and, 78 umma concept and, 43, 166 Israel- Palestine peace process, 37 velayat- e faqih doctrine of, 26– 27 Khuzestan Jafari, Mohammad Ali, 157 Arab population of, 55, 70 Jalili, Said, 63 government security concerns and, Jamiat- i Islami, 80 157 Jervis, Robert, 12 literacy rates in, 97 Jews, repression of, 60 oil resources of, 70, 72, 94, 96, 98, jihad against “infidel Saddam,” 35 111– 12, 114– 15, 134, 144 Joireman, Sandra, 47, 149 unemployment in, 98 Jones, Clive, 85, 154, 156 violence in, 94 Judah, Tim, 89 Kurdish Democratic Party of Iran, 68 Jundallah, 79 Kurdistan autonomous region of, 92 Kaldor, Mary, 14– 15, 16 government security concerns and, Kamrava, Mehran, 126, 152 157 Karami, Mehran, 42 Soviet support of, 139 Kashani- Sabet, Firouzeh, 54 violence in, 94– 95 Kasravi, Ahmad, 53 Kurd minority, 3 Katzenstein, Peter, 11, 19 background of, 68– 70 Keddie, Nikki, 3, 45, 60, 159 communications technology and, 119 Kedourie, Elie, 15, 48, 49– 51 cross- border connections of, 59 Khaghani, Mohammad Taher, 71 and damage from Iran- Iraq War, Khalighi, Hossein, 124 69– 70 Khalilzad, Zalmay, 79 demands of, 32– 33, 95 228 O Index

Kurd minority (continued ) See also communication technology; dispersal during Pahlavi regime, 68 Internet access; satellite television interviews with members of, 122– 25 media access in Iraq, 153, 154 empowerment through, 92 Islamic Revolution of 1979 and, 68 influence of, 89 Khomeini and, 68– 69 Middle East, Islamic Revolution of 1979 language restrictions and, 67 and, 26 likelihood of civil war and, 19 Migdal, Joel, 15– 16, 19, 49 population of, 59, 68 minority citizenship rights, UN report potential secession by, 95 on, 100 poverty of, 95 minority discontent, 91– 101 Saddam Hussein and, 14 over educational opportunities, 97– 98 secession and, 9 over exclusion from political process, stereotype of, 127 98– 100 as threat to Tehran, 157– 58 historical challenges of, 93 unemployment rate of, 98 issues in, 92– 93 Kurd separatist movement over language restrictions, 93 (see also leftist/secular support of, 63 language restrictions) Pahlavi suppression of, 62 potential solutions to, 93 Soviet support of, 76 over power and economic inequalities, 92 language over religious freedom, 95 minority, 30 over socioeconomic disparities, 93– 96 as symbol of domination, 63 stages of, 149 language restrictions, 22, 63, 92, 93, 112, over unemployment, 98 119, 143, 146 state control of, 138– 45 assimilationist policies and, 128 US manipulation of, 100– 101 on Azeris and Kurds, 67 violence due to, 95 on Baluchi language, 72, 123 minority languages Khatami and, 39– 40, 65 constitutional rights and, 30 on Turkmen, 74 See also language restrictions linguistic diversity, 61 Moaddel, Mansoor, 34, 85 Lund Recommendations on the Effective Moshiri, Farrokh, 86 Participation of National Minorities multiethnic states, intrastate conflicts in, in Public Life, 99– 100 13– 14 multinational states, categories of, 14 Madani, Ahmad, 71 Musaddiq, Mohammad, CIA coup Maghsodi, Mujtaba, 126, 141, 151 against, 159– 60 Malek, Molavi Abdul, 73 Maloney, Suzanne, 32– 34, 41, 56, Naderpour, Nader, 35 159 Nagorno- Karabakh dispute, 78 Marashi, Afshin, 154 and Iran’s backing of Armenia, 81 Mashayekhi, Mehrdad, 57 Nasibzade, Nasib, 65, 66, 77 media nation, as imagined community, 46 state control of, 119, 139– 40 national identity weakened state control of, 160, 168 construction of, 154– 55 Index O 229

