Assignment 4: First Draft of Essay

Flowers Across Cultures: How Did Japanese Art of the Edo Period Influence the Floral Images of Vincent Van Gogh, Odilon Redon and Edna Boies Hopkins?

Table of Contents

List of Figures 2 1. Introduction 3 2. Japonisme and its Influence on Art in Europe and North America 3 2.1 Influence of Japonisme 4 2.2 Subjects Portrayed in Japanese Art 4 2.3 Japonisme and Orientalism 5 3. Theoretical Framework 6 4. Findings and Discussion 7 4.1 Vincent Van Gogh 7 4.2 Odilon Redon 13 4.3 Edna Boies Hopkins 18 5. Conclusion 23 References 25 Bibliography 30 Glossary 43

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 1 of 43 List of Figures

Fig. 1 Van Gogh, V. (1887) Flowering Plum Orchard (after Hiroshige). [Oil on canvas], At https://www.vangoghmuseum.nl/en/collection/s0115V1962 (Accessed 19/11/2020).

Fig. 2 Hiroshige, U. (1857) Plum Estate, Kameido, No 30 from One Hundred Famous Views of Edo. [Woodblock print] At https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/A_1948-0410-0-65 (Accessed 19/11/2020).

Fig. 3 Van Gogh, V. (1890) Almond Blossom. [Oil on canvas] At https://www.vangoghmuseum.nl/en/collection/s0176V1962 (Accessed 19/11/2020).

Fig. 4 Van Gogh, V. (1888) Sunflowers. [Oil on canvas] At https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/vincent-van-gogh-sunflowers (Accessed 19/11/2020).

Fig. 5 Redon, O. (1903) Paravent d'Olivier Sainsère. [Tempera, oil paint, gouache on canvas] At https://gifu-art.info/details.php?id=3222 (Accessed 19/11/2020).

Fig. 6 Studio of Tawaraya Sōtatsu, [mid-to late 17th Century] Moon and Autumn Grasses. [ink, colour, silver, and gold flecks on paper], At https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/48923 (Accessed 19/11/2020).

Fig. 7 Redon, O. (c.1912-14) Vase of Flowers. [Pastel and pencil on coloured paper] At https://www.moma.org/collection/works/37321 (Accessed 19/11/2020).

Fig. 8 Redon, O. (1908) Vase au Guerrier Japonais (Flowers in a Japanese Vase) [Oil on canvas] At https://www.polamuseum.or.jp/english/collection/016-0033/ (Accessed 19/11/2020).

Fig. 9 Boies Hopkins, E. (c1906) Achillea. [Colour woodblock print] At https://collections.mfa.org/objects/92237/achilles (Accessed 19/11/2020).

Fig. 10 Boies Hopkins, E. (c1915-1916) Sunflowers Against a Green Ground [Colour woodcut print] At https://www.cincinnatiartmuseum.org/art/explore-the-collection?id=21177198 (Accessed 19/11/2020).

Fig. 11 Boies Hopkins, E. (c.1920-23) Green Arrangement, [Colour woodcut print] At https://www.cincinnatiartmuseum.org/art/explore-the-collection?id=21330561 (Accessed 19/11/2020).

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 2 of 43 1. Introduction At the end of the 19th century Japanese art had a significant impact in Europe and America: Painting from the Impressionist period onward was influenced by Japanese prints exhibiting “flatness, brilliant colour, and high degree of stylisation” (Wilson & Lack 2016:147). This led to the coining of the term Japonisme which described “European borrowings from Japanese art” (Floyd 2003). In this essay I shall look at the influence of Japanese art on the floral images of three artists working around the turn of the 19th century. I shall study the work of Vincent Van Gogh (1853-1890), Odilon Redon (1840-1916) and Edna Boies Hopkins (1872- 1937) to investigate the extent of their borrowings from Japanese art as well as contextual influences that may have affected their work. The literature suggests these artists were influenced by Japanese art in different ways and to different degrees. They made their images in the period 1880-1920, had individual styles and worked in different media. Van Gogh is famous for his oil paintings; Redon is known for a variety of styles and media but his best-known floral images were produced in pastel or oil; Boies Hopkins was an American printmaker. With their different styles and media, I shall investigate whether there are any common influences or differences in the reactions of each artist. As well as analysing the formal details of images I shall also investigate the contextual circumstances that could have affected how the artists responded. I shall explore the concept of Orientalism as it relates to Japonisme and the role it may have played.

