This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received 69-4946

NAVIN, Sally L. Price, 1938- INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF SELECTED VOCA­ TIONALLY RELATED VARIABLES OF ADOLES­ CENT GIRLS.

The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1968 Education, guidance and counseling

University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan

SALLY L. PRICE NAVIN 1969

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF SELECTED VOCATIONALLY

RELATED VARIABLES OF'ADOLESCENT GIRLS

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

Sally Price Navin, B.A., M.A.

■ft * * * *

The Ohio State University 1968

Approved by

JVaviser Faculty of Bspcial Services College or Education ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This writer is indebted to several persons who were of valuable assistance during the completion of the doctoral program and specifically during the completion of this study.

To my adviser, Dr. Anthony C. Riccio, thanks is expressed for his encouragement throughout my program of studies. His cooperation

in this research is appreciated.

To Dr. Herman J. Peters and Dr. James V. Wigtil gratitude is expressed for their cooperation in serving as readers for the study.

To Dr. Jack Cochran for making available resources necessary

for the study as well as his own time and effort goes sincere

appreciation.

To my parents, my aunt, my brother and his family, Lois Kemp,

and the many others who provided encouragement and help throughout

my program of studies, my most sincere gratitude is expressed.

ii VITA

June 7, 1938 Born - Marysville, Ohio

1961 . . . . B.A., Long Beach State College, Long Beach, California

1961-•63 . . Teacher, Santa Ana City Schools, Santa Ana, California

1964 . . . . M.A., The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

1964 ■66 . . Counselor, Columbus Public Schools, Columbus, Ohio

1966 -68 . . Teaching Associate, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio

iii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii

VITA iii

LIST OF TABLES vi

Chapter

I . INTRODUCTION 1

Statement of the Problem Definition of Terms Limitations of the Study Importance of the Study Organization of the Remainder of the Dissertation

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE 19

Vocational Development of Females Career Saliency Work Values Vocational Choice Women in Work Career Patterns Variables Central to the Study Self-Concept Vocational Maturity Level of Occupational Aspiration Motivation Achievement

III. PROCEDURES 80

Setting Population Instruments Administration of Instruments Statistical Analysis

iv Chapter Page

IV. FINDINGS ...... 101

Question 1 Question 2

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS...... 134

Summary Conclusions Implications Recommendations for Further Study

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 145

v LIST OF TABLES

TABLE Page

1. Means and Standard Deviations of Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self, Vocational Maturity, Level of Occupational Aspiration, School Motivation, Achievement, and Intelligence for Ninth, Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth Grades and College Preparatory, Vocational and Mixed Curricula Girls ...... 102

2. t Ratio of Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self, Vocational Maturity, Level of Occupational Aspiration, School Motivation, Achievement, and Intelligence for Ninth, Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth Grades and College Preparatory, Vocational and Mixed Curricula Girls ...... 103

3. Intercorrelation Matrix for Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self, Vocational Maturity, Level of Occupational Aspiration, School Motivation, Achievement, and Intelligence for Ninth, Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth Grade G i r l s...... 109

4. Intercorrelation Matrix for Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self, Vocational Maturity, Level of Occupational Aspiration, School Motivation, Achievement, and Intelligence for College Preparatory, Vocational and Mixed Curricula Girls ...... Ill

5. Intercorrelation Matrix for Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self, Vocational Maturity, Level of Occupational Aspiration, School Motivation, Achievemeitt, and Intelligence for Ninth Grade Girls ...... 113

Intercorrelation Matrix for Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self, Vocational Maturity, Level of Occupational Aspiration, School Motivation, Achievement, and Intelligence for Tenth Grade Girls ...... 117

vi TABLE Page

7. Intercorrelation Matrix for Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self, Vocational Maturity, Level of Occupational Aspiration, School Motivation, Achievement, and Intelligence for Eleventh Grade Girls ...... 120

8. Intercorrelation Matrix for Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self, Vocational Maturity, Level of Occupational Aspiration, School Motivation, Achievement, and Intelligence for Twelfth Grade Girls ...... 123

vii CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

In the course of history the social and psychological roles of the female have remained fairly constant. Traditionally women were expected to be passive with men and nurturant to others They were expected to inhibit their social and sexual aggressiveness. They were expected to cultivate a competitive attractiveness to males and to ignore intellectual qualities. It has only been within the recent past that the life of the woman has been provided the opportunity for actualization in its own right (De Beauvoir, 1952; Erikson, 1963)

Generally the differences between the roles of men and women are not supported by biological, anthropological, or psychological reality. Currently changes are being brought about through biological control which negate the biological reasons as an explanation of the problems facing women today. The birth control pill is an example

(Time, 10/19/66). Many of the role expectations of male and female are cultural in origin. Anthropologists describe cultures in which roles common to women in one, are assigned to men in another (Mead,

1949; Sanford, 1966), Albert (1963) points out that nature makes us male or female while the values and norms of the society in which we develop makes us men or women. Psychologically, traits which

1 distinguish the female from the male are more often in theory than in reality (Fromm, 1959).

The circumstances of growing up for the girl toward full development of a healthy female personality are not optimistic. As

Erikson (1959) points put, women through the ages have let themselves he incarcerated, immobilized, enslaved, infantilized, and exploited.

In the American society the major avenue for self-realization is

through one's work. For men this avenue offers the opportunity for the

implementation of self-concept (Super, 1963) and the potential for

self-actualization. For them their identity can be as certain as the

conditions from which they can predict their own vocational and thus personal futures.

The picture of women in the world of work reveals both rapid

change and adherence-to cultural habit. Rapid change is reflected in

the numbers of women working and in the nature of demands upon them.

Adherence to cultural habit is revealed in the limited opportunities

available and in the-rigidity of patterns of behavior (Ginzberg, 1956;

Girls and Womens Occupations, 1955; Hawkes, 1960j Mead, 1962; Parsons,

19£6), In 1920, women workers numbered eight and a quarter million;

in 1961, twenty-five million; and by 1970, they will pumber over thirty

ipillion (Peterson, 1963; President's CJommission on the Status of Women,

1963). Three out of five of these women are married and by 1970 they

will constitute more than one-third the total labor force. Eight out

Of ten girls now in high school will be employed at some period in

thpir lives (Kretch, 1965). Typically they will work for a period

after completion.of education* retire from the working force for from /V 3

ten to twenty years, then return to the labor market. The average mother had her last child by age twenty-five and by her early thirties

finds her family in school and herself ready to work (Useem, 1960), At

that time she finds herself a vocational adolescent.

In spite of their total numbers in the work force, seventy per

cent of all women workers are found in four occupational categories:

clerical, operatives, service workers, and professional-technical

(Wood, 1959). Most jobs held by women are in low-paid categories. One

example of handicaps faced by women is shown in the Fair Labor Standards

Act which permits the levels of women's earnings to be lower than those

of men. These inequalities in the position of women in the world of

work reflect severe role strain (American Council on Education, 1960;

Hottel, 1954; Komarovsky, 1953; Zapoleon, 1961).

The large majority of women must juggle education, career, and

homemaking in some order. The most satisfying status for a woman

appears to be that of both being married and having a career

(Havighurst, 1965; Mulvay, 1963; Parsons, 1956). A number of problems

arise in this regard. Girls are generally untrained for the role of

housewife. Furthermore, the typical housewife role is not seen as

permitting full realization of a woman's creative potential (Wagman,

1966). Modern conveniences appear to have the effect of lessening even

further the potential for that creative homemaking. The competition in

a career raises another problem of security for the masculine counter­

part as well as the maintenance of femininity in essentially masculine

endeavors.

The President's Commission on Home and Community 4

(Mead and Kaplan, 1965) points out that we know little about how girls and women reconcile within themselves the conflicting self-images, roles and practical aspects to which they must conform. Neither do we have sufficient knowledge of the complex motivations that influence their ... decisions. What we are becoming increasingly aware of, however, is the condition of discrimination facing women today in their attempt to develop their creative potential. While this is by no means the discrimination forcing acceptance of the low level of existence facing many minority groups in our society, it is nonetheless just as pervasive in stilling the creative existence due women in the world of work.

During the past ten years the United States Office of Education

has funded approximately 200 projects dealing with career development

and vocational counseling. Eighty-seven of these have been completed

in the last five years or are still in process. These eighty-seven

represent an expenditure of about five and one-half million dollars in

federal funds supplemented by unknown amounts from college and local

school systems. Amounts for single projects range from eight thousand

to almost one million dollars (Scates and Brittain, 1967). The result

of all this effort is that piece by piece a larger amount of territory

is being explored for the purpose of filling in needed information for

vocational counseling.

One of seven categories of supported research is that which

includes studies of career development. These studies include

longitudinal research of career development, the vocational maturation

process, and temporarily limited investigations of factors related to 5 vocational aspirations, goals, and choices. Obviously, there is

revealed here a need for more knowledge about career development. Even more certain is the fact that the vocational guidance process as it is

implemented in the public school is a crucial element in the entire

process of vocational development.

Projects in career development reveal a curious stance relative

to the exploration of sex differences. In some there is an obvious

recognition of the basic differences in the career patterns of men and

women (Campbell, undated; Dales and Walters, undated; Lyon, undated).

In nearly every instance where recognition is paid sex differences by

limiting the sample, the vocational pattern of women is ignored in

favor of exploring that of men. Recognition of sex differences is

sometimes paid in studies such as that by Gribbons (1968) which

explores both boys and girls but shows interest particularly in the

status of girls. In spite of undeniable evidence that sex differences

do exist in career development, however, most studies have not taken

into account in any major way those differences, nor have they

attempted to investigate them as a matter of specific intent.

Isolation of study samples by sex and the general practice of

then using only males is an obvious admission that the pattern of

vocational development of women is both atypical and complex. Evidence

is accumulating at an increasing rate that the female in our society

faces a different set of expectations, manifests a different set of

needs, and in some respects lives in a different vocational and

educational world than does the male. Much of this evidence is

presented by sociologists, psychologists, anthropologists, and others, 6 including educators, outside the field of vocational development. To this date the interest which elicits such information is not shared by those most directly responsible for the accumulation of vocational information. Thus the picture is rapidly becoming more clear regarding the unique nature of external press on women. Assumptions are being made of the internal nature of the development of women in response to this press. However, little actual data are being accumulated to reveal the vocational nature of women from which more accurate guide­ lines for vocational guidance can be developed.

Such data are generally gathered from a consideration of a number of central constructs. In vocational development research the number of commonly used constructs are limited. Vocational development is generally described in terms of self-concept, motivation, aspiration, intelligence, achievement, interests, vocational maturity, and experiences. These constructs not only represent the vocational nature of the individual, but provide the basis for the processes of vocational guidance. They also represent central constructs in the educational endeavor as structured by the school.

Thus, it would appear that women in the world of work face unique and extreme difficulty; that the vocational development of girls

is atypical. It would appear that there needs to be more information

regarding the nature of this process. It would appear that central

constructs have proven utility in the vocational guidance process. It would appear that these constructs are typically used in investigations

of vocational development. Therefore, through an examination of the

interrelationships of commonly used variables, this study sought to 7 provide greater understanding into the vocational development of adolescent girls and to draw from these insights implications for their most effective vocational guidance.

Statement of the Problem

It was the purpose of this study to determine the interrelation­ ships of selected school-oriented vocationally related variables of adolescent high school girls. It was a secondary purpose of this study to draw tentative conclusions about the vocational nature of these high school girls in order to provide guidelines for their career counseling.

Specifically, the study sought to answer the following questions:

1. What are the differences in the (a) Self-Concept, (b) Self-

Acceptance, (c) Ideal-Self, (d) Vocational Maturity, (e) Level of

Occupational Aspiration, (f) School Motivation, (g) Achievement, and

(h) Intelligence of ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grade and

College Preparatory, Vocational, and Mixed curricula girls?

2. What is the relationship of (a) Self-Concept, (b) Self-

Acceptance, (c) Ideal-Self, (d) Vocational Maturity, (e) Level of

Occupational Aspiration, (f) School Motivation, (g) Achievement, and

(h) Intelligence each with the others for girls in the ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades and College Preparatory, Vocational, and

Mixed curricula?

3. What implications from the findings of the differences and

relationships among (a) Self-Concept, (b) Self-Acceptance, (c) Ideal-

Self, (d) Vocational Maturity, (e) Level of Occupational Aspiration,

(f) School Motivation, (g) Achievement, and (h) Intelligence can be 8 drawii foi the school counselor concerned about ur. l working with the vocational development of high school girls?

Definition of Terms

The following are offered as definitions of terms used throughout the study. In part they follow a previous study which examined similar variables of boys and from which the data were gathered (Cochran, 1968).

1. Self-Concept: The way an individual perceives himself. This term is commonly interchanged with self in referring to the individual as he is perceived by himself. Self- Concept was operationally defined as the score on Section I of the Index of Adjustment and Values.

2. Self-Acceptance: The degree to which a person likes or dislikes the way he is. The individual's regard for himself. Self-Acceptance was operationally defined as the score on Section II of the Index of Adjustment and Values.

3. Ideal-Self: How a person says he would ideally like to be. Ideal-Self was operationally defined as the score on Section III of the Index of Adjustment and Values.

4. Vocational Maturity: The maturity of an individual's vocational behavior as indicated by the similarity between his behavior and that of the oldest individuals in his vocational life stage. Vocational Maturity was operationally defined as the score on the Attitude Section of the Vocational Development Inventory.

5. Level of Occupational Aspiration: The level on the occupational prestige hierarchy an individual perceives his goal to be. Level of Occupational Aspiration was operationally defined as the score on the Occupational Aspiration Scale.

6. School Motivation: A student's desire to do good work in school. School Motivation was operationally defined as the score on the JIM Scale.

7. Achievement: The performance of a student in school. School Achievement was operationally defined as the grade point average received by a student during the 1967-68 9

academic year. Grade point average was based on a point system where "A" is equivalent to a 4.00.

8. Intelligence: Intelligence was operationally defined as the score on the Kuhlmann-Anderson Measure of Academic Potential.

9. College Preparatory Girls: Girls enrolled in the college preparatory curriculum of the school. This curriculum stresses academic preparation for college.