crisis of, 125– 33 Newland, Kathleen, 146 debates surrounding, 25 (see also non- Muslims, Dhimmi versus infidels, 28 security discourse in Iran) nuclear program ethnic groups as obstacle to, 28 development of, 157 Khatami’s concept of, 39 military intervention and, 160 Persian ethnicity and, 2 tension over, 92 as recent concept, 51 nationalism oil exports, dependence on, 7, 36, 142 anticlerical, 88 Ollapally, Deepa, 27, 32, 34, 76 borders and, 51 Orientalism, Iranian identity and, 46, civic, 48 52– 53, 58 concepts of, 46– 50 conflict- prone types of, 47–48 Pahlavi, Mohammad Reza, 54, 55 and Constitutional Revolution of ethnic separatist movements and, 62 1906, 46 Pahlavi regime, 23 dichotomy with Islamism, 46 Baluchi language ban and, 72 Esman’s categories of, 48 and denial of ethnic minority rights, ethnic, rise after Cold War, 156 31 European model of, 52– 53 ethnic conflict and, 62 Iran- Iraq War and, 34 Iranian identity during, 45 Islamic ideology and, 25, 166– 67 Kurds and, 68 Khomeini’s rejection of, 31– 32 national identity and, 50 political use of, 47 Persianist identity and, 25 rejection of, 6 Turkmen and, 74– 75 Smith’s propositions about, 48 Pakistan state- led, 13 Baluchi minority in, 153 syncretic, 48 Baluchi repression in, 62, 73 versus umma security, 27– 28 cross- linkages with Iranian Baluchis, nationalist movements, factors leading 59, 72, 79, 125, 153– 54 to, 86 ethnic policies of, 12 national power, physical versus Panah, Maryam, 90 nonphysical, 16 Persia national security in Iran history of, 54 academic emphasis on external factors invasions of, collective memory and, in, 1 57 Arab minority and, 115 thinkers and poets of, 54 components of, 80– 81 Persian Gulf, dispute over name of, ethnic challenges to, 96 79 failure of traditional model of, 17 Persian hegemony, 1 internal versus external threats to, 6, Persian identity, 52, 53– 54 86, 165, 168 imposition of, 112 Islamic approach to, 6 Islamic discourse and, 25 levels of, 16– 17 prerevolution emphasis on, 58 postrevolutionary, 43 Persianization See also security discourse in Iran interviewee statements about, 115– 16 Nejad, Majid Naseri, 111 See also assimilationist policies 230 O Index

Persian language Rashid, Gholamali, internal security as official language, 63– 64, 66, 121– concerns of, 157 22 reformist movement promotion of, 63 aftermath of, 42 Persian population, percentage of Iranian failures of, 161 population, 59 opposition to, 40– 41, 65 political participation, interviewee policy changes and, 64– 65 statements about, 110– 13 promises of, 67 political parties, ethnicity- based, state ban public attitudes toward, 91 of, 140– 41 unfulfilled promises of, 169 political process, and constitutional See also Khatami, Mohammad guarantees for participation in, 100 regime change politicized ethnic identity, 1, 109, 147– essential conditions for, 137– 38 49, 168 examples of, 138 as central theme, 1, 163 possibilities for, 169 conditions for development of, 163 relative deprivation increased awareness and, 164 defined, 18 separatist option and, 147– 49 factors in, 87, 166 Posen, Barry R., 12 interviewee statements about, 109– 10 poverty, 111 after Iran- Iraq War, 36 of Arab minority, 81, 98, 112, 144 in relation to study data, 19– 20 of Baluchi minority, 72, 74 state promotion of, 144– 45 in ethnic regions, 96, 111, 114, 135, Tehran- centric policies and, 93 139, 144– 48 transforming into collective action, interviewee statements about, 113– 15 137 of Kurd minority, 95 Relative Deprivation Theory, 1, 6, 17, in oil- rich regions, 134, 144, 147, 150 18– 19, 19– 20, 85– 103, 109 