2. Japonisme and its Influence. Literature Review. Between the mid-17th and mid-19th Century Japan was a closed society with few relationships with European nations (Michiko 2014). In 1853 an American naval force sailed into Tokyo harbour to compel Japan to open trade with the USA (Asia for Educators 2009). The Japanese signed new trade agreements and the following decades saw a huge rise in Japanese exports, particularly to Europe, and a concerted effort by Japan to establish its image by sending emissaries to participate in European trade fairs and exhibitions (Burnham 2014). “Westerners became totally infatuated with the country’s culture and its arts” (Weisberg & Weisberg 1990:x).

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 3 of 43 2.1 Influence of Japonisme

Needham (1975) proposes two phases of Japonisme; “Open Air Impressionists” (ibid:115) including Manet, Degas, Whistler and Pissarro, and “Post-Impressionism and Symbolism” (ibid:124) including the Nabis, Van Gogh, Toulouse-Lautrec, Redon. Floyd (2003) includes many of these in her list of artists influenced by Japonisme, but also emphasises the dramatic change that the introduction of Japanese woodblock prints brought about in European and American printmaking.

Artists were attracted to all aspects of Japanese art, but it was woodblock prints, particularly ukiyo-e, that had the most influence (Whitford 1977). These came to Europe in large numbers and were very cheaply purchased, just one dealer, Hayashi Tadamasi, sold almost 160,000 prints (Sigur2018:76). Berger’s analysis of ukiyo-e prints summarises the key points as “asymmetry, flatness of colors and design, simplification of line, stylization and decorative patterning” (Barrett 1993:102). To this list can be added “abstraction, and emphasis on the flatness of the picture plane” (Burnham 2014:13) Not every artist exhibited each of these influences, but many will have used one or more of the Japanese techniques in their work. As Berger (1992) points out, there is no single way in which Japanese art influenced Western artists. Hokusai may have influenced some artists and in a different way from Utamaro.

It is important to recognise that artists did not simply copy Japanese work but used it as a way to solve problems “inherent in their own art” (Chisaburo 1980:9). “Japonisme was a major force in unsettling the old values and preparing the way for Modernism” (Chiba 1998:19)

2.3 Subjects portrayed in Japanese Art

Six main themes featured in ukiyo-e prints of the Edo period: beautiful women, actors, warriors, landscapes, birds and flowers, and surimono poem prints (Norman 2014). Cortazzi (2011) describes the Japanese tradition of kacho-e, the portrayal of birds and flowers in painting and drawing. This derived from the historic Japanese schools of painting where artists strove not just for an accurate rendition, but “sought to capture the spiritual and cultural significance of the subject” (Norman 2014:20). Artists from the Rinpa School painted floral images “often distilling blossoms and petals to their essential, powerfully

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 4 of 43 graphic forms” (Carpenter 2012:164). While birds and flowers together were a popular subject, there are many examples of purely floral images.

Floral images are seldom used as examples of Japanese influence in texts devoted to Japonisme. This could be because relatively few of the artists concerned painted representations of flowers. Of the 330 images attributed to Whistler, I could find none of flowers (The Athenaeum s.d.); no solely floral images of the 775 attributed to Degas and of the 374 artworks by Mary Cassatt I could find just one, Lilacs in a Window. Even where painters are known for their floral images, e.g. Van Gogh, they are not frequently used to illustrate Japonisme.

2.5 Japonisme and Orientalism

The term Orientalism originally referred to “eighteenth- and nineteenth-century scholars and linguists” (Weeks 2008:24) and the word Orientalist was applied to a “school of painting in the nineteenth century” (Greenwood & De Guise 2019:20). The perception of Orientalism changed drastically with the publication of Edward Said’s book Orientalism (Said 1978). Said used the term Orientalism to describe “the way the West has created a mythological identity about the East” (Wilson & Lack 2016:208), portraying the East as exotic, ‘other’ and inferior to the West. Said considered Orientalism to be a “Western style for dominating, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient” (Said, 1978:11).