10. Vocational Girls: Girls enrolled in the vocational curriculum of the school. This curriculum stresses the development of healthy work attitudes and salable job skills.

11. Mixed Girls: Girls enrolled in the mixed curriculum of the school. This curriculum includes courses from both the college preparatory and vocational curricula.

Limitations of the Study ~"

Limitations of the study can be identified in three areas: the subjects chosen for investigation, the instruments used to collect data, and the procedures of analysis. The study sample consisted of 264 girls currently enrolled in a high school located in an upper middle class village in the northeastern part of Ohio. The village, while

serving as a bedroom community for nearby metropolitan areas, could not be considered suburban. Its size and location make it more accurately

described as village. The largest percentage of students were enrolled

in a college preparatory curriculum and the majority do go on to attend

college. Girls in the vocational curriculum were a part of a government

funded program to up-grade vocational education in the school. They

constitute less than one-fifth of the sample. Thus both by conditions

of the community and the school, the subjects for the study were

primarily at the upper socio-economic levels. Similarly the 10 intelligence as measured by standardized tests was higher for this group than the general population.

Four of the five instruments used to collect data for the study are recommended for research use only. These are the Vocational

Development Inventory, Occupational Aspiration Scale, JIM Scale, and

Index of Adjustment and Values. Thus, data are still being gathered to provide more information for their continued development. Of these, however, three are being commercially produced and the fourth undoubtedly will be soon. The fifth instrument, the Kuhlmann-Anderson, has been in existence for many years in the school setting. The latest edition used in this study has received excellent reviews.

One of the instruments, the Occupational Aspiration Scale, was designed for boys. It was adapted for girls as a part of a previous

study (Cochran, 1967). Changes were made in these instruments in order

that they might be used with a common answer sheet and be machine

scored. These changes were made with the permission of the developers where they involved modification in the instrument.

The statistical procedures essentially involved correlations and

tests of significance of means. As in the case of all correlations,

statistical significance, in this study .05, does not necessarily mean

high relationships. Thus interpretation given correlations was always

done with the purpose of providing a more complete interpretation of the

data. Visual examination was accomplished with certain data and, if

warranted, selected items were re-examined statistically. It was not

the purpose of this study to extract all the meaning from the data that

was possible. Where recommended, additional analyses would provide 11 further insight. These might include factor analysis of all the data available from the total educational and vocational programs of the school.

These limitations are in each instance similar to those found in similar studies involving investigations of the career and general vocational development of girls at the high school age. The subjects are similar, the instruments are those commonly used, and the methods of statistical anlaysis are normal procedures.

Importance of the Study

The significance of the problem can be identified in three areas: the adolescent identity of girls, vocational development of adolescents, and the constructs central to the study.

Adolescent Identity of Girls.--Psychologists are in common agreement that the primary characteristic of the adolescent experience is that of identity crisis (Coleman, 1963; Douvan and Adelson, 1966;

Erikson, 1963). This is particularly true in the adolescent female.

Feminine identity centers around the capacity and practice of close interpersonal behavior. The adolescent girl finds and defines herself through attachments to others. She undergoes constant press to marry, find acceptance and love, and wait until after marriage for the resolution of other identity crises. Since the content of the wife and mother role obviously depends upon whom one marries, the female cannot answer the question, "What do I want to make of myself - and - what do I have to work with?" without the heavy influence of her mate. 12

The stronger the influence of the husband, the greater the reduction of role experimentation and the possibility for free choice for the wife.

Adolescence as a time of exploration for girls is not a reality.

As Sanford (1966) points out, if commitment to such roles are made too early, young people are prevented from having experiences that might develop them. He says that when there is little to the personality besides the role behavior, the tendency to define the self in terms of the role is strong.

At adolescence the girl begins the task of integrating

individual goals and femininity. These are often in conflict. She accomplishes this task or compromise by setting priorities, arranging

alternatives, integrating activity and passivity, and in short, dealing with conflicting demands while achieving her own identity. In

adolescence girls move from high activity and egoistic goals to greater

passivity and feminine goals. Vocationally they invest less in an image

of their future work than do boys. They are-less realistic in their

plans for job preparation than are boys. These plans often reveal a

lack of coherence. On the other hand, girls reveal consistency among

their views not found in boys. In part this reflects the persistent

and pervasive press of society. It leaves little room for individual

development (Douvan and Adelson, 1966).

Adolescence is a time of resolution of many conflicts in the

development of women. The female is accorded more freedom as a child

to indulge in cross-sex behaviors (Brown, 1958; Heilbrun, 1964; Lynn,

1959). This is particularly true in the educational realm where girls

and boys assume a common student role. Often they receive similar press 13

from the authority figures in their lives. However, in the broader

society they are exposed to conflicting punishments in maturity whether

they assume the female role or the modern masculinized role (Brown, 1965).

The greatest stress and the time of resolution for this developmental

conflict takes place in adolescence. It is at this time that they can

be most beneficially assisted in their development through counseling

and guidance.

Effective counseling, including careful planning, can eliminate

or minimize role discontinuity which effects the future of the

adolescent girl. Certainly one of the primary tasks of the modern

counselor is to assist the client to develop a well delineated sense of

identity. The current emphasis is not to change the person but to

enable her to utilize the resources she now has for coping with life.

The purpose of counseling thus includes the enhancement of the

individual, the development and the realization of the individual as

a free human being (Arbuckle, 1967).

These purposes meet the needs of the adolescent girl in coping

with the identity crisis of adolescence. Personal-social counseling as

well as educational and vocational planning and adjustment play a vital

role in the work of the counselor. The counselor must assist the girl

to widen her thinking about vocational opportunity, point out her ideas

about herself and her social role, and promote more flexible planning

(Lewis, 1965). Young women must be assisted in realizing their

responsibilities as mothers and as women with a responsible place

outside the home (Krech, 1965). Obviously this assistance would involve

providing exploratory experiences as well as the vicarious exploration 14 of counseling. To accomplish both the guidance function of developing appropriate educational experiences and the counseling function of personal, vicarious exploration of self, the counselor needs possess more information about the vocational development pattern of the girl with whom he works. Insights into these patterns can best be provided through utilization of available information and commonly used constructs. Thus, in part, the need for this study is defined.

Vocational Development of Adolescents.— Vocational research indicates that having a well-delineated sense of identity is an important requisite in choosing a life's work. There is a definite relationship between developmental experience and vocational choice.

Patterns of experience have been found to be characteristic of persons in given occupations. The data also point to the existence of similarity of development along predictable lines among members of the same occupations. Certain kinds of inconsistent experiences have been found to lead to incoherencies in development that make both occupational choice and identity crystalization problematic. The commitment to a vocational social self generally leads toward a more consistent description of private self. It is possible that at times vocational choice may lead toward externalization. In this case the individual, aware of internal confusion may avoid coming to terms with uncertainties; ambivalences, and incomparable desires in favor of

"finding a goal." Choice of a vocation becomes a salient factor in this resolution (Galinsky and Fast, 1966). Thus, in part, the individual defines his occupation and in part his occupation defines who he is. 15

Adolescence is the time of important vocational exploration

(Super, 1960). Demands of the high school program make exploration and

limited choice-making a crucial period. Super contends that the development of a number of attributes is essential foi healthy vocational exploration. These must receive careful evaluation and subsequent consideration in the planning of exploratory experiences.

These personal characteristics are the development of self-knowledge,

interests, and attitudes. A survey of and subsequent development in

these areas should provide information for assisting ninth graders to become psychologically ready for vocational exploration. Often they

are affected by the grade and curriculum of the individual. Always

there is the interaction of one characteristic upon the others. If

adolescent vocational exploration is to be a planned process,

consideration should be given in this planning to the dynamics of age,

grade and interrelationships such as those investigated in this study.

As was pointed out earlier, our culture's expectations for girls

are less simple than for boys; they are both more ambiguous and less

consistent, perhaps because of a recognition of the complexities of

feminine development (Douvan and Adelson, 1966). Marriage is both a

sex role and a work role. Thus, a woman cannot readily procede to

cultivate an individual talent after marriage unless she has the

freedom to make adequate arrangements for the assumption of home

responsibilities. It is at this point that our culture's ambivalence

emerges. It is also at this point, adolescence, namely in high school,

that key decisions are made by girls which determine their future

patterns. These decisions can best be made from a position of 16 knowledge, understanding and acceptance of one's uniqueness and peculiar circumstances of social press- This knowledge and under­ standing can also be used to construct a more developmentally oriented milieu, one in which girls can come to grips with problems in their own identity and vocational development. It is founded, however, in the reality which extends beyond empirical evidence.

Practically all of an adolescent's life endeavors are in the realm of formalized education or related to it. Further, the road open to advancement in our society is generally through education.

Yet, when women turn to this avenue they find that frequently the same stress prohibiting their complete development exists is our educational institutions as well. One set of facts is so astonishing to cause a second examination. Peterson (1964) points out that in the 1930's two out of five bachelor's and master's degrees and one out of seven Ph D's were earned by women. Today, only one in three of bachelor's and master's degrees are awarded women and only one in ten Ph D's, The conflicting nature of educational demands on women is further revealed in the statistics which show that in 1962 the median number of years in school completed was twelve for women as against eleven and one-half for men. Although women comprised a majority of the national population, women constituted only forty-two per cent of the entering college class (President's Commission on the

Status of Women, 1963). Furthermore more women drop out of college before graduation than men (Newcomer, 1960),

A girl's career is not likely to be continuous; therefore, highly technical and specific training often becomes obsolete during 17 her period of absence from the labor force. Education serves to provide her with the skills she needs in her work. Perhaps one of the chief shortcomings of this education today relative to the conflicting roles of women is that it does not prepare adolescents for the activities in which they will be chiefly engaged, homemaking. Education for home- making and working careers for adolescents must be firmly grounded in basic knowledge. This basic knowledge must also be grounded in reality.

Often information about marriage and homemaking is more preachment than practice. The young wife and mother finds herself living in pretense, often unable to understand or cope with demands for which she was not prepared (Cuber, 1965).

Vocational development of adolescent girls is a crucial aspect of identity. Social factors make this development particularly stressful for females. Both empirical and philosophical evidence substantiate these claims. In education lies the key to adequate development. Thus in a second way, the significance of this study is revealed.

Constructs Central to the Study.— This study also gains importance through the choice of variables investigated. Research in vocational development is generally comprised of the common variables of self-concept, vocational maturity, level of occupational aspiration, school achievement, school motivation, abilities and aptitudes, and interests. Each of these was considered in some way in the present study. While no inventory of interests was utilized, curriculum choice can be considered a manifested interest. These variables are also commonly used in the planning of educational experiences. Insight into 18 their interrelationships is essential for the evaluation and construction of adequate learning programs.

Each variable was operationally defined in terms of an existing instrument used for their measurement or in terms of a commonly accepted procedure for definition. This provides continued availability for data suitable for research. The fact of the conduct of this investigation in the practical field setting provides another useful dimension for the study. Therefore, in a final way*another importance of the problem is revealed.

Organization of the Remainder of the Dissertation

This chapter has included an introduction, statement of the

problem, definition of terms, limitations of the study, and

importance of the study. Chapter II presents a review of the

literature pertinent to the study. Chapter III contains a

description of the procedures and statistical methods used in the

study and in Chapter IV is found a discussion of the findings of the

study. Chapter V contains a summary, conclusions, implications, and

recommendations for further research. CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter will present a review of literature related to the study. This review will be presented in two sections. The first is the general vocational development of females. Considered in this section are career saliency, work values, vocational choice, women in work, and career patterns. The second section considers research on the variables central to the study. This includes research done on the relationships among Self-Concept, Vocational Maturity, Level of Occupational Aspiration, Motivation, and Achievement as these are related to career development of females.

Vocational Development of Females

The hypothesis that career development in girls differs from that in boys is the object of increasing investigation. To gather data for the statistical proof of this hypothesis has been the aim of a number of general studies. Other more specific studies have been completed which investigate the nature of these differences. As an overview of some of these differences a number of observations are offered by Matthews (1963). In discussing the career development of boys and girls, she points to the fact that counseling practice in the area of career development is not based upon a definite body of knowledge.

19 20

She states that prediction of a specific career is becoming of less concern than is an understanding of the process of decision-making that results in the presence or absence of a career. The fundamental fact that career development like personality development is a life­ long process is becoming evident from research.

She suggests that career development for girls appears to have antecedents in the infancy stage of life. The girl develops the traditional feminine role depending upon the attitudes of her parents

in accepting or rejecting her as a person. In the latency period,

feminine identification with the mother and gradual repression of overtly expressed, aggressive tendencies causes the girl to become more submissive and introspective. In the fantasy career choice period, important psychological differences are noted between boys'

and girls' choices. The boys' choices seem vitally related to the

crystallization of masculine identification rather than having any

firm relationship to actual abilities or talents.

She points out that girls, on the other hand, because they are

two years ahead of boys in life development stages, display career

concerns which may be psychological strategies designed to channel

unconscious desires for marriage and children. In the later high

school years a definite decline of career interest is noted and

marriage interests obscure scholastical success for girls. In the

middle thirties the most critical aspect for the woman seems to be

her necessity for being recognized by her husband, employer, or

educator of the fact that she has an intense desire to be needed

and useful in order to experience satisfaction. 21

Career Saliency.— Central to a girl's decision about her future is the degree of career saliency which she feels. Within this general framework, a number of studies have been conducted on career and non­ career college educated women, career- and homemaking-oriented women, career-marriage plans of college women, the effects of the male environment on the careers of women, and the career commitment of women. Masih (1967) offers an introductory overview of this area.

He examined career saliency and its relation to needs, interests and job values. Among his subjects were 118 women, juniors and seniors in college. Defining career saliency as the degree to which a person is career motivated, the degree to which an occupation is important as a source of satisfaction, and the degree of priority ascribed to occupation among other sources of satisfaction, he identified low, medium, and high career salient women.

In terms of career saliency patterns in women he found that the high career-salient woman shows a high need for achievement and a very high need for endurance. She indicates a strong desire for fame, but is less concerned with prestige. The medium-salient woman seems to care very little for achievement but perceives herself as capable of enduring long periods of work. She Is not concerned with fame but is highly conscious of prestige. Last, the low-salient woman seems to care very little about achievement, endurance, prestige, and the desire to become famous.