prevalence of, 90 and Islamic Republic’s struggle for in Sunni regions, 124 legitimacy, 87– 91 presidential election of 2009, riots and minority discontent, 91– 101 (see following, 87 also minority discontent) propaganda, role of, 146 religious affinity, with ethnonationalism, protests 11 arrests of leaders of, 87– 88 religious freedom, denial of, 22, 95 See also resistance religious minorities, 29– 30 constitutional recognition of, 73 Qashqais movement, Reza Shah and, 62 in Iranian Parliament, 30 “legal,” parliamentary representation Rabbani, Burhanuddin, 80 by, 28 Rad, Morad Kaviani, 119 repression of, 60 Raeesi, Ebrahim, 79 See also ethnoreligious minorities Rafsanjani, Ali Akbar Hashemi, 6, 35– repression 38, 80, 82 under Ahmadinejad, 140 ethnic rights and, 67 external reports on, 121 priorities of, 36, 37, 43 growing ineffectiveness of, 163, 168 Rahimi, Babak, 140 impacts of, 136, 166 Index O 231

Iran- Iraq War’s influence on, 34 Samii, A. William, 32, 100, 141 of Kurds, 70 Sanasarian, Eliz, 95, 124 of religious minorities, 60 Sariolghalam, Mahmood, 57 resistance to, 109, 126, 137– 38, satellite television 151– 52 Arab, 121 Tehran’s reliance on, 166 impacts of, 110, 153, 160, 168– 69 Republic of Azerbaijan, 153 state control of, 140 collapse of, 66 See also communication technology ethnic connections with Iranian Schermerhorn, Richard, 20 Azeris, 66 Schulz, Ann T., 152 Iranian Azeri response to, 77 secession Iranian foreign policy and, 77– 78 potential for, 2– 3, 87 Iran’s relationship with, 76 See also separatist option Israel and, 78 Second of Khordad Movement, 38, 60, Nagorno- Karabakh conflict and, 81 67 oil resources of, 78 security, expanded concept of, 16 Soviet support of, 139 security challenges, sources of, 2 research security discourse in Iran, 25– 44 future focus of, 5 and expansionism and umma concept, methodology of, 4– 5, 164 26– 33 terms and concepts in, 20– 22 internal versus external influences on, 83 theories in, 6 Iran- Iraq War and, 33– 35 timing of, 5 Khatami and, 38– 42 See also interviewee responses; periods of, 26 interviewees; interviews post- reformist, 42 resistance Rafsanjani and, 35– 38 by Arab minority, 71– 72 umma concept and, 30– 31 to assimilation, 10, 52, 121, 126, 165 See also national security in Iran interviewee statements about, 130– 31, Semati, Mehdi, 41 164 separatist option, 62– 63, 72– 73, 82, to Shi’a Islam, 7 137– 61, 169 Revolutionary Guards argument for, 160 Ahmadinejad and, 101 clandestine activities and, 150– 51 in ethnic regions, 141 demands for, 148 internal security concerns of, 157 failed ethnic expectations and, 146– 47 Kurd repression by, 150 foreign backing of, 100 Rigi, Abdulmalek, 80, 141, 153 globalization and, 117 Roe, Paul, 12, 17 Iranian security state and, 138– 45 Romano, David, 118, 121, 160– 61 by Kurd and Baluchi minorities, Rubin, Michael, 73, 89 124– 25 , Jalāl ad- Din, 54 national minority option and, 149– 50 Russia, Iran’s relations with, 81 and politicization of ethnic identity, 147– 49 Safa, Zabihollah, 45 potential for, 145 Safavid dynasty, 51 Shamkhani, Ali, 65 Said, Edward, 45, 47, 50 Shayegan, Daryush, 53– 54 232 O Index