Said’s work was both pioneering and controversial, attracting strong criticism. “Few books have at the same time stimulated so much controversy or influenced so many studies” (MacKenzie 1995:4). The criticisms came from two main sources – from traditional Orientalism academics who defended their studies against the charges made by Said, and from scholars who were inclined to support Said’s general points but were critical of his use of theory (Quinn 2017). A major criticism made by both groups was that Said did not “look at East and South Asia in his work” (Quinn 2017:56). Perhaps the most important aspect of Orientalism is the proposal that, although colonial regimes have ended, the colonial mentality remains in much of the academic and political outlook towards the East.

Orientalism had a considerable effect on many Humanities studies. There was scant consideration of the visual arts in Orientalism (Bohrer 1988), but in The Imaginary Orient the Art Historian Linda Nochlin argued that Orientalist works of art should be subjected to “a

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 5 of 43 critical analysis of the particular power structure in which these works came into being” (Nochlin 1989:34). Criticism of Said’s work continued long after its publication, nevertheless it remains influential and relevant in cultural studies and art history (Demerdash, s.d.; Quinn 2017:75).

Kim (2012) argues that many art historians have little regard for cultural and political backgrounds when considering Japanese paintings stating that it is important to consider “the power relations, the misconceptions and repressions of discourse, and hegemony behind the phenomenon of Japonisme” (Kim 2012:vii). Although artists in Europe and America absorbed influences from Japanese art, many considered it to be “inferior to their artistic tradition” (Kim 2012:viii). Examples of Orientalist prejudices against Japan can be seen, for instance, in the common representation of Samurai Warriors as fanatic and cruel (Nishihara 2005:245). European and American views of Japan seemed conflicted and a “strange pairing of condescension and adulation” (Sigur 2008:35).

3. Theoretical Framework D’Alleva (2012) gives a succinct description of theory and methodology. She considers theory “as the process of formulating research questions and methodology as the process of trying to answer those questions” (D’Alleva 2012:13). I think that the concept of Japonisme needs to be approached from a post-colonialist theoretical perspective as I will be considering the reaction of artists in Europe and North America to Japanese works of art. I shall investigate whether Orientalism influenced the work of the artists studied and in doing so assess to what degree “non-Western art was perceived and mediated through the prism of Western ideas and artistic values” (Pooke & Newall 2008:197). In terms of methodology, D’Alleva (2010) splits analysis of art works into contextual and formal analysis and I shall apply these methods to the selected images. I shall use formal analysis to consider the influence of Japanese art on the images and contextual analysis to examine the possible influences on the artists.

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 6 of 43 4. Findings and Discussion 4.1 Vincent Van Gogh (1853-1890)

Vincent and his brother, Theo, owned about 350 Japanese prints and, as with many other artists of the time, “had a passion” for them (Dumas 2010:114). He had a great deal of respect for Japanese art, especially ukiyo-e where he was able “to distinguish the individual schools, artists and often individual works” (Berger 1992:128). His passion for woodblock prints “had a major impact on his own work as an artist and visibly changed his approach” (Nemeczek 1995:20). He was “one of the first to adopt Japanese ways of making pictures” (Hockney & Gayford 2016:278), at times producing his own version of work from Japanese artists, such as Flowering Plum Orchard shown in Figs. 1 and 2.

Fig. 1 Flowering Plum Orchard (after Hiroshige) Van Gogh, V. Fig. 2 Plum Estate, Kameido, No 30 from One (1887) Hundred Famous Views of Edo, Hiroshige, U. (1857) https://www.vangoghmuseum.nl/en/collection/s0115V1962 https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/obj ect/A_1948-0410-0-65

Copying prints such as these helped Van Gogh to assimilate Japanese influences and develop his own style by understanding what the artists had done (Van Gogh & Japan 2019). Van Gogh referred to the “flat tones” of Japanese prints (Van Gogh 1888i) and found them

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 7 of 43 “very compelling, as he did their brilliant, unmodulated colour, bold contours and daring non-western perspectives” (Dumas 2010:114).