Inspection of the criterion groups in the female sample shows that, in contrast to men, the highest number of women fell in the low saliency category. It was also noted that the low saliency group among 22 women indicated a considerably greater lack of career motivation than the low saliency group among men.

A number of other findings supplementary to the study were reported. First, it was the opinion of judges that it was difficult to categorize women regarding career saliency because of a greater

confusion of goals and a lesser degree of identification with the

current choice. There were also wider differences in the vocational

aspirations of the high and low saliency groups indicating a wider

range for women than men.

Morgan (1962) investigated the perception of role conflicts and

self-concepts among career and non-career college educated women. The

sample consisted of 120 women, sixty of whom were college graduates and

engaged in professional or career occupations and sixty of whom were

college graduates and currently not employed. A questionnaire was

completed on which the women described self and five roles by rating

fifty-two adjectives on a seven point scale. The seven variables

included feminine role, masculine role, feminine-career role,

masculine-career role, ideal woman and self. The results of the study

did not support the hypothesis that career women deal with conflicting

role expectations by minimizing the differences they perceive among

important roles. A woman's position, then, in terms of career or

non-career, does not seem to influence self and role perceptions in

any consistent way. However, this study and additional literature

indicate that career women do feel role conflicts. It was concluded

in this study that these role conflicts are minimized in some way

other than by perceptual or attitudinal mechanisms. The two groups 23 were quite similar in their perceptions of the various roles, thus indicating differing modes of resolution other than those originally hypothesized.

Avila (1964) conducted a factor analysis of personality differences between career- and homemaking-oriented women. The sample consisted of twenty-six subjects categorized as homemakers and twenty subjects identified as career women. A modified form of the Omnibus

Personality Inventory was administered to the subjects. Two groups were identified which appeared to lie at opposite ends of a bi-polar continuum with one end consisting of "active-practical-social.'' It was concluded from the study that the subjects could be placed in personality categories on the basis of their attitudes toward home- making and career-oriented activities. However, how extensively this may apply or what the nature of those categories may be is not certain.

Rank (1966) studied the characteristics of career- and home­ making-oriented college freshmen women. The sample consisted of 848 of the 12,432 college freshmen who participated in a nation-wide study conducted by the American College Testing Program in 1964. This study included measures of interests and personality, achievements, competencies, self-perception, potentials, vocational and life goals,

ATC scores, high school grades, dating patterns, and background and personal data. The results of the study show that the career-oriented sample scored higher on intellectual, scientific, technical, scholastic, and performing arts ability and interest characteristics. Important

life and vocational goals were achieving success, responsibility and recognition. Personality characteristics of this group were related 24 to task achievement such as perseverance, aggressiveness and drive to achieve. Social interests and personal comfort were more important to the homemaking-oriented group. No differences in personal adjustment were found. The career group scored higher on masculine ability and personality variables and the homemaking-oriented group on feminine ability measures. The career-oriented group deviated from the traditional feminine role and appeared to have redefined their role to include characteristics appropriate to both sexes.

Matthews and Tiedeman (1964) examined attitudes toward career and marriage and the development of life styles in young women as a part of the Harvard Studies in Career Development. They investigated the relationship between eighteen scores of attitude toward career and two scores of life style; they then considered the effect of develop­ mental stages on these relationships. They speculated in terms of five major themes. First, a woman's perception of the male attitude toward her use of her intelligence is important in the structuring of her life. Second, when women perceive that males take a dim view of the expression of women's intelligence they feel inferior to men and

adopt a realm of their own, homemaking. A third major theme is the conflict between acceptance of the role of wife and mother and

acceptance of a feminine career. A fourth less common theme reveals

that attitudes toward time of dating and marriage (parent focus) is in opposition to attitudes toward purpose of college, time of dating and marriage (peer focus). The fifth theme centers around the simultaneous

acceptance and rejection of the presumably general feminine role. They

conclude that life style of the young woman is related to her attitudes 25 toward career and marriage. This relationship is modified develop- mentally. Significant changes occur in career commitment from junior to senior high school, for example.

Rezler (1967) studied characteristics of high school girls choosing traditional or pioneer vocations. Citing studies which point to a typical traditional set of vocations for women she sought to examine the characteristics of high school juniors and seniors who chose "pioneer" occupations such as physician, mathematician, or natural scientist. She examined both groups on measures of intelligence, achievement, interest and personality. She found that the pioneers had higher computational and scientific interests, were more intellectual and masculine, scored higher on the California Test of Mental Maturity and both parts of the Preliminary Scholastic

Aptitude Test, and received higher grades. The traditionals had a higher social service interest, and social self-control and status score on the Holland Vocational Personality Inventory. The pioneers were less stable than the traditionals in their chosen occupations, but both groups revealed that girls are likely to change their minds between the freshmen and senior year. Both groups chose mathematics

and science as preferred subjects and geography as that disliked.

Within groups it was reported that prospective physicians were more

people-oriented than mathematicians or scientists and that prospective

teachers were more interested in literary, computational and clerical

activities while nurses preferred scientific and outdoor activities.

The author suggests that the role of housewife and mother best fits the

traditional girl. 26

The selection of college over homemaking after high school is, in effect, a decision for a career. Leland (1966) investigated college women's career aspirations as affected by the male environment. The sample consisted of 559 women at a state college and at a private university. A questionnaire was administered to the group to determine the nature of post-graduation planning for women in their final year of under-graduate study and to search out factors which might be associated with different plans. The results of the study confirmed the reports of previous research. Most of the women planned to marry and have children, but few expected to make marriage their sole commitment following graduation. Nearly half expected to begin graduate study at least on a part-time basis in the fall following graduation and over one-third planned to begin a career. For the most part, the influence of other people on their plans was denied, except in the case where there was a strong "attachment" to one male. In this situation, the influence was strongly expressed. The hypothesis that post-graduation plans are correlated with aptitude, personality, interest and attitudinal variables was rejected. The findings strongly suggest that both now and in the future these women would modify their own desires and aspirations in accord with the wishes and careers of men.

Also regarding women already launched on a career, White

(1967) studied the social background variables related to career commitment of women teachers. His subjects consisted of 143 female elementary teachers employed in their first teaching position.

Using a scale to assess career commitment, he then examined 27

socio-economic background, mother's work orientation, source of

financial support in college, type of college attended, and marital

status. He reports that a perceived work orientation of the mother

as held by the teacher is positively related to career commitment.

Financial self-help and social mobility were also characteristic of

those who were career committed. Type of college attended, whether

state university, state college, or private college and marital

status were not related.

Work Values.--Work values and their relationship to desires,

developmental changes, and parental influence of such have been

considered to some extent in the literature. A number of studies

were conducted on job values and desires of men (Centers, 1949),

boys [singer and Stefflre, 1954 (a)J , boys and girls [jSinger and

Steffire, 1954 (b)j, and college males and females (Wagman, 1965).

Each seems to indicate a difference in the job values by sex.

Women prefer job values of social service while men prefer job

values of profit, power and independence. The differences at the

high school age, however, tend to be less dramatic in college.

There, males will accept recognition for social-intellectual and

other kinds of achievements to a greater extent than earlier. Yet

in so far as women are concerned the same social service orientation

prevails with an added job value of interesting experience.

Harrangue (1965) studied the developmental changes in

vocational interests and wofk values as they were related to the

vocational choices of college women. It was predicted that the

vocational interests and work values of college women would become 28 more differentiated and specific over time and that the elements of

vocational choice would become more consistent or related over time.

Ninety-one college women were administered the Kuder Preference

Record-Vocational and the Work Values Inventory at the beginning of

their freshmen year and again at the end of their senior year. In

general, the findings of the study indicate that general develop­ mental theory can be adequately used as a framework for research

among the elements of vocational development. The specific pre­

dictions of greater differentiation and integration over time were

not supported. This was explained in terms of the principle of

individual differences and differing growth rates and ultimate

levels of development. However, the predictions of an increased

social-other orientation and increased independence striving over

time were clearly supported by the findings.

Gibbons and Lohnes (1965) investigated shifts in adolescent's

vocational values. The inferred values and hierarchies were judged

from interviews conducted from 111 boys and girls in eighth, tenth,

and twelfth grades. The changes observed in these values and

hierarchies were analyzed over the five year period of development.

The results of the study showed that boys give high rank to salary

and prestige values, whereas the girls gave high rank to personal

contacts and social service values. These findings give support to

the notion of Harrod and Griswold (1960) that girls are people-

oriented, in that they like to meet people and help them, whereas

boys are career- or extrinsic-reward-oriented because they are most

concerned with salary, security, and prestige. However, the 29 similarities for the two sexes are more predominant than the differences. Both boys and girls are concerned with satisfaction and the opportunity to satisfy interests. Also both groups were in agreement on the position given to preparation and ability and to the low position given to advancement, personal goals, demand,

location and travel,

Thompson (1966) also investigated occupational values of high school students. He administered an occupational values scale to

freshmen boys and girls and again when they were sophomores. He

found that test-retest data were not significantly different. He

also found that girls place significantly less emphasis on the r importance of a job where one would be leader or boss, where high

pay was involved and where recognition was possible. They place more emphasis on a job that would permit an expression of one's own

ideas and one where an individual could help other people. High

prestige vocations of fathers of students were related to importance

of jobs where one could be leader. Students with scholastic

ability, who were high achievers, and who were in the college

preparation curriculum placed more importance on an occupation that

was interesting and challenging. Students whose fathers were in

low prestige occupations tended to select security positions. This

was also true of students whose mothers worked outside the home.

Generally it was found that the results of this study support

previous similar studies.

The perceived predominance of influence by one parent over

the other as reflected in the work-value orientations of college 30 women was studied by Kinnane and Bannon (1964). The Parental

Influence Inventory and a Work-Values Inventory were administered to 315 college women. The results showed that perceived parental influence is highly related to the socio-economic status of the family as indicated by the occupational level of the father and only in this relationship was it significant. They reported that fathers who are engaged in professional work and whose level of education and training is superior to that of the mother exert a greater influence on the female child but she does not appear to introject the father's work-value orientation. Rather, it is the father's idealized goals for the daughter that are internalized.

Finally, the girl who identified with the mother more often comes from a home where the father works at the skilled or unskilled level, and where work is a more realistic possibility for the women, and orientations are, therefore, stronger on all work-values.

The theory that women workers of lower socio-economic status seek extrinsic values in work and that those of upper socio-economic status seek intrinsic values is not supported. The authors point out that because available research in the vocational development of women is so limited, the hypothesis and predictions of their study were based primarily on research findings on men. They concluded that such generalization does not appear to be warranted.

Wagman (1966) investigated 132 University of Illinois under­ graduate women who indicated they were planning either a career or homemaking role. He examined the interests and values of each group to compare the general values and to discover differentiated 31 patterns of values. His study supported the results of Hoyt and

Kennedy (1955). Career oriented women scored higher on the Study of Values Theoretical scale and the Strong Vocational Interest Blank

lawyer, psychologist, and physician scales. Homemaking oriented women scored higher on the religious, housewife, home economics

teacher, and dietician scales.

In a pair of studies two years apart, Perrone (1965) first

attempted to determine the relationship of seventh and eighth grade

girls' value orientations with the value orientations their parents

have for them with socio-economic level, intelligence, school

achievement, number of indicated problems, and vocational and

training aspiration levels. He reported that parents and daughters

agreed that a good income and a secure future were important and

that being helpful to others, working with things, and being free

from supervision were not as important. He found more intelligent,

higher achieving girls with fewer problems wanted to pursue a

vocational goal bringing intrinsic satisfaction but that they also

viewed higher education as incompatible with this role. Conversely,

less intelligent, low achieving girls were less concerned with

self-expression and aspired to educational goals which appeared

unrealistic in light of their educational potential.

Two years later, Perrone (1967) studied the stability of

work related values of these junior high school pupils and their

parents'. Ninety-seven parent-daughter pairs were administered a

value orientation instrument first given when the students were in

junior high school, two years earlier. They were all citizens of a 32 suburban village of 8200 people in Wisconsin. They were largely middle class or upper class socio-economically. Over the two year period, girls rated as less important a good Income and time for family and rated as more important use of special abilities, helping others and exercising leadership. In each case they differed from their parents. Moreover, after two years girls rated use of special abilities, leadership, creativity, and time for family as less important than did their parents. In the same period, correlations for the ratings for parents and daughters increased from .57 to .91. Between boys and girls correlations decreased from .85 to .70. Over the two year period the correlation for girls was .51. The following is the rank order of the two lists:

1964 1966

Secure Future Use of Special Abilities Time for Family Secure Future Free from Supervision Helpful to Others Good Income Work with People Helpful to Others Time for Family Work with People Good Income Use Special Abilities Creative Work Creative Work Interest and Hobbies Exercise Leadership Free from Supervision Social Status, Prestige Exercise Leadership Interest and Hobbies Social Status, Prestige

Generally, it would appear that girls become more concerned with what they can give of themselves while still desiring security and time for family. Girls are thinking in terms of personal characteristics that lead to satisfaction on the job while parents consider their daughter's homemaking capabilities. Rho correlations suggest that boys and girls begin to move further apart in their 33 value ratings and move closer to their parents. Occupational values have some reliability as early as junior high school.

Vocational Choice.— Vocational choice or occupational preference especially in relation to parents' occupational levels has been given considerable attention in the literature. Parent- child relationships, personality characteristics, and certain high school experiences as they affect vocational choices have also been considered. Mowsesian, Heath, and Rothney (1966) studied the

relationship between occupational preferences of 147 superior

students and their fathers' occupations over the four year period of their high school attendance. Analysis of the data indicated

that the sixty-six superior male students and eighty-one superior

female students tended to state vocational preference at the professional level early in high school and to maintain this

preference throughout. Their occupational preferences were

generally at a higher level than those of their fathers. No major

differences in preferences were found between sexes. Only eleven

per cent of the subjects indicated no specific preference at some

time during the four years.