Shi’a Iran, Middle East influence of, 3 socioeconomic issues, 90, 93– 94 Shi’a Islam, 1, 28 International Crisis Group report on, Azeris and, 66 90 dominance of, 33, 121– 22 interviewee statements about, 113– 15 groups practicing, 3 sociopolitical reform. See Khatami, Iran- Iraq War and, 54– 55 Mohammad; reformist movement as nationalism, 35 Soviet Union reconciliation with nationalism, 34 Azerbaijani and Kurdish states and, reinterpretation of, 109 76, 139 resistance to, 7 demise of, 36– 37, 92, 156 Shirazi, Hafez, 54 ethnic national republics after demise Shirazi, Sa’di, 54 of, 66 Smith, Anthony, 47– 48 ethnic policies of, 12 Smith, Steve, 17 regional changes after collapse of, social freedoms, restricted, 165 76– 77 societal identity(ies) Stalin, Joseph, 12 construction of, 25– 26, 44 state ethnonational, 15 ethnic policies of, 12 mechanisms for strengthening, 14 internal versus external, 15 religious, 15 Kedourie’s definition of, 50 threats to, 13 legitimation of, 16 as threat to state, 17 Migdal’s classification of, 15– 16 See also ethnic identity; ethnoreligious multiethnic (see multiethnic states, minorities intrastate conflicts in) societal insecurity societal boundaries versus, 9 versus external threats, 11 versus society, 10 factors in, 10 tensions with societal groups, 13 interviewee statements about, 109– 10 as threat to identity, 12 key signs and symptoms of, 165 Stavenhagen, Rodolfo, 154 relative deprivation factor in, 99 stereotyping, 126– 28 societal security interviewee statements about, 126– 28 actors in, 18– 19 student activism, 118, 143, 165– 66 concept of, 9 Azeri, 150 defined, 11 Sunni Islam identity and, 2 in Baluchi regions, 72, 122– 24 Iranian political situation and, 23 ethnic minorities and, 3, 61, 63 relative deprivation and, 17 Islamic Republic and, 35 state stability and, 3 in Kurdish regions, 68, 95, 122– 24 theory of, 6 lack of recognition of, 131 and threats to identity, 85 repression of, 73 societal threats Turkmen and, 74 external, 87 Sunni mosques, absence of, 95, 112 types of, 85 syncretic nationalism, 48 society, versus state, 10 socioeconomic deprivation policy, 144– Taheri, Jalaluddin, 90 45. See also relative deprivation Taylor, Charles, 21 Index O 233 technological advances, 105. See also impacts of, 152 communication technology; Iran’s relations with, 3 Internet access; satellite television and manipulation of ethnic grievances, Tilly, Charles, 13, 47, 49 158 transnationalism, definitions of, 154 as military power in region, 159 tribal leaders, appropriation of, 143 minority wariness toward, 159– 60 Tudeh party, 60 UN Special Reporter on Freedom of Tunbs, 55 Minorities, 100 Turkish separatist movements, leftist/ secular support of, 63 Vali, Abbas, 29 Turkmenistan, ethnic connections with Vaziri, Mostafa, 53, 154 Iranian Turkmen, 66, 77 velayat- e faqih, 2 Turkmen minority, 3, 31, 32 Khomeini and, 26– 27 background of, 74– 75 Velayati, Ali Akbar, 78 cross- border linkages of, 59, 66 violence geographical concentration of, 91 deprivation and, 109 Islamic regime and, 93, 95– 96 See also ethnic conflict/violence percentage of Iranian population, 59 Wæver, Ole, 11– 14, 33 and primacy of ethnic identity, Walipour, Hasan, 33 99 wars, old versus new, 14– 15 stereotype of, 127 Waxman, Dov, 35– 37, 39 Sunni Islam and, 3, 63, 123, 124 Williams, Colin, 86, 92 Turner, J. H., 49 women’s status after Iran- Iraq War, 40– 41 umma youth activists, 118, 143, 165– 66 adoption and export of, 43 Yunesi, Ali, 69, 93 expansionism and concept of, 26– 33 Islamic doctrine of, 6, 57 Zahed, Said, 45, 53, 56 Khomeini and, 46, 166 Zamani, Fakhteh, 100 unemployment. See employment/ Zarinkoob, Abdul Hussein, 53 unemployment; poverty Zibakalam, Sadegh, 50– 51 United States Zoroastrianism, 45, 127 Afghani and Iraqi presence of, 92 Zoroastrians, repression of, 60 destabilization strategies of, 100– 101 Zweiri, Mahjoob, 79