In 1888 Van Gogh travelled to Arles where he lived for some 14 months. He went there for the southern light, a contrast to that he had been used to in Holland and Paris. He thought that living there would be like living in the Japan he saw in his ukiyo-e prints (Dumas 2010:156). In a letter to Emile Bernard, Van Gogh confirmed “this part of the world seems to me as beautiful as Japan” (Van Gogh 1888a). From his letters we know that Van Gogh had a fascination with Japanese art and what he believed to be the lives of Japanese artists

“isn’t it almost a new religion that these Japanese teach us, who are so simple and live in nature as if they themselves were flowers? And we wouldn’t be able to study Japanese art, it seems to me, without becoming much happier and more cheerful”. (Van Gogh 1888i)

Van Gogh’s obsession with Japanese prints was not restricted to an appreciation of their aesthetic appeal, they produced for him a “utopian vision of Japan as a paradise of colour and beauty that he projected onto Provence” (Dumas 2010:116).

In his letters Van Gogh refers to the Japanese influence: “all my work is based to some extent on Japanese art” (Van Gogh 1888e). His crop in Almond Blossom (1890) [Fig. 3] is typical of Japanese perspective (Anderson 2019) and he “borrowed the subject, the bold outlines and the positioning of the tree in the picture plane from Japanese printmaking” (Almond Blossom - Vincent van Gogh s.d.)

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 8 of 43

Fig. 3 Almond Blossom, Van Gogh, V. (1890) https://www.vangoghmuseum.nl/en/collection/s0176V1962

Van Gogh’s use of colour was affected by his move to Arles and the strong sunlight there, writing to his brother Theo “I’d like you to spend some time here, you’d feel it — after some time your vision changes, you see with a more Japanese eye, you feel colour differently” (Van Gogh 1888b). Van Gogh preferred Japanese prints with the “most intense colouring and everyday motifs” (Van Gogh & Japan 2019). The influence of Japanese prints was strong. He adopted from them “large, flat areas of colour and robust contours” (Dumas 2010:25) and developed “into a fervent colourist” (Dumas 2010:95).

Van Gogh painted seven sunflower still lifes while in Arles, four of them in a six-day period, from the 21st to the 26th August 1888 (Bailey 2019:51). Completing four canvasses so quickly is a remarkable achievement; perhaps he was inspired by Japanese painters he described as drawing “quickly, very quickly, like a flash of lightning” (Van Gogh 1888b). Three further paintings were made in early 1889 which were copies of those made in August. These seven sunflower paintings have become “arguably the most widely recognised artworks in the world” (Bailey 2019:21).

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 9 of 43 Fig. 4 Sunflowers, Van Gogh, V. (1888)

https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/vincent-van-gogh-sunflowers

In terms of composition the painting is not particularly complex, consisting of 15 flowers in a pot on a table against a wall. The paint is laid on in very thick impasto in Van Gogh’s usual style. The pale-yellow wall is painted in a sort of basketweave pattern. This may have been produced with thick brushstrokes of oil paint as it “catches the light in different ways, providing an interplay of textures” Bailey (2019:19).

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 10 of 43 The vase, or pot, containing the flowers is quite plain, of two shades of yellow, separated by a thin blue line. Bailey (2019:18) notes that artists of the time usually portrayed floral still lifes in elegant vases, but that Van Gogh chose a more common container. As the sunflowers (with very wide stems) could not have fitted the mouth of this pot then Van Gogh “was not painstakingly copying a pot of sunflowers beside his easel. Instead he must have put the two elements together in his mind” (Bailey 2019:10). Additionally, the sunflowers are not rendered as botanically accurate; Van Gogh was not attempting an exact copy of the flowers but used colour “to express emotion” (The National Gallery s.d.).