Krippner (1963) studied the relationship between the

occupational levels of a father's vocation and his son's career

choice and between a mother's job and the daughter's preferred line

of work. His sample consisted of 315 seventh and eighth grade

pupils in an upper-middle class Chicago suburban community. Of

these, 162 were girls. He found that the importance of the

father's occupational level was striking. It was significantly 34 related to his wife's job level, to his children's occupational preferences, and to the vocation his son perceived he would like to have him enter. The working mother's job, however, was only significantly related to her husband's occupational level and to her daughter's occupational preference.

Specifically with regard to the girls in the sample there seemed to be close agreement with parental advice regarding such occupations as teaching, secretarial work, nursing, and medicine.

These are the popular occupations suggested for women. Two common choices of the girls, airline stewardess and model, were ignored by the parents. Mothers' jobs were not significantly related to boys' preferences, but girls showed a higher correlation between both mothers' preferences and mothers' jobs. The suggestion here is that there is an identification with the occupational level of the same-sex parent. Further, the socio-economic milieu plays a vital role in vocational choice with the student aspiring at or above the level of the parent.

Lee and King (1963-64) also studied the relationship between the vocational choices of ninth grade girls and their parents' occupational levels. Their sample consisted of 179 ninth grade girls in a low socio-economic community. An investigation of the mean differences between the levels of the occupational preferences and expectancies of the girls and the level of their parents' occupations and the occupational suggestions they made for the girls

revealed a number of statistically significant differences. The mean level of the girls' occupational preferences was higher than 35 the mean level of the parents' actual occupational level. Further, the parents suggested occupations at a higher level than the girls' occupational preferences and expectancies. However, when examined separately, it was found that there was no difference between the girls' preference and the mothers'. This suggests that mothers have a greater influence on the level of occupational choice of girls in this group than do fathers. Finally, they reported that the level of the girls' occupational expectancies was lower than the level of their occupational preferences.

Hanson <1965) investigated the relationship between ninth grade girls' vocational choices and their parents' occupational level. His sample included 142 ninth grade girls of lower-middle class status in a rural midwest community. The results of the study show that the pupils' preferences were significantly higher than both the fathers' and mothers' vocations. Both the fathers and mothers suggested vocations for their daughters which were significantly higher than the father's vocation. Similarly it was found that the fathers' and mothers' suggestions did not differ significantly from the daughters' preferences.

Lambert (1966) conducted a study in which she revised the

Roe-Siegelman Parent Child Relations Questionnaire, an instrument designed to measure characteristic behaviors of parents toward the

child as experienced by the child. Using the Lambert-Parker

Revision of the PCR, it was found that girls' relationships with mothers that were cold, rejecting, and demarding oriented the girls

toward person occupations. In opposition to Roe's theory, it was 36 also found that girls who had a loving and rewarding relationship with their fathers tended to select non-person occupations. The girls in this study tended to select a person occupation if the parental relationships with the mother and father were identified as Causal on the questionnaire.

Porter (1967) studied the vocational choice of freshmen college women as influenced by psychological needs and parent-child relationships. Three purposes were included in the study. These were to investigate and analyze the relationship between parental influence and vocational choice, psychological needs and vocational choice and disruption in the family environment and vocational choice. The sample included 232 freshmen women, residents in

University of Oklahoma housing during 1965-66. Half of the sample indicated a disruption of the family environment, half were from intact family environments. Results of the study show that freshmen womerr from intact families who recalled a Punishment-

Symbolic-Love relationship with their mothers as measured on the

Roe-Siegelman Parent-Child Relationship Questionnaire were oriented toward non-person occupations. Those from intact families who recalled a Reward-Symbolic-Love relationship with their fathers were oriented toward person occupations. Limited support was found regarding the relationship between psychological needs and vocational choice. No statistically significant differences were found between the person, non-person occupational orientation of women from intact families and those from father-absent homes.

Steinke and Kaczowski (1960-61) studied parental influence 37 on the occupational choice of ninth grade girls. The study was composed of two parts. First, the girls listed primary occupational choices and ranked factors they thought influenced their choices.

In the second part, the mothers were asked to indicate their preferences of occupation for their daughters, the job she was currently employed in or had worked in before marriage and the mother's occupation. The results of the study show that three times as many daughters selected a professional occupation as there were mothers employed at that level. Also, seventy-six per cent of the mothers were in general agreement with the occupational choice of their daughters. This would indicate that even at this early date, mothers and daughters have probably spent time discussing vocational plans. The girls ranked the factors influencing their vocational choice in the following manner:

1. Parent 2. Ability and personal factors 3. Relative or friend 4. People in occupation 5. Books and magazines 6. School subjects 7. Best marks 8. Other

The authors conclude by stating that the results of this study

suggest that a junior high school counselor ought to become aware

of the parents' occupational preferences for their children. They

exercise a significant influence on the student's occupational

choice, educational plans, and future.

Clark (1967) investigated the influence of sex and social

class on occupational preference and perceptions. With a sample of 38 third and sixth grade middle class boys and lower class girls a significantly greater preference for white-collar and professional occupations was expressed when compared with a sample of lower class boys and middle class girls. Differences in occupational perceptions were found in middle and lower class boys. However, occupations perceived by middle and lower class girls did not differ significantly in status.

Elton and Rose (1967) studied the significance of personality in the vocational choice of college women. Using vocational choices as dependent variables they examined five personality factors and a measure of scholastic aptitude. These factors were tolerance and autonomy, suppression-repression, masculine role, scholarly orientation, and social introversion, all of which appeared in the

Omnibus Personality Inventory. They found that girls who were undecided about vocational choice had a lower mean score on

Scholarly Orientation, a higher mean on Tolerance and Autonomy.

Girls who chose social-religious-educational fields had a lower

Masculine Role score than those preferring scientific and medical

fields and a lower Scholarly Orientation score than those who

chose arts-humanities fields. Girls who chose business and finance

and medical occupations also obtained a lower mean Scholarly

Orientation score than those choosing arts-humanities.

Scholarly Orientation was the single most discriminating

variable. It was either the highest or second highest mean score

for arts-humanities majors. Suppression-repression was the highest

score for social-religious-education majors. They suggested that 39 women with similar feminine attitudes but differing commitment to intellectuality or conformity make diverse occupational choices.

Women may be equally acceptant of their femininity and yet see different occupations as congruent with that femininity.

Carlin (1960) studied the relationships between certain high school experiences and vocational decisions. With a sample of 300 male and female college freshmen he considered two areas pertaining to vocational decisions: general field of interest or curriculum choice and specific major which was chosen to be pursued to qualify for a position in the general field of interest. The following relationships were found between high school academic achievement and vocational decisions.

Rank in Class Vocational Decision Academic Major (Per cent yes) (Per cent yes)

Upper 10% 99 84 11-20% 89 75 21-30% 81 67 - 31-40% 64 61 41-50% 56 52 51% and below 57 55

In examining the relationship between subject taught by

favorite teacher and college major, it was found that thirty-five

per cent or approximately one-third of the subjects chose majors in

t;he subject taught by this teacher. Regarding the relationship

between extra-curricular activities and choice of major, no

apparent agreement was found in seven per cent of the decisions.

Finally, it was found that only 190 or less than forty per cent of

500 freshmen had studied the world of work in a systematic manner

while in high school. 40

Englander (1965-66) studied the effects of a career day designed to influence vocational choice. His sample included 120 males and females who were identified by their teachers as showing sufficient promise to warrant the exploration of teaching mathematics as a career. Pre- and post-testing data on these high schoql students show that perceptions of mathematics teaching and respective self-concept become significantly more congruent.

However, the attitudes of the students regarding the teaching of mathematics per se were unchanged. The author concludes by suggesting that if as is assumed, vocational preferences are a function of the congruency between the self-concept and the individual's perception of the particular vocation then the means of recruitment into the vocation need not stress extraneous advantages. Rather, these avenues are subtle and involve model identification.

Zytowski (1965) points out that a close inspection of the taxonomy of causal factors which vocational theorists provide reveals a startling fact--that they are all positive in nature.

Tl>ey assume that all men want to work, that the idea of a vocation has a positive valence as a goal, or that the affect attached to career behavior is positive. He points out that they all include rejection of occupations on the grounds that they do not satisfy the particular need constellation or hierarchy. But at this time theory does not permit the chooser to reject all occupations. He refers to Miller (1951) and Howrer (1960) who point out that the 41 whole idea of career could gain properties which might stimulate certain individuals to avoid it.

That work is obviously a middle class value is apparent

though ignored. Both extremes of society might not necessarily attain strong positive or negative affect regarding an occupation.

Work may not supply the central meaning in life. The implications

for women in vocational guidance are obvious. At best, career has

an ambiguous place in the motivational hierarchy of women.

A number of studies related to vocational choice and

aspirations have attempted to identify differential characteristics

of women relative to choice or preference. Kassarjian and

Kassarjian (1965) examined occupational interests, social values,

and social character of 233 college students. They identified

fifty inner-directed and fifty other-directed males and females,

twenty-five of each sex, and administered the Study of Values Scale

and the Strong Vocational Interest Blank. They found differences

in social character between the sexes within the same occupation.

Inner-directed women clearly express interests like those of

lawyers while inner- and other-directed men show no differences on

this particular scale. Other-directed men seem to be more like

those in life insurance sales while inner-directed men showed an

interest similar to that of people in that occupation. The inner-

and other-directed characteristic measure was obtained from the

1-0 Social Preference Scale. This scale did not reveal differences

on other occupational groups between males and females.

Relative to social values, inner-directed women achieve high 42 scores on the Theoretical scale as well as both groups of males, while other-directed women score lower. Inner-direction is related

to the Aesthetic person for both males and females. Other-directed

females scored higher on Religious value than did inner-directed

females while the reverse was true for men. Of considerable

significance in this study was the clear indication that relative

to social character, males and females each have a distinctly

different interpretation and definition.

In a survey of ninety-seven per cent of all seniors in

Minnesota in 1961, Berdie and Hood (1964) report on the personal values and attitudes as determinants of post-high school plans.

Relative to sex differences they found that on nine of thirteen

social relations items on the Minnesota Counseling Inventory girls

responded more often in the direction of better social relations.

Boys showed significantly less conformity on seven of the twelve

items from the Conformity scale. Girls were also reported to feel

that their high school grades were a more accurate reflection of

their ability than did boys. They were more conservative than

boys in willingness to risk taking an insecure but well paying job.

This conservativism was also found in a study of Minnesota college

girls reflecting perhaps a geographical bias. Both boys and girls

planning to attend college indicated greater social needs and more

social competencies than students planning to seek jobs. They also

described themselves more often as "good boys and girls."

Richards (1966) in a study of over 1200 male and female

college freshmen carried out a factor analysis of thirty-five items 43 pertaining to life goals. He found seven factors common to the two sexes. These were Prestige, Personal Happiness, Humanistic-

Cultural, Religious, Scientific, Artistic, and Hedonistic. An

Altruistic factor was attained for females only and an Athletic success factor for males only.

Perhaps in jest but at any rate in good taste, Campbell

(1967) studied the vocational interests of beautiful women. He analyzed Strong Vocational Interest Blank scores of about 100 fashion models. He described them as "flourishing." They prefer the dramatic to the routine, the unstructured to the structured.

They favor verbal occupations and show an aversion toward wprking with numbers in precise disciplined settings. Obviously his conclusions must be drawn not about all beautiful women, but about those who have made a definite occupational choice.

As a sunfinary to those numerous studies of vocational choice and aspiration, Deutsch (1944) offers an explanation for the different vocational choices which are made by apparently equally feminine women. She sees femininity as the developmental outcome of learning to handle active aggressive forces. Although both sexes must learn how to differentiate aggressive tendencies, the feminine task is to partially inhibit aggression. The success with which it is accomplished determines the masculine-feminine balance

in the adolescent or adult woman. That is, girls who are successful

in integrating aggression into their feminine immanence develop

feminine attitudes. She points to the continuum between feminine

activity and passivity in explaining the primary differentiation 44 between these two groups of women. While in some ways there are common elements, the differences have relevance for vocational choice.

The feminine active woman is less artistic and aesthetic and more ethically oriented. In conflicts between erotic interests and cultural values, she chooses values. She would be expected to choose occupations which build and organize cultural values. Social service occupations are representative of those in which the under­ dog can be defended.

At the opposite end is the passive woman who is more artistic and aesthetic and less ethically oriented. In erotic- value conflicts she chooses the erotic. She would choose occupations which give free reign to her feminine intuition or artistic apd philosophical occupations which have a minimum of competition.

Thus vocations in the arts-humanities, administrative-political- persuasive, and social-religious-educational areas would appear on the end of the masculine-feminine dimension.

Women unable to integrate their aggressive tendencies into

their femininity develop more masculine interests. It would be

expected that these girls would choose business-finance, scientific,

or medical occupations.

Women in Work.--The final areas of concern reviewed in the

general literature are the topics of women in work, attitudes toward

women in work and career patterns of women.

Hewer and Neubeck (1964) surveyed attitudes of college

students toward employment among married women. They found 45 agreement from both men and women that women stay home to care for pre-school children, that women can fulfill their abilities and interests in the home, that if women have advanced training they should get financial return from it, and that one of the most important sources of loss of training occurs among women. College freshmen women tend to say they are not concerned about working to fulfill their abilities, but that they are working to satisfy their interests. Both men and women agree that this is as it should be.

Acceptable reasons to these students for married women working are that their husbands can complete their education, they can meet financial responsibilities, they can buy more things for home and family, and they can provide children with such special training as music lessons. The majority reject having women work because the home provides inadequate opportunity for expression of intellectual interests.

In terms of the modal responses from this questionnaire from college freshmen (N=4283), one can expect the typical entering freshman to be willing to accept the traditional role of women.

She will be likely reluctant to invest herself heavily in long and rigorous intellectual and professional training. She believes the home will satisfy her intellectual needs and allow her to develop her special abilities.