The colour is immediately striking – yellow flowers in a yellow pot on a yellow table against a yellow wall. Bailey (2019:20) estimates that more than 95% of the picture surface is painted a shade of yellow. Shortly before painting the sunflowers, Vincent wrote to Theo “instead of trying to render exactly what I have before my eyes, I use colour more arbitrarily in order to express myself forcefully” (Van Gogh 1888g).

The base of the pot reflects the yellow colour of the wall while the top part of the pot reflects the colour of the table. The sunflowers are depicted in different stages of their life, some are just opening, others in full bloom and some are going to seed. This reflects the cycle of life in the tradition of vanitas paintings. Although the sunflowers are pictured in bright light, there are no shadows cast behind or below them. In addition the picture plane is flattened with no sense of linear perspective. Both aspects are well-known features of Japanese art (Hockney & Gayford 2016). “The ukiyo-e gave him the confidence to eliminate conventional kinds of modelling, to introduce larger areas of a single colour and to brighten his palette” (Whitford 1977:188).

Van Gogh’s views on Japan and Japanese art were not based on reality. His information came from studying Japanese prints, and reading books and magazines. Influential books of the time were L’Art Japonais (Gonse 1883) and the magazine Le Japon Artistique, published by the art dealer Siegfried Bing (from who Van Gogh bought Japanese prints), which was published monthly from 1888 until 1891. Van Gogh refers in several of his letters to the 1887 novel Madame Chrysantheme (Loti 1887) which “presented an exoticized view of Japan” (Walker 2008:87) and “is full of distorted images of Japanese life” (Kodera 1984:197). In five of his letters, sent between July and October 1888, he asks his brother Theo if he has read the book yet (Van Gogh 1888c,d,f,h & j). The book was also reported to have

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 11 of 43 influenced the stories of Madam Butterfly and Miss Saigon. Van Gogh believed that Japan “was a utopia where the sun shone brightly and painters worked together in monastic harmony” (Burnham 2014:19). His view of it was almost spiritual but he never visited Japan, “He never wanted to go, he didn’t need to – what he needed was just a construct with which he could develop his own oeuvre” (Van Gogh & Japan 2019).

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 12 of 43 4.2 Odilon Redon (1840-1916)

Odilon Redon’s work can be divided into two distinct periods, his early work, or ‘noirs’ were charcoal drawings and lithographs of a wide range of fantastic or weird creatures and objects, many of which were influenced by the writer Edgar Allan Poe (Chilvers 2009). Between 1890 and 1900 his style changed significantly, he stopped making noirs and started using colour “creating brilliant and subtly hued canvases, of which the best known are his paintings of flower bouquets” (Adamson 1996:108). This was a complete change encompassing “subject matter, mood, treatment, technique, style, personality” (Berger 1956:23).

Redon too had never visited Japan, but he had studied Asian religions, and was also deeply interested in Japanese art and the art and philosophy of Asia. His mentor, the botanist Armand Clavaud, taught Redon botanical details but also “also instilled in him an interest in Eastern art and literature.” (Yoder 2013:105)”. He also encouraged Redon to study Buddhist and Hindu writings. Redon had a strong interest “in eastern spirituality.” (The Buddha - Van Gogh Museum s.d) and a deep appreciation of the art of Asia (Adamson 1997:14). These interests translated into Redon’s own art; his painting process included “the study, assimilation, and transformation of non-Western artistic sources” (Adamson 1997:12).

Japanese screens were imported into Europe in large numbers and their painted designs, of landscapes or flowers, were welcomed (Adamson 1997:14). Folding screens (byobu) were “the primary guide for the many paravents Redon created between 1902 and 1906” (Adamson 1997:18). This can be seen in the screen Redon was commissioned to produce, in 1903, by Olivier Sainsère [Fig. 5].

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 13 of 43 Fig. 5 Paravent d'Olivier Sainsère, Redon, O. (1903)

https://gifu-art.info/details.php?id=3222

This screen was thought, at the time, to be his most Japanese work, not just for the byobu format but for the similarities to traditional Japanese screens. The similarities with the screen by Tawaraya Sōtatsu [Fig. 6] below are clearly recognisable in “the ambiguous treatment of space through the flattening of the background” (Yoder 2013:113).

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 14 of 43 Fig. 6 Moon and Autumn Grasses, Studio of Tawaraya Sōtatsu, (mid- to late 17th Century)

https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/48923

Redon’s paintings were influenced mainly by Japanese paintings rather than prints “The beautiful, hazy color, the fluid space in which objects float, the veiled allusion rather than the direct statement, take us back to an artist like Sotatsu” (Needham 1975:129). The traditions of Japanese painting, particularly the way that nature was depicted, gave Redon inspiration and a point of reference. By late 1904 Redon’s focus turned to floral still lifes where “the bouquets became fuller, the surrounds more abstract, and the vases more important” (Groom 1994: 325).

This is illustrated in Vase of Flowers [Fig. 7]. There is no obvious source of light in the image with no shadows cast, the lack of an obvious table or support for the vase gives the impression that it is floating. The background colours serve to emphasise the colours and

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 15 of 43 Fig. 7 Redon, O. (c.1912-14) Vase of Flowers

https://www.moma.org/collection/works/37321

shapes of the vase and flowers and the overall effect is of a flattened picture plane with no sense of recession or perspective which all suggest the influence of Japanese art. Botanical accuracy was not important to Redon in this image, indeed in many of his floral still lifes he painted flowers from different seasons in the one vase (Bouvier 2014:140). Rather than reproductions of flowers they were “a means of imaging the unconscious and the dream through the convergence of nature and reality that informed them” (Groom 1994: 320).

A spiritual nature can be read into this image with the heavy, anchoring pot representing the human head and the bright, colourful flowers suggesting thoughts, Redon’s still lifes with flowers “unite the earthly and the ethereal” (Lemonedes 2016:7). This perhaps reflects a characteristic of Japanese art that is “an understanding of the natural world as a source of spiritual insight and an instructive mirror of human emotion” (Ulak 2020). The Japanese influence on Redon’s later images was not purely on the technical side of his work.

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 16 of 43 There are, however, three vase of flower images which Adamson describes as “one of the rare examples of a direct and also more shallow Orientalism” (Adamson 1997:20). Two of the images are pastel whereas the third is oil on canvas [Fig. 8]. The figure on the vase is described as “menacant et hors de lui” (Wildenstein 1996:113) [translated as threatening and angry]. The contrast between the ethereal nature of the flowers and the fierce warrior on the vase is striking. These three vases are unlike any others portrayed by Redon and perhaps the samurai figure harks back to some of the weird, horrifying figures produced in his earlier noirs.

Fig. 8 Redon, O. (1908) Vase au Guerrier Japonais (Flowers in a Japanese Vase)

https://www.polamuseum.or.jp/english/collection/016-0033/

The painting does, though, reveal a perception of Japan as ‘other’ and suggests the Orientalist prejudices against Japan noted by Nishihara (2005:245). It also contradicts any view of Redon as an artist fully in touch with the spiritual nature of Japanese art. Although fierce samurai are portrayed, particularly in ukiyo-e prints, I am not aware of any images where they are paired with representations of flowers.

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 17 of 43 4.3 Edna Boies Hopkins (1872-1937)

From 1895-97 Boies Hopkins took wood carving classes at the Cincinnati Art Academy (Flint 1983) and in 1899 studied with Arthur Wesley Dow, an advocate of Japanese art. “From him she acquired print making skills as well as a deep appreciation for Japanese art” (Green et al 1999:180). Dow “complemented an emphasis on Japanese art with the inclusion of world wide art forms” (Williams 2013:112) and through his role as an art educator “opened the gates for the inclusion of multiculturalism in artistic training … and helped pave the way for the contemporary practice of the same” (Williams 2013:112).