Rossman and Campbell (1965) attempted to identify factors that influence the decision to work outside the home among currently married women at home. They collected data from 240 women who were

freshmen at the University of Minnesota during one of the years 46

1933-1936. They found a number of conditions which related to why college-trained mothers work. Of the enabling conditions they found that the number of children and age of the oldest child was not relevant, but that the age of the youngest child was significantly related. In terms of facilitating conditions, they found that possession of a college degree was not related to the decision to return to work. On the other hand, the brighter woman as identified by the Minnesota Scholastic Aptitude Test was more likely to have made a decision to return to work while raising a family. Of the precipitating conditions three variables were found to be related to the decision to work. Women who expressed a satisfaction with life five years into the future were less likely to work, and women having more education than their husbands were more likely to work.

In summary, it is concluded from this study that once a limited number of enabling and facilitating factors is established

(such as family planning and general ability level) there is a syndrome of precipitating factors (such as marital and life satisfaction, amount of education in comparison with husband, and husband's income) that operate differentially in the decision to work outside the home.

As a part of programs on understanding women's vocational development presented at the National Convention of APGA in Detroit in 1968, two papers reveal the following about women. Dann (1968) studied wives married to men in different occupations to compare their interests on occupational, non-occupational and basic scales. 47

She reported that farmers' wives were the least professional, most

domestic group. Animal husbandry professor's and social worker's wives were similar and had more professional interests. Physicist's wives were the most professional of all groups. On the non-

occupational scale, farmer's wives were considerably more masculine

and introverted.

Harmon (1968) reported on the predictive power of social

service and scientific interests among college freshmen women. She

found that many of the women express no career commitments even to

the occupations for which they were trained. There were no

differences on the mean Strong Vocational Interest Blank profiles

for career-committed versus non-career groups. She concluded that

data from this inventory taken at college entrance will predict

area of career commitment for mature women who describe themselves

as career women. It will not, however, predict which women will

describe themselves as career women and which will give up

occupational identification once they marry.

Roe (1966) interviewed eminent research scientists about

their opinion of women graduate students. The bulk of the comments

can be summed up as "women students; some of them go on, some of

them don't." Comments ranged from "I think we waste an awful lot

of time on women," to "Our two best people here are women." Some

wished more women would enter their field; some have encouraged

them in the past and will no more; and one is turning things around

and trying to get more men into his particular field. Roe points

out that it is clear that women are more disadvantaged in some 48 fields or in some sub-fields than in others, but the consensus is

that they are to some extent disadvantaged in all. The following represent direct quotes of the research scientists about women

studying in their field.

I think there is a little rebelliousness in ours, and that's why they don't go on to women's colleges... They tend to be pretty independent.

We have a few women graduate students in physics, one or two at any given time. It's tough for them. The ones that get through do pretty well, but it's obvious that it's a psychological strain...

It's not so good for women, and you always explain to them that they're behind the eight ball.

There are a lot of women in the field (anthropology) but I think more interesting than the fact that there are a lot of women is that I get in the graduate group now a far larger proportion of older people who are returnees...They make good students. They feel that time is breathing down their neck...In many cases the girls who are doing graduate work now get married and don't do much with until later...With that kind of training they are available for a number of jobs but it's a little more difficult to place them.

They tend to become marvelous research assistants. (Are they satisfied with this?) No, they are in conflict. They're miserable. I think it's a hell of a life. This whole business of making a career means that a woman has got to be somewhat aggressive...and when she does that she becomes a man.

Parker (1961) conducted a comparative study of selected

factors in the vocational development of college women. It was

hypothesized that in their vocational development, marriage-

oriented, career-oriented, and career-marriage-oriented sophomore,

junior and senior college girls differed on personality

characteristics, interests, socio-economic status, achievement,

time of erergence and persistence of occupational preference, key 49

figure „influence and paid work experience. The sample consisted of

thirty students, ten in each of the three groups. The results of

the study show no differences among the three on achievement,

socio-economic status, personality characteristics, key figure

influence, emergence and persistence of occupational preferences,

and paid work experience. Marriage-oriented girls had positive male-association factor loadings as measured by the Strong

Vocational Interest Blank for Women, and career-oriented girls had

negative male-association factor loadings. It was further found

that marriage-oriented girls tended to have high grade point

averages, high socio-economic status, and interests similar to the

average elementary school teacher. The career-oriented girls had

interests similar to the average librarian. Finally it was found

that in this sample, girls with more work experience tended to have

had their occupational preference for a shorter duration of time.

Career Patterns.--Zytowski (1968) suggests a number of

postulates regarding the vocational development of women. In part,

they are as follows:

1. The modal life role for the woman is described as that of the home-maker. It is determined and marked by her biological uniqueness; in childbearing and rearing functions; in other physical respects and in social expectations.

2. The nature of the homemaker role is not static. Presently, social and technological change permits the woman greater control and variety in the modes of expression of her biological uniqueness.

3. The life role of the woman is orderly and develop­ mental. At minimum, it consists of phases concerned with preparation for marriage, conception, and children's gaining of independence. 50

4. Departure from the homemaker role occurs when the woman participates in vocational behavior. Voca­ tional and homemaker participations are to a large degree mutually exclusive.

5. Three aspects of vocational participation are sufficient to distinguish patterns: a. Entry age b. Span (number of years of participation) c. Degree of participation

6. Women's preference for degree of vocational participation is determined by internal factors.

7. Vocational participation may be distinguished in terms of three levels: a. Mild: Brief span, very early or late entry, low degree of participation. b. Moderate: Lengthy span, early entry, low degree of participation. Brief span(s), early entry, high degree of participation. c. Unusual: Lengthy span, early entry, high degree of participation.

An examination of past longitudinal or in-depth studies of vocational development reveals that they often failed to consider the career patterns of women. Some focus only on men (Ginzberg,

Ginzberg, Axelrad, and Herma, 1951; Miller and Form, 1956; Super,

Crites, Hummel, Moser, Overstreet, and Warnath, 1957). Others equate career patterns of men and women in their studies (Super,

1957; Tiedeman, O'Hara and Matthews, 1957). In an attempt to determine the nature of career patterns of women, Mulvey (1963) reports on the psychological and sociological factors in predictions of career patterns of women. She examined question­ naires from 475 middle-aged women who had graduated from the public high schools of Providence, Rhode Island, over a period from twenty to twenty-seven years ago. By an analysis of the marriage and/or 51 work histories from data on the questionnaire various combinations of these categories were devised which resulted in twelve career patterns. These were further categorized into career orientations and grouped into four levels of adjustment. These are the career patterns, orientations, and adjustment levels that evolved from the study.

Interrupted— Work Primary: Fulfilled Autonomous Stable Homemaking--Work Secondary: Status Symbol (Productive) Delayed--Work Secondary: Ambitious Adjusted

Stable Working--Work Primary: Aggressive Adjusted Double Tract--Work Primary: Generalized Adapted Conventional--Work Secondary: Responsive (Non­ productive)

Conventional--Work Primary: Frustrated (Non­ productive)

Unstable--Work Secondary: Utilitarian Family Affiliated--Work Secondary. Supportive

Interrupted--Work Secondary: Confused Adapted Double Tract--Work Secondary: Retreating Stable Working--Work Secondary: Defeated Adapted

Evidence points to the fact that women who are autonomous and/or adjusted have pursued career patterns which represent

"middle of the road" variations between the two opposing views that (a) women are most content when they are completely absorbed in homemaking and childbearing, and (b) women attain their highest potential when they compete with men and are equal to them on all

levels. Satisfaction and the productive career orientation are

associated with career patterns marked by (a) return to career after children mature, (b) contribution of talent and time to volunteer activities when children are very young, (c) substitution 52 of ego sustaining work-role for deprivation of the "feminine core" of existence caused by absence of marriage and homemaking, and

(d) continuous and simultaneous homemaking and working.

Dissatisfaction and a non-productive career orientation are associated with patterns characterized by the common element of working for reasons other than career interests and by the specific elements of (a) return to work after children have entered school,

(b) continuous and simultaneous homemaking, and (c) failure to substitute an ego sustaining work-role for deprivation of family and homemaking.

High contentment among women was associated with satisfaction with career pattern and with job; working at a job of high level, of feminine professional orientation and in the field of general

culture; and/or active participation in voluntary activities. Low morale was found to be associated with the "married state" marked

by discontinuities of widowhood, divorce, and other interruptions;

working at a job of low level; and little or no participation in volunteer activities.

Marital status appears to be the career "carrier," according

to Mulvey. It is the most influential factor in a woman's decision

to change her present life style. Married women are the most

inclined to quit work and also to go to work if they are not

employed. They have greater freedom than single women in the

choice of to work or not to work. The average American woman who

accepts homemaking and child rearing exclusively as a career makes

up about only one-third of the sample studied. The author suggests 53 that a clear-cut self-perception of woman in the social structure has not yet been defined satisfactorily.

Among the factors determinant of career patterns, level of education and level of aspiration were equally influential. Level of intelligence was unrelated to either of these important factors.

One conclusion derived from these data is that too early commitment to marriage without full exploration of career will tend to lead toward non-productive work-career patterns. Finally, Mulvey (1963) suggests that career patterns reflect style of life, level of adjustment, concepts women have come to hold of themselves, and hopes and expectations that affect their orientation in life's developmental tasks.

Havighurst (1965) addresses himself to the vocational

counseling of adolescent girls in the 60's. He claims that girls get set in career patterns rather early, generally by the age of

fifteen, due to family, personal, and social factors in their make-up. Girls have somewhat less range of actual choices than boys because marriage focuses a girl's life more sharply than it

does a boy's. Generally girls fall into a career pattern earlier

in life with less thought about it. Choice points come much faster

for a girl in 1965 than for her mother or grandmother. During the

period from fifteen to twenty, girls take steps that determine

career patterns.

Havighurst lists the following patterns of career of girls

and young women of these ages. 54

Pattern Description Per Cent

Enter College

High school-college-marriage 11 High school-college-work-marriage 16 High school-college-work-never marry 30

Complete High School-Do Not Go Further

High school grad-marriage 20 High school grad-work-marriage 10 High school grad-work-never marry 3 High school grad-waiting-marriage-work 36

Dropout Before Completing High School

Dropout-marriage 15 Dropout-work-marr i age 5 Dropout-work-never marry 1 Dropout-waiting-marriage or work 34

The most common pattern leads from school to college directly into marriage. Forty-six per cent of the girls fit this description.

They have no full-time work experience before marriage. Some of them drop out of school while others finish college, and many enter the labor force in later years. Work, however, does not enter their adolescent identity form-ation. Pattern B leads from school or college into employment, then marriage. About thirty-one per cent of girls fit into this pattern and for them work has considerable personal significance. Pattern C leads from school or college into employment and stays there. About seven per cent of girls follow this pattern according to Havighurst. The last Pattern, D, leads

from school into a waiting period. Generally the girl is waiting

for marriage and does not actively seek work. Today this is not

regarded as a satisfactory pattern even for the sixteen per cent or

so who are currently following it. 55

These patterns are further qualified by the level of education attained by the girl. The girl who drops out of school and marries at sixteen has a much different identity than the girl who graduates from college and marries at twenty-two even though they both follow the same basic career pattern. In working with girls as they attempt to gain self-fulfillment through one of the patterns he describes, Havighurst points out the work of the counselor. He suggests that the counselor may have to give support to personally or socially desirable forms of deviancy as well as helping escape from undesirable deviancy. He identified at lea@t six kinds of feminine deviancy which need to be balanced by more

feminine traits. Privatism, the "beatnick" syndrome, is followed by girls and boys who place their private concerns above socially

important goals. This is often characteristic of college educated

girls.

Biological deviancy takes the form of early or late physical maturing. This is only a disadvantage when the girl is late maturing. These girls often need reassurance from a mature person.

Apathy is the most common symptom of social maladjustment among

girls. This kind of shy, seclusive, and self-doubting girl often

goes unrecognized. Early marriage as a form of deviant behavior is

complex. The question arises of early compared to what. A girl

may marry early to escape a difficult home situation and find

marriage satisfactory. On the other hand, an early-marrying girl

may give up a promising career and tie herself to a man with whom

she is temporarily infatuated. The final kind of deviancy described 56 by Havighurst is the highly disturbing one of sexual promiscuity.

Although it stems from many causes and reasons, such behavior is generally non-productive. Havighurst's patterns differ somewhat from those suggested by others. However, he agrees with them in pointing out that many different patterns do exist for women; that not all of these lead to productive lives; that not only the productive patterns are being socially reinforced; and that these patterns differ considerably from those of boys.

In summary, a review of the literature relative to the career development of females indicates that it is indeed atypical and significantly different from that of males. Data offered as an explanation of this development are scattered and uncoordinated.

In research conducted to this date, it has been found that women differ regarding career saliency but that these differences are difficult to determine because of the greater confusion of goals and a lessened degree of identification with current choice. Women feel role conflict in making a career versus homemaking decision.

These are generally resolved by most women in favor of homemaking.

The choice of a career carries the problem of how to maintain femininity. Women believe that men prefer the homemaking role and that they ought not attempt to achieve self-realization in a career.

Orientation toward homemaking or a career can be identified in high school.

Regarding job values, women prefer job values of social service. Also differences between job values of men and women are greater in high school than in college. Shifts in adolescent's 57 vocational values reveal a fairly stable pattern. In general, the level of father's occupation is related to work-value orientation.

Mothers have a greater influence on girls' work values than do fathers. The family influence on occupational preferences reveals a similar pattern with the level of occupation of the father being an influence and the mother being more influential than the father.

Interests and attitudes of boys and girls differ and characteristics used to describe personality cannot be equated across sex.

Explanations of the conflict of women in the world of work

tend to focus on the difficulty in maintaining a feminine identity

against social press which describes career as masculine. This

press has been investigated and found to be even greater in the

professions. Career patterns of women have been identified and are

generally composed of elements of education, work, and marriage.

Non-productive patterns are associated with less education and less

congruence between desired and actual activities. Marital status

of women appears to have greatest influence on career development.

The fact of uniqueness in the vocational development of women calls

for different considerations in their effective vocational guidance.

Variables Central to the Study

The focus of this study was upon the interrelationships of a

number of school-oriented vocationally related variables. These

were Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self, Vocational

Maturity, Level of Occupational Aspiration, School Motivation,

Achievement and Intelligence. A survey of the studies conducted 58 relative to these factors as they pertain specifically to girls reveals that fewer are reported than pertain to boys.