In 1904, for her honeymoon, she embarked on a round-the-world trip with her artist husband, spending a significant time in Japan where she studied ukiyo-e woodblock printmaking and purchased a small collection of woodcut prints (Flint 1983). Following the trip, they lived for a decade in Paris and were friends with Monet. This was perhaps “equally important for Hopkins development as a floral artist” (Vasseur 2007:12). Also important for her development was that, at this time, ukiyo-e prints would have been readily available in Parisian galleries and museums (Vasseur 2007:11). Hopkins was now committed to “mastering the techniques she had learned from Dow and in Japan” (Ryan, 1986:2)

In studying ukiyo-e woodblock printing, Boies Hopkins would have noticed a significant difference with woodblock printing in Europe and North America. In Japan the printing was a cooperative effort by four people: a designer who produced the image to be printed, an engraver who would carve the design onto a block of wood (usually cherry), a printer who would be responsible for printing the final image, and a publisher who had usually commissioned the work in the first place. In Europe and North America, each of these stages was usually performed by one person – the artist.

Boies Hopkins’ earlier woodcuts are the ones most influenced by Japanese style, focussing on asymmetrical composition with backgrounds of subtle colour washes (Ryan 1986:2). Up to around 1907 her images are “still highly imitative of Japanese floral prints” (Vasseur 2007:9). This is exemplified in Fig. 9.

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 18 of 43 Fig. 9 Boies Hopkins, E. (c1906) Achillea

https://collections.mfa.org/objects/92237/achilles

In Paris Boies Hopkins images “evolved into increasingly flattened and simplified flowers, enlarged to fill the entire block” (Meech & Weisberg 1990:184) and in 1909-1910 her work began to exhibit more vibrant colours (Vasseur 2007:12).

With the deepening political crisis in Europe in 1914, the Hopkins’s returned to America. From 1914-1920 Boies Hopkins spent the summers making prints and teaching in both Maine and Provincetown (Flint 1983). This was significant in that many American artists who had left Europe before the outbreak of war “flocked to Provincetown” (Flint 1983:14). The artists’ colony that formed there contained a significant number who were printmakers and who became known as the Provincetown Printers.

Up until this time a separate block of wood had to be cut for each colour that was to be printed, possibly five or six blocks. At Provincetown the painter and printmaker B. J. O. Nordfeldt developed a new process which involved cutting a single block. This resulted in a white line separating the colours and which also emphasised the design (Flint 1983:15). This

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 19 of 43 represented a significant departure from the practice of woodblock printing that Boies Hopkins had studied in Japan and most of her prints from 1915 onwards were produced using the single block, white line method (Vasseur 2007:19). This printing technique enabled her to use “dozens of colors without having to cut a block for each one” (Ryan, 1986:3). These developments are evident in her print Sunflowers Against a Green Ground [Fig.10], with white lines separating the different colours, but also adding emphasis to the shapes of the flowers. The asymmetrical composition and flatness of the picture plane typical of Japanese prints remains but the white line method has enabled the use of very many colours. There is also a move away from a botanical representation towards more simplified forms and strong colours; “enhanced by the new technique and by her European exposure to Fauvism and Cubism” (Ryan, 1986:3).

Fig. 10 Boies Hopkins, E. (c1915-1916) Sunflowers Against a Green Ground

https://www.cincinnatiartmuseum.org/art/explore-the-collection?id=21177198

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 20 of 43 In 1921 Boies Hopkins and her husband returned to live in Paris where they stayed for the next two years, during which time she produced fewer prints. Of her later work produced while in Paris a good example is Sunflower Arrangement [Fig. 11].

Fig. 11 Boies Hopkins, E. (c.1920-23) Green Arrangement,

https://www.cincinnatiartmuseum.org/art/explore-the-collection?id=21330561

This is one of only a few prints she produced where the flowers are shown in a vase, rather than appearing as if growing in a natural setting. The vase is centrally placed, and the forms are simplified and more abstracted. The use of multiple colours has continued with particularly strong colours for two of the central flower forms, the mottled background is distinctive to her work (Meech & Weisberg 1990:184). Although the flowers are set in a vase, there is no sense of setting for the arrangement – no table or of placement in a room.

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 21 of 43 The emphasis on a bold pattern “characterizes most of Hopkins’s last work” (Vasseur 2007:30).

The flattened planes typical of Japanese art remain, but there is a sense that Boies Hopkins has assimilated what she had learned from ukiyo-e prints and developed her own individual abstracted, more modern, style. Her last prints are thought to date from around 1923, her career as a printer may have ended prematurely due to arthritis (Meech & Weisberg 1990:183).

The circumstances under which Boies Hopkins created her work differed from Van Gogh and Redon, she apparently lived a comfortable life, but the male-dominated art world of the time would have affected the subjects she would have been expected to portray and the reception of them. Floral work was “the preferred genteel subject matter for women artists” (Vasseur 2007:9). Floral images may have been her preferred and freely chosen topic though, as she is described as strong willed and unaffected by “social convention” (Ryan, 1986:). Apart from the fact that she lived and studied in Japan, there is no reference in the literature to her views on Japanese life and culture.

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 22 of 43 5 Conclusion Were the three artists, influenced by Japanese art, engaged in cultural appropriation? Yes, they studied Japanese art and used the techniques in their own work. Cultural appropriation, however, has been happening for centuries and can have positive as well as negative connotations; “many of the world’s most celebrated art movements and objects are the result of it” (Millington 2018). Young (2008) sets out five distinct types of cultural appropriation: object, content, style, motif and subject appropriation. In the case of these three artists then it is generally style and sometimes motif appropriation that has taken place.

It is also necessary to consider the context in which the work was produced and whether a degree of orientalism was involved. It is in this area that the differences between the three artists emerge. All the images were produced during the colonial era and while Japan was not a colony, military force was used to make it open its ports and trade with Europe and North America.

Van Gogh’s view of Japan and the life of a Japanese artist was based on a fictional imagination, nevertheless he believed Japanese society to be superior in many ways to European thinking it to be “a primitivistic utopia" (Kodera 1984:208). In some of his finest work he used style and motif appropriation and a construct of Japanese life to develop his own highly distinctive oeuvre. “Sunflowers in a Vase would have been inconceivable without those Japanese examples” (Dumas 2010:95).

Odilon Redon’s works also appropriated style and motif, but perhaps to a lesser degree than the other two artists. He too had never visited Japan, but his study of the religion and philosophy of the continent undoubtedly influenced his work. His three ‘Vase au Guerrier Japonais’ perhaps betray the colonialist mindset of the time with the portrayal of the samurai as ‘other’ and in complete contrast to the Japanese approach to flower painting. Of the images studied these are the only ones to present an overtly orientalist tone.

Only Edna Boies Hopkins had visited Japan living there for a period. Whereas Van Gogh and Redon studied technique from the prints produced by Edo period artists or from books and journals, Boies Hopkins practised the technique of woodblock printing in Japan. While little is known of her views on Japan and Japanese style, she was undoubtedly influenced by her

Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 23 of 43 learnings from Arthur Wesley Dow and her time in Japan. It is interesting to note how her work was overtly Japanese in style at the beginning but moved away from this over time to a much more modern and abstracted style.

I consider the main difference in Japanese influence on the three artists to be contextual; Van Gogh used his imagined view of a Japanese utopia to put himself in to a frame of mind that produced ‘Sunflowers’; Redon’s work was made with the ‘spiritual significance’ given by his study of philosophy and religion whereas Boies Hopkins main influence was the teachings of Arthur Dow, and living and studying printing techniques in Japan.

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Creative Arts Level 3 – Research - Assignment 4 – Bob Coe Student Number 507140 Page 42 of 43 Glossary Byobu: Japanese folding screen, painted with landscapes, floral images or illustration of stories. Edo: Previous name of Tokyo. Edo Period: Period from 1603-1867 when Japan was ruled by the Tokugawa shogunate. Kacho-e: Pictures of birds and flowers. Paravents: French word for a screen. Rinpa or Rimpa: Japanese painting and design movement from the Edo period based on classical art and literary traditions. Surimono: Literally ‘printed thing’, usually a combined image and poem/s. High quality prints where the image was often commissioned by poets or poetry groups. Ukiyo: Means ‘floating world’ originally referring to the Buddhist concept of the transience of life, later change of meaning referred to everyday events and pleasurable or frivolous pastimes. Ukiyo-e: Picture depicting people or events of ‘the floating world’ (see ukiyo).

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