Self-Concept.--Carlson (1965) investigated stability and change in the adolescent's self-image. In this longitudinal study,

150 pre-adolescents of five sixth-grade classrooms drawn from middle class neighborhoods of Seattle were used. Of this original group of 150 pre-adolescents, eighty-seven listed in the telephone directory at the same home address six years later were asked to participate in the follow-up study. The final sample consisted of thirty-three girls and sixteen boys. In order to attain self and ideal-self descriptions at the pre-adolescent and adolescent level, parallel forms of a self-description instrument were designed to reflect an orientation to social experiences. The remaining items were related to individual characteristics which had no direct implication of concern with social experiences.

The results of the study show, that as was predicted, over the six year period, girls showed an increase in social orientation while boys increased in personal orientation. This reflects the differing processes of personality development for adolescent girls and boys. Further, it was found that self-esteem was independent of sex role.

Anderson and Olson (1965) conducted a study to determine the relationship between the congruence of self and ideal-self and occupational choices made by potential four-year college students and potential junior college terminal students. It was hypothesized that a positive relationship exists between the congruence of self 59

and ideal-self and the ability to make realistic choices of

occupational goals. The subjects for the study were randomly

selected from the senior class of North Central High School,

Spokane, Washington, for the school year 1961-62. Fifty-one boys

and forty-five girls were selected. Of this group, eighteen males

and nineteen fepales were identified as potential four-year college

students and eleven males and five females as potential junior

college terminal students. The number of subjects making

unrealistic occupational choices or choices above their aptitude

level, below their aptitude level or in inappropriate occupational

areas were as follows: five males and one female in the potential

four-year college group and eleven males and five females in the

potential junior college group.

The results indicated that a greater number of subjects

showed a tendency to choose occupational goals above their aptitude

level and in inappropriate occupational areas than the number of

subjects who chose occupations below their aptitude level. The

authors suggest that this unrealistic choice may be the result of

a culture which places great emphasis on the prestige and value of

occupations that require college training and the inability of

these subjects to realistically appraise their aptitudes and

^successfully relate them to occupations. With regard to the

congruence of self and ideal-self and its relationship to the

ability to make realistic occupational choices, the findings ip

this study are inconclusive. Further investigations are needed in

this area. 60

Davidson and Lang (1960) studied the relationship between children's perceptions of their teachers feelings toward them and self-perception, school achievement and behavior. The sample consisted of eighty-nine boys and 114 girls in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades of a New York City public school. A Checklist of

Trait Names, which consisted of thirty-five descriptive terms was administered to the subjects and their teachers rated them for achievement and on a number of behavioral characteristics. The major findings were:

1. The children's perceptions of their teachers' feelings toward them correlated positively and significantly with self-perception. The child with the more favorable self-image was the one who more likely than not perceived his teacher's feelings toward him more favorably.

2. The more positive the children's perception of their teachers' feelings, the better was their academic achievement and the more desirable their classroom behavior as rated by the teachers.

3. Further, children in the upper and middle social class groups perceived their teachers' feelings toward them more favorably than did the children in the lower social class group.

4. Social class position was also found to be positively related with achievement in school.

5. However, even when the favorability index data were re-analyzed separately for each social class and for each achievement category, the mean favorability index declined with decline in achievement level, regardless of social class position and, similarly, the mean favorability index declined with social class regardless of achievement level.

6. Girls generally perceived their teachers' feelings more favorably than did the boys. 61

7. Finally, there were some signif ' -ant classroom differences in the favorability of the children's perception of their teachers' feelings.

Pallone and Hosinski (1967) studied the congruence between self, ideal, and occupational percepts among student nurses. The

sample consisted of 168 student nurses, twenty-four at each of

seven levels of vocational preparation and experience. A Q-sort with items to measure self-concept, ideal self-concept, and

occupational role percepts was administered. The results of the

study show that mean correlations for congruence between ideal and

occupational percepts tended to reach higher levels of significance

than correlations for congruence between either self and ideal or

self and occupational percepts at all seven levels of nursing

preparation. Thus, among the student nurses investigated, the

authors suggest that their vocational choice represents a process

of choosing an occupation which is perceived as providing

opportunities for actualizing the ideal-self rather than for

meeting the needs of the self in the present situation.

Steinman, Levi and Fox (1964) examined the self-concept of

college women compared with their concept of ideal woman and men's

ideal woman. The subjects were seventy-five women attending a

large metropolitan college. They were asked to respond as they

felt about items related to women's activities and satisfactions,

as their ideal woman would respond, and then as men's ideal woman

would respond. They concluded that women perceive themselves and

their ideal woman as essentially alike with equal components of

passive and active orientations. However, they perceived man's 62 ideal woman as significantly more passive id accepting of a subordinate role in both personal development and place in familial structure.

Thus women feel they can combine self-achievement with roles of wife and mother. However, they feel that men are either not interested in these self-realization goals or they may even be in opposition to woman's needs. For the counselor they conclude that insight and acceptance of the woman's role is not alone a matter for the woman client. If men do not have these feelings about women's roles, perhaps counseling can help break down the communication barrier which leads women to perceive them.

White (1959) investigated the relationship of self-concept,

and parental identification to women's vocational interests and

occupational choices. Using the Q technique with eighty-one

freshmen girls from a public junior college in California and their

parents, she reports the following. The mother is the parent with

whom the girl is more closely identified. Girsl who adhere to

strictly feminine roles as opposed to those with career interests

tended to be more satisfied with themselves and more closely

identified with their parents. Girls with career interests tended

to come from homes without a male parent or where there was little

communication between the girls and their parents. Although the

majority of the findings in this investigation were at a low level

of significance, there seemed to be some support for the hypothesis

that congruence between a girl's self and ideal-self perceptions and

the perceptions which her parents have of her are related to 63 vocational interests. Discrepancies among these perceptions seem to be related to the girl's tendency toward masculine interests and career motivation. Thus it would appear that role strain and career for women are related.

Dyson (1967) investigated the relationships between the acceptance of self, academic self-concept and two procedures used to group seventh grade students for instruction. The sample consisted of two seventh grade populations which were similar in age, intelligence, academic achievement, school grades earned, the school environment which they experienced, and the socio-economic levels of the communities in which they lived. This included 323 heterogeneously grouped students and 224 homogeneously grouped students. The results showed that regardless of the grouping procedures utilized, high achievers indicated significantly more positive academic self-concepts than low achievers. It was concluded from this study that grouping procedures do not

significantly effect acceptance of self or academic self-concepts.

However, success in school significantly influences the academic

self-concept regardless of the grouping procedure used.

Bledsoe (1967) studied the relationship between the self-

concept of fourth and sixth grade boys and girls and their

intelligence, academic achievement, interests, and manifest

anxieties. The random sample consisted of 271 fourth and sixth

grade boys and girls from four schools in Clarke County, Georgia.

The results of the study show no appreciable differences between

the self-concepts of boys in the two grades, or of girls in the two 64 grades. However, the girls in both grades scored significantly higher than the boys in the same grade. Correlations between self- concept and intelligence ranged from low to moderately positive.

Correlations of achievement and self-concept for boys were significant and positive but for girls they were non-significant.

Manifest anxiety was for the most part correlated negatively. Thus in general it can be assumed that general self-esteem is associated with lower expressed anxiety.

These results would seem to indicate that at these grade levels girls had greater self-esteem than boys. These findings are in general agreement with previous investigations (Ausubel, 1955;

Bledsoe, 1961; Davidson, Sarason, Lighthall, Waite, and Sarnoff,

1958; Sarason, Davidson, Lighthall and Waite, 1958). Possible explanations for such differences may include the fact that girls from ages nine to eleven on the average are more advanced developmentally than boys and that more frequent contacts with mothers and women teachers enable the girls to develop a more satisfying self-image at this stage. That the elementary school in our culture tends to be a woman's world which stresses values of neatness, conformity, docility and other traits associated with the feminine role is generally uncontested.

Campbell (1965) investigated self-concept and academic achievement in middle grade, public school children. His sample consisted of male and female fourth, fifth, and sixth grade students. He reported a positive relationship between self-esteem and achievement test scores. Support was found for the hypothesis 65 that the relationship decreases at progressively higher grade levels, that the relationship is higher for boys than for girls, and that girls obtain higher mean school related self-concept scores. The results of this study would indicate that efforts to improve self-concept would have a greater effect on the achievement of boys than girls. The author suggests that the curriculum emphases at the elementary school level are at variance with the concepts boys view as appropriate to themselves. An alteration of instructional methods which takes into account the structure and nature of boys' self-concepts appears necessary.

Wells (1965) studied the relationship of motivation, intelligence, acceptance, self-concept, sex, ability grouping, and achievement among seventh grade students. His sample included 185 boys and 154 girls in the seventh grade. Data were gathered on sex, motivation score, IQ, average peer acceptance rating, self-concept score, level of ability group to which the student was assigned and average grade for the school year’s work. The results of the study show that girls are higher than boys on motivation but not significantly higher on IQ, social acceptance and self-concept.

The low motivated students have a significantly lower IQ as well as self-concept score. No significant difference was found between self-concept of high and low IQ groups or between those accepted or rejected by their peers. Motivation towards school was found in

this study to be significantly related to sex, intelligence, self- concept, ability grouping and achievement in school. Self-concept 66 was found to be significantly related to only one of the variables, motivation toward school.

Brookover, Patterson, and Thomas (1962) in an investigation of the relationship between self-concept of ability and school achievement found that self-concept of ability clearly functions independent of measured intelligence in predicting school achievement. Their results based on a sample of male and female seventh grade students further indicated that the student's self- concept of ability is positively related to the attitude he perceives others such as parents, teachers, and peers hold of him.

Specifically the results of this study which are especially germane to the topic herein include:

1. Seventh grade girls have significantly higher mean self-concept of ability scores than seventh grade boys.

2. Self-concept of ability is significantly related to school achievement of seventh grade boys and girls. The correlation is .57 for each sex.

3. The correlation between self-concept of ability and measured intelligence is .46 for boys and .48 for girls. However, the low .17 correlation between these variables when grade point average is partialled out indicates that self-concept differs from measured intelligence.

4. A student's self-concept of ability in a specific school subject may differ from his self-concept in another subject as well as from his general self-concept of ability. For example, mean self-concepts of ability in mathematics and social studies are significantly different from mean general self-concept of ability among girls.

j. A student's self-concept of ability is positively related to the image he perceives significant others hold of him when parents, teachers, and peers are identified as the significant others. 67

6. Self-concept of ability is significantly related to "importance of grades," but the latter is not highly correlated with grade point average.

7. Students who aspire or expect to go to college have significantly higher mean self-concept of ability than students with lower educational aspirations or expectations.

Later, Brookover (1965) reported the results of a second study of self-concept of ability and school achievement. In a

longitudinal study involving 463 male and female students from

seventh through tenth grades considerable evidence was found for

accepting the hypotheses that self-concepts of academic ability are

derived primarily from perceived evaluations of significant others

and for the most part that self-concept of ability is a functionally

limiting factor in their academic achievement. Also the findings

suggest that self-concept intervenes between the perceived

evaluations of others and performance. No consistent sex

differences in the relationship of self-concept with achievement

were found except that female responses showed a greater relation­

ship between perceived parental and teacher evaluations and self-

concept of ability than was the case for males.

Specifically the results of the study led to an acceptance

of the following statements.

1. Sex differences in the relationships between self-concept of ability and the perceived evaluations of others appeared only in reference to parents. In this case, the relationship was higher for females than for males.

2. There were no consistent sex differences in the relationships of self-concept of ability and achievement. 68

3. An itcreasing congruency is observed between the perceived evaluations of parents, triends, and teachers from the seventh through the tenth grades.

4. Specific self-concepts in subject matter areas are less stable in predicting achievement than in general self-concept of ability.

5. The relationship of self-concept to achievement is not associated with differences in school attendance.

6. Socio-economic status has a low relationship to self-concept of ability and achievement,

7. Self-concept of ability is not merely a reflection of memory of past performance or past achievement.

8. Parents are perceived by more than ninety per cent of the students as academic significant others in all grades, seven through ten.

9. Changes in the associations of self-concept, perceived parental evaluations, and academic achievement over the longitudinal period are not accounted for by group changes at any grade level (e.g. changes in grading standards). The same distributions were evident on each variable at all grade levels.

Vocational Maturity.--Anderson and Heimann (1967) studied the vocational maturity of junior high school girls. Their sample included sixty-eight girls in the eighth grade in Phoenix, Arizona.

The effect of short-term, individual vocational counseling on vocational maturity, knowledge of occupational information and ability to do self-estimates was assessed after eighteen weeks of counseling. An experimental design involving differential treatment of equivalent groups was utilized. The results of the study

indicate a significant difference between the experimental and

control groups on one of three measures, the Vocational Maturity

Scale. This indicated to the authors that the experimental 69 treatment, counseling, did have a significant effect on measured vocational maturity.

Crites and Semler (1967) collected cross-sectional and

longitudinal data on the interrelationships of adjustment, educational achievement, and vocational maturity as dimensions of

development in adolescents. Examining 480 fifth graders of whom

236 were girls, they conducted a follow-up seven years later when

the students were seniors in high school. Relative to the purposes

of this study, they found the following correlations with

vocational maturity: vocational maturity/level of vocational

choice, .16; vocational maturity/achievement, .17; vocational

maturity/adjustment, .22; and .24 rated by counselors and teachers

respectively. They report a correlation of .61 between scores on

the Vocational Development Inventory administered in 1957 and 1963.

Level of Occupational Aspiration.— Almost every study

reported on level of occupational aspiration has examined only

males. Some include both sexes but fail to differentiate between

the two in the results. Numerous studies (Douvan, 1956; Empey,

1956; Jones, 1963; Reissman, 1953; Sewell, Haller, and Straus, 1957;

Stubbins, 1950) have been addressed to the relationship between

occupational aspiration and social status. In almost every case a

significant positive correlation between the level of occupational

aspiration and family social status is found. Middle class parents

often assert demands for individual success at an earlier time and

more consistent pace than do parents in the working class. Thus, it

would appear that the achievement motivation that the child develops 70 depends largely on the class sub-culture in which he is reared.

The demands which are made of him are functional to the values and behavior requirements as he assumes adulthood within that sub­ culture. On the other hand, the lower class child early learns that certain occupational goals are not within his reach. He learns as well that this may be due to what his parents do not have to invest in him and who his parents happen to be. As Jones (1963) points out, one of the saddest commentaries on the morality of our social system is the conviction held by these youth that success for them comes by "beating" the game they have no reasonable hope of winning.

Stephenson (1955) studied the occupational aspirations and plans of 443 ninth grade students by means of an anonymous occupational questionnaire. The results of his study show that the occupational aspirations and plans of the students reflect neither the occupational position of the father nor the occupational needs of the community. However, an examination of the difference between aspirations and plans reveal that the latter more closely approximate the father's occupational position and the national distribution of occupations. All students have high occupational aspirations, but plans are closely related to father's occupations.

Finally, it was found that occupational aspirations and plans are confined to a relatively narrow range of occupations with considerable concentration of choices in this narrow range.

Motivation.— Frymier (1967) suggests that it would seem ■ reasonable to assume that students whose school motivation was 71 essentially positive would undoubtedly have a more positive self- concept, a more positive concept of others, be more able to tolerate uncertainty and the unknown and be generally "healthier" psycho­ logically. Research by Martire (1956), Mitchell (1961), and Wells

(1965) generally support this position.

Martire (1965) studied the differences in self-concept among four groups classed by the strength and generality of their achievement and the relationships of level of aspiration for a specific task to self-concept and achievement motivation. He used

McClelland's technique for determining n-achievement to measure motivation and found that subjects who obtained high n-achievement scores had a significantly greater discrepancy between ideal-self and self-ratings on the five achievement related traits combined than did the other subjects. He also reported that both self- concept and level of aspiration measures were related to projective measures of achievement motivation.

Mitchell (1961) tested the relationship of eight tests, including McClelland's test of n-achievement and an inventory similar to the Bills' Index of Adjustment and Values, to achievement motivation. His sample included 100 female*college students. Of twenty-nine factors analyzed from the various tests six factors (including academic motivation and self-satisfaction) were identified as definitely related to achievement motivation,

Sarchet (1964) studied the relationship of academic achievement and motivation among tenth grade students. His sample included 280 male and female students who were administered an 72 academic achievement and motivation test in the ninth and again in the tenth grade. The results of the study showed that both motiva­ tion towards school and ability were closely associated with academic achievement. For the girls the correlation of r46 was

found, for the boys .28. However, it was decided that ability was a more powerful determinant of achievement as these factors were measured in this study.

Stivers (1959) investigated the motivations of college and

high school girls. He sought answers to the question of why so many highly qualified girls fail to go to college after graduation

from high school. The sample included the tenth grade girls in the

top twenty-five per cent of their class in a midwestern high school.

The results of the study indicated that motivation for college was

related to moderate needs for achievement. Also girls planning to

attend college reported that more individuals had set college as

the standard of accomplishment. These girls also expressed

confidence that they would be successful in college. The author

concludes by suggesting that a new view of the place of women in

our society must be accepted. In order for women to pursue

professional careers without demanding that they abandon their

traditional feminine role, this change in perceptions is necessary.

As Cochran (1968) reports, the literature exploring the link

between school motivation and level of occupational aspiration is

limited. Haller (1963) contends that level of occupational

aspiration is evidently related to concepts of self and role and

through these to a third type of motivation. He implies that to 73 the degree that the person has a unitary level of occupational aspiration he has a conception of himself in relation to the styles of life he gives to the various levels of the occupational hierarchy.

Achievement.— Obviously achievement as a central aspect in any educational endeavor has warranted extensive study in the literature. An excellent review of studies which consider factors of achievement in high school and college was conducted by Gowan

(1960). He has developed a listing of measures of in-put, measures of process, and measures of results which have been quoted by research. This listing is presented in its entirety as follows:

Measures of Input

1. Environment and Parents

a) Socio-economic level of parents (Terman, 1947; Frankel, 1958) b) Educational level of parents (Terman, 1947; Frankel, 1958) c) Lack of family disruption through death, divorce (Goldberg, 1958) d) Parents more active in church, community (Gowan, 1955)

2. Consonance of Parental and Individual Values

a) Father's value system identification (Bishton, 1955) b) (Negative) Conflict in values (Broedel, 1958) c) No parental disagreements on vocational plans (Nason, 1954) d) Values and convictions out of own experiences (Heath, 1959) e) Achiever's values like those of supportive teacher (Battle, 1957) f) Parents who motivated or took interest (Gowan, 1957) g) Improvers had supportive teacher (Goldberg, 1950; Bowman, 1959) 74

3. Parental Involvement in Task Demands

a) Some tension in task demands in childhood (Gowan, 1957) b) Early independence training (McClelland, 1953) c) Emphasis on educational and verbal expression (Bowman, 1959)

4. Cathexis of Satisfactions from Libido to Superego Areas

a) (Negative) Need for pleasure (Middleton, 1959) b) Postponing immediate pleasures for future gain (Strodtbeck, 1958) c) Orientation to life as a game not a struggle (Heath, 1959) d) (Negative) Frustrated emotional needs (Broedel, 1958) e) A sense of responsibility (Morgan, 1952) f) Ego controls and strength (Gowan, 1957) g) Achievers project selves further into future (Drews, 1957)

5. Purpose, Motivation, Inspiration, Morale

a) Individual inspiration to succeed (Nason, 1954) b) Motivation to achieve generally (Morgan, 1952) c) Perseverance, desire to excel (Terman, 1947)

6. Self-Confidence, Self-Acceptance, Positive Self-Concept

a) Belief in oneself (Bishton, 1955) b) Dominance, persuasiveness, and self-confidence (Morgan, 1952) c) Self-oojectivity in interview behavior (Heath, 1959) d) Dominance, persuasiveness, self-confidence (Gowan, 1957) e) Optimistic self-confidence (Gough, 1949) f) Self-confidence (Terman, 1947) g) Reasonable risk taking-the "reasonable adventurer" (Heath, 1959)

7. Anti-Authoritarian Behavior

a) Permissiveness, intraception, and creativity (Gowan, 1957) b) Tolerance of ambiguity (Heath, 1959) c) A lively and benign sense of humor (Heath, 1959) d) Fascinated by a wide range of interests (Heath, 1959) e) Belief in the efficacy of human planning versus superstitious fatalism (Strodtbeck, 1958) 75

8. Interest-Maturity

a) Maturity and seriousness of purpose (Morgan, 1952) b) Maturity, responsibility and seriousness of interests (Gowan, 1957) c) High seriousness of purpose (Gough, 1949)

9. Early Strong Set on Industry Tasks

a) Strong reading and arithmetic skills (Gowan, 1957) b) Good use of time and money (Gowan, 1955) c) Improvers mastered basic skills with help (Bowman, 1959) d) (Negative) Have study habit problems (Westfall, 1958) e) Academic effectiveness, accomplishment, and good study habits (Gough, 1949) f) (Negative) Difficulties in arithmetic skills (Barrett, 1958)

10. Positive Personality Integration

a) Positive character integration (Gowan, 1957) b) Personality adjustment (Nason, 1954) c) (Negative) Intense personal problems (Broedel, 1958) d) Personal efficiency, vitality and integration (Gough, 1949) e) Strength and force of character (Terman, 1947)

Measures of Results in Developmental Tasks

11. Breakaway from Home

a) Freedom from family clannishness and consequent social mobility (Strodtbeck, 1958)

12. Peer Socialization

a) Affinity for peer relationships (Bishton, 1955) b) Formation and maintenance of close peer friendships (Heath, 1959) c) Socialization and social interaction (Gowan, 1957) d) Acceptance of others, denial of animosity, lack of interpersonal friction (Gough, 1949) e) Leadership, popularity, sensitivity to others (Terman, 1947)

13. Economic or Vocational Adjustment

a) (Negative) Remoteness of goals (Broedel, 1958) b) Parent-pupil agreement on specific occupational plan (Nason, 1954) 76

c) Clearness and definiteness of occupational goals (Gowan, 1957) d) (Negative) Goals set by others or not in line with interests (Armstrong, 1955)

14. Intellectual Adjustment: College Aspiration Level

a) Parent-pupil agreement on college level aspiration (Nason, 1954) b) Intrinsic interest in liberal arts studies (Heath, 1959)

Measures of Results in Cultural Artifacts

15. Independence Versus Hostility

a) Behavior maturity and freedom from adult supervision (Bishton, 1955) b) (Negative) Hostility and rebellious attitude (Broedel, 1958) c) Need for independence and resentment (Middleton, 1959) d) Desirability of working for oneself (Strodtbeck, 1958)

16. Need for Status and Approval from Adults

a) Achievement, satisfaction, need for approval and status from adults (Bishton, 1955) b) Need for social status and influence (Middleton, 1959) c) Need to secure approval of adults (Drews, 1957)

17. Power and Approval

a) Power and approval (Middleton, 1959) b) Achievement, status, male superiority, self-r preoccupation (Bishton, 1955)

18. Cultural Aggression

a) Hostile aggressive denial of tender socialized feelings (Middleton, 1959) b) (Negative) Extroversion (Middleton, 1959) c) Aggressive constrictive pattern (Heath, 1959)

19. Cultural Conforming Social Adaptation

a) Conforming socio-economic adjustment (Bishton, 1955) b) Social adjustment (Nason, 1954) c) Strong dependence (Middleton, 1959) 77

d) (Negative) Disavowal of social shortcomings (Middleton, 1959) e) Awareness and concern for others (Morgan, 1952) f) Submissive constrictive pattern (Heath, 1959) g) Acceptance of conventions (Gough, 1949)

Gallagher (1966) compared ninety-two high achieving gifted girls with ninety-seven high achieving boys on measured cognitive thinking, classroom expressiveness, self-concept and attitude. He reported that there were no differences between boys and girls on breadth scores derived from a test of divergent thinking ability but that girls were found to give a greater proportion of solutions in both junior high and high school. In high school girls were rated more favorably in sociability and boys more favorably in cognitive abilities by teachers. In the dimensions of intellectual operation, cognitive-memory, convergent thinking, divergent thinking, and evaluative thinking boys scored higher than girls in each area in classroom expressiveness. Boys also had significantly more positive self-concepts than girls, while the girls had significantly more positive attitudes toward their families and toward other people than did the boys.

These results suggest that the possible inhibition of gifted girls' performance may be due to a group expectation of a less aggressive intellectual attitude for girls. In our current society there are few guidelines for talented girls. Few of these talented girls would visit a counselor for serious emotional difficulties but many may still be seeking self-identification in a society where there are few vocational models and where the social rules for women are in a state of change. Much more extensive research 78 ie needed in this area. Gallagher points out that it is no longer possible to talk about gifted children without a consideration of the sex dimension. Gifted boys and gifted girls require discussion in their own separate and apparently distinctive domains.

Astin (1964) studied socio-economic factors in the achievements and aspirations of Merit Scholars. His purpose was to compare Merit Scholars with non-scholars. However, for purposes herein it is more interesting to note differences between male

Merit Scholars and female Merit Scholars. In high school achievements he reports that girls had higher percentages than boys in each of the following areas; "A" averages, leads in plays, winners in debate contests, student offices, high ratings in state music contests, exhibitions of art works, editorships, publications and literary awards. On the other hand, when comparing educational and vocational plans of male Merit Scholars with female scholars, males had greater percentages in the following areas; planning graduate study, planning on a Ph D and planning on advanced professional degrees. In terms of vocational plans the only area where girl Merit Scholars exceeded boy Merit Scholars was in the number who were undecided as to their probable future occupation.

Surprisingly enough, Astin reports that as "a rather unexpected finding." In terms of the educational and vocational plans, with the exception of the per cent planning graduate study, male non­ scholars showed higher percentages in several areas than did female scholars. A noticeably high percentage of girls showed teaching as a career. 79

In summary, the literature relative to self-concept of girls indicates that girls show an increase in social orientation while boys increase in personal orientation during adolescence, that a positive relationship exists between self and ideal-self and the ability to make realistic occupational goal choices, that children's perceptions.of others toward them were positively related to academic achievement, that girls generally perceived their teachers' feelings more positively than boys, and that girls seem to have a more positive self-concept in early adolescence than do boys. Self-concept appears to be positively related to school motivation, but not with measured intelligence. Studies concerning the vocational maturity of girls indicates that vocational maturity is most highly correlated with adjustment. Vocational counseling seems to have a significant effect on measured vocational maturity of adolescent girls. Occupational aspiration is most influenced by parental occupational level and social status. Motivation studies indicate that motivation is positively related to a positive self- concept and achievement in school. It also appears to be related to

level of occupational aspiration. Finally, regarding achievement,

a summary of measures of in-put, process and results shows many

factors contributing to achievement. The limit appears to be set

only by the choices of the researchers themselves.

Chapter III will discuss the procedures utilized in this

s tudy. CHAPTER III

PROCEDURES

Chapter III presents a description of the procedures used in this study. A discussion of the setting, population, instruments, and statistical processes is offered.

The purpose of this study was to determine the interrelation­ ships of selected school-oriented vocationally related variables of

adolescent high school girls. The variables were Self-Concept,

Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self, Vocational Maturity, Level of

Occupational Aspiration, Motivation, Achievement, and Intelligence.

The interrelationships were examined for ninth, tenth, eleventh, and

twelfth grade levels and for College Preparatory, Vocational and

Mixed curricula. The study evolved from a similar study conducted on

boys and utilized data collected as a part of the evaluation of a

vocational education program in the high school attended by the

subjects.

Setting

The setting from which the subjects were drawn for this study

is Hudson, Ohio, a small suburban upper-middle class village of

nearly 3700 residents. It is located in northern Ohio, midway

between the large urban areas of Akron and Cleveland. It has been

described as a typically MNew England-type" community, founded in

80 81

1799, four years before Ohio attained statehoo 1 Ln t. hat was then known as the Western Reserve belonging to Connecticut. The first settlers came from that state and even today over a score of homes and other historical buildings reflect the original character of the village. The village government is composed of a seven man village

council, a mayor, and a full-time village manager. A Village Planning

Commission, a Township Zoning Board, and a consulting-advisory tri-

County Regional Planning Commission oversee the community development. i A citizens group, the Hudson Heritage Association, is active in

preserving the appearance and character of the typically New England

village.

Churches include Christ Church Episcopal, First Christian

Church, First Congregational Church, St. Mary's Catholic Church, and

Hudson Methodist Church. Civic and fraternal organizations include

the American Legion, League of Women Voters, Masonic Order, Kiwanis

Club, Rotarians, Chamber of Commerce, the Grange, Hudson Library and

Historical Society, Eastern Star, Womens' Auxiliary of the American

Legion, Newcomers Club, Welcome Wagon, Garden Club, Womens Club, and

Community Service.

Village brochures point out both local services and those from

the nearby urban areas. A self-described "careful screening and

selectivity of industry" considers the "best interests of the truly

suburban community." Recreation, services, zoning protection, and

other advantages are listed in community literature with the aim of

attracting upper-middle and upper socio-economic citizens.

The Hudson School District constitutes approximately 7200 82 residents. It has been described as being composed of three rather distinct concentric circles. The first, the center circle, is the village itself, with older, large and expensive, New England-type homes. The second circle is Hudson Township which surrounds the village. The residents dwell in expensive "housing developments" and are primarily upper-middle class, as is the case in the center circle.

In the third concentric circle are found more modest dwellings with residents which might be classified as lower-middle class blue collar workers.

The fact that from sixty-five to seventy-five per cent of the

Hudson High School graduates attend college attests to the heavy

academic orientation of the school. Traditionally the graduates seek

entrance in Eastern universities or in private institutions in Ohio,

For those students who do not enroll in institutions of higher

learning, taking a job, entering military service or getting non-

college training appears to have an equal division among the group.

Recently, however, primarily in response to the needs of the

students from the lower-middle class section of the school district,

an experimental vocational curriculum was introduced in the high

school. A follow-up study conducted in 1964 of the graduates since

1960 revealed that while sixty-five per cent of this group had

enrolled in college, only about one-half had finished in four years.

Further it was found that twenty-eight per cent of the graduates who

had not attended college were working without additional training.

Thus a vocational program, supported by a four year grant from the 83

United States Office of Education as a demonstration project, was

introduced into the high school in September, 1965.

Population

For the purpose of this study, a sample was drawn from the

female population attending the comprehensive high school in Hudson,

Ohio, during the 1967-68 school year. The entire school population numbered 751 in grades nine through twelve with a total of 382 males

and 369 females. An examination by grade level reveals 112 ninth

grade males and 100 ninth grade females, ninety-seven tenth grade males and 105 tenth grade females, ninety eleventh grade males and

eighty-two eleventh grade females, and eighty-three twelfth grade

males and eighty-two twelfth grade females. The subjects for this

study consisted of eighty-three ninth grade females or eighty-three

per cent of the female freshmen, seventy-two tenth grade females or

sixty-eight per cent of the female sophomores, sixty-nine eleventh

grade females or eighty-four per cent of the female juniors, and

forty-four twelfth grade females or fifty-three per cent of the

female seniors. Of these, 206 were college preparatory females,

twenty-seven were in a mixed curriculum, and thirty-five were in the

vocational curriculum.

Instruments

To accomplish the purposes of this study, a total of eight

variables were examined. Seven of the eight were operationally 84 defined in terms of scores in data from five separate instruments:

Variable Instrument

Self-Concept Index of Adjustment and Values Self-Acceptance Index of Adjustment and Values Ideal-Self Index of Adjustment and Values Vocational Maturity Vocational Development Inventory Occupational Aspiration Occupational Aspiration Scale School Motivation JIM Scale Intelligence Kuhlmann-Anderson

School achievement was operationally defined in terms of the grade point average of each student.

All data were gathered as a part of an evaluation of the previously mentioned funded demonstration project for vocational

education. Data collected from these instruments were used to study

the relationships between self-concept, motivation and occupational

aspiration of the vocational and college preparatory males enrolled

in the school (Cochran, 1968). All data were collected by that

researcher.

Index of Adjustment and Values.— A modification of the Index

of Adjustment and Values originally developed by Bills (Bills, Vance

and McLean, 1951) in the 1950’s to measure four variables including

self, acceptance of self, ideal-self and self-satisfaction

(discrepancy between ideal-self and self scores) was administered.

In developing the Adult Index | Bills, undated (a)J 124 trait words

were selected from Allport and Odbert's list of 17,953. In selecting

this sample an attempt was made to choose words which occur frequently

in client-centered interviews and which seemed to present clear

examples of self-concept definitions. A sample of college students

in a test-retest fashion covering a period of three weeks were asked 85 to respond to the items. Those words which showed greater variation from test to retest than was shown by the average subject on the average word were excluded. Forty-nine words were retained and became the basis of the Adult Form of the Index.

Inability of students below the twelfth grade to understand the abstract concepts in the Adult Index led to the development of the Elementary, Junior High School and High School Forms [[Bills, undated Eight hundred and fifty children in grades one to eleven were asked such questions as, "What do you like most about yourself, What do you like least about yourself, Give me the one word you think of when I say, 'mother,1 'teacher,' and 'principal?'"

From the list of words compiled through this process were selected

those which most frequently revealed personal attributes. Three

lists of words were devised: for grades three, four, five and six;

for grades six, seven and eight; and for grades nine, ten and eleven.

The High School Form of the Index of Adjustment and Values,

with certain modifications, was used in this study. The original

form included a list of thirty-seven adjectives with three columns

beside each word asking for a self, self-acceptance and ideal-self

rating. In the course of the first year of the research project it

was found that the students had difficulty in making the distinctions

required by the five point scale on the High School Form. For this

reason, the three point scale of the Junior High School Form was

adopted. Also it was found that the students marked all three

columns at the same time rather than rating each column separately.

Thus an answer sheet which was numbered across the page rather than 86 up and down to prevent the establishment of a response set was introduced. Separate instructions for each of the sections, "self,"

"self-acceptance," and "ideal-self" were provided. Also the sample word "jolly" which tended to elicit unnecessary responses from the students was changed to "satisfied."

Scoring for the Index of Adjustment and Values was completed by assigning a weight of three to each mark in position one, a weight of two to each mark in position two, and a weight of one to each mark in position three. By totaling each section separately, scores were arrived at for "self," "self-acceptance," and "ideal-self."

Split-half reliability of the "self" form of the High School

Index was tested jjlills, undated (b^J. A sample of 150 students in grades nine through eleven revealed reliabilities ranging from .86 to

.94. Split-half reliabilities on the "others" form with a sample of

100 students in grades nine and ten ranged from .93 to .98. Clearly,

these results indicate a highly reliable instrument. As evidence of

content validity j^Bills, undated (b)] the method of obtaining the words for the Index is offered. As Bills points out, all words used

were obtained from children at the approximate grade levels and were

words which the children used to describe themselves and others. To

determine concurrent validity jjlills, undated (b)]t the "self" and

"others" forms on the High School Index were tested to show that they

did not measure the same variables. Based on a sample of 184 ninth

graders, 124 tenth graders, and 181 eleventh graders sufficiently low

correlations of .28, .50, and .46 respectively, revealed that the

forms are, in the main, independent variables. In order to further 87 demonstrate the concurrent validity of the High School Form, both the

Adult Form, which is difficult for students at the grade level, and the High School form were administered to a sample of thirty-three tenth graders and forty-one ninth graders. Correlations ranged from

.34 to .70 for the tenth grade group and .68 to .88 for the ninth graders. Bills considers these results to be "encouraging."

Evidence of construct validity is provided by Roberts (1952) and

Renzaglia (1952). The latter researcher found that students who scored high on self-acceptance when compared with students who scored low displayed the following traits:

1. More optimism with respect to future success in college 2. Greater satisfaction with immediate periods in their life 3. Much less feelings of tension and anxiety 4. A greater tendency to externalize their conflicts 5. A more favorable appraisal of their self­ characteristics 6. That they value certain personal traits considerably more 7. That they conceive others to possess more favorable personal attributes 8. Less experience of a negative sort 9. Less intense feelings toward punishing experiences 10. More favorable attitudes toward their parents 11. That fewer people punish them 12. That they are more certain about what they are willing to say about themselves (p. 184)

Strong and Feder (1961) and Wylie (1961) offer final evidence regarding the reliability and validity of the Index of Adjustment and

Values. The former point to the fact that while the Index is subject

to the limitations of all rating scales the data which has been

collected from several studies indicate that it is yet a reliable and valid measure of adjustment and values. Wylie, in a discussion of a 88 number of instruments which are intended to measure self-concept, concludes that

the construct validity of any of these instruments for measuring phenomenal self-regard remains to be demonstrated, although Bills presents the most pertinent and convincing evidence on this question. (p. 107)

Vocational Development Inventory.— The Vocational Development

Inventory was conceived and constructed to measure the behavior domains of choice competencies and attitudes in vocational maturity.

These are assessed respectively by two sub-tests, the Competence test and the Attitude test. In this study only the Attitude test was used. The functions or processes involved in taking the Competence test were largely designated as comprehension and problem solving abilities as they pertain to the vocational choice process.

The Attitude test was designed to elicit the attitudinal or dispositional response tendencies in vocational maturity which are non-intellectual in nature, but which may mediate between both choice behaviors and choice aptitudes. As Crites (1965) points out, the items for this test were developed from a combination of emperical and rational methods of test construction. To establish the rational or logical validity of the Attitude test the general model for writing

items proposed by Flannagan (1951) was followed:

1. Description of the behavior. These were selected from various statements of vocational development theory and inferred from relevant research findings.

2. Analysis of the behavior. Items were written so as to maximize their relationships to grade and to minimize their association with other variables such as sex differences, socio-economic status and urban- rural residence. 89

3. Formulation of item specification. Variables were experimentally manipulated in order to determine their effects upon the power of the items to differentiate between age or grade levels.

Thus items were written .which described various concepts of

the vocational choice process such as feelings about making career

decisions and work values. The relationships of the items to age and

grade, as the criterion variable, were determined. If the items were monotonicaly associated with age and grade they were accepted for

inclusion in the Attitude test. The results of the item analyses

were based upon a total sample of approximately 3,000 subjects tested

with two experimental forms. These results led to a number of

conclusions. Verbal vocational behavior is monotonicaly related to

both age and grade, especially the latter. True-false response

format provides better item discrimination between grades than a

Likert-type rating scale. Items written in the first and third

person singular produced the same item differentiation. The most

notable trend in item response by age and grade was from

predominantly true responses in elementary school to predominantly

false responses in high school. Items tended to identify stages

which occurred between sixth and seventh grades or between ninth and

tenth grades. Very few differences between males and females and

between schools in high and low rent districts were found.

Variables in the Attitude test include the following:

Dimension Definition

Involvement in the Extent to which individual is choice process actively participating in the process of making a choice 90

Orientation toward Extent to which individual is work task or pleasure-oriented in his attitudes toward work and the values he places upon work

Independence in decision Extent to which indiviual relies making upon others in the choice of an occupation

Preferences for vocational Extent to which individual bases choice factors his choice upon a particular factor

Conceptions of the choice Extent to which individual has process accurate or inaccurate conceptions about making an occupational choice

Normative data of the research edition were not used in the completion of this study. Although the test developers are in the process of accumulatingsuch data, as Beilin (1963) states:

The danger of focusing on normative data and normative developmental conceptions is that it leads us away from learning about the fundamental processes and mechanisms which lead to the behavior we have been describing. (p. 781)

The instrument is currently recommended for research use.

Occupational Aspiration Scale.--A modification of the

Occupational Aspiration Scale, originally developed by Haller and

Miller (1963) was utilized in this study. This is an eight item multiple-choice instrument requiring responses at both the realistic and idealistic levels and at two goal-periods, short range (end of schooling) and long range (at age thirty). The alternatives for each item consist of ten occupational titles taken from 108 occupations listed on the North-Hatt Occupational Rating Scale.

These occupations were rated by the female students at Hudson High

School in 1967 and comparisons were made to the items on the original 91

Occupational Aspiration Scale which were based on the ninety occupa­ tions ranked by the NORC study of the prestige of occupations. These modifications along with a revision of the instructions constitute the adapted form for females, j Cochran, 1966 (c): . Instructions were given for using answer sheets rather than the test booklet.

Each item consists of occupations which span the entire range of occupational prestige and are scored from zero to nine. An item score of nine indicates that the respondent has chosen an occupation from among the highest prestige occupations on the NORC scale. Thus an item score of zero indicates that one of the lowest pretige occupations has been chosen. The total possible score for all eight items ranges from zero to seventy-two and indicates the individual's general level of occupational aspiration.

Normative data on the original form of the Occupational

Aspiration Scale were completed on 441 Lenawee County, Michigan, boys. The observed total scores ranged from two to sixty-five with a mean of 36.20 and a standard deviation of 12.99 (Haller and Miller,

1963). The modified form, administered to Hudson High School females in 1967, yielded the following mean scores: for sixteen ninth grade vocational females, 37.18; for twelve tenth grade vocational females,

29,50; for eleven eleventh grade vocational females, 33.3; for twelve

twelfth grade vocational females, 37.0; for the total of fifty-one vocational females, 34.5; for sixty-nine ninth grade college preparatory females, 42.1; for fifty-four tenth grade college preparatory females, 46.05; for fifty-six eleventh grade college

preparatory females, 45.9; for thirty-one twelfth grade college preparatory females, 47,12; for the total of 21.0 college preparatory

females, 44.9; for thirteen ninth grade mixed females, 35.3; for

eleven tenth grade mixed females, 38.1; for eight eleventh grade mixed females, 44.1; for nine twelfth grade mixed females, 40.8; and

for the total of forty-four twelfth grade mixed females, 39.0

(Cochran, 1967).

Studies of the reliability of the original form of the

Occupational Aspiration Scale indicate a substantial reliability of

around .80. (Haller and Miller, 1963, p. 79), (Haller and Miller,

1964, p. 451), Westbrook, 1966, p. 1000). The halves of the forms

appear to be equivalent with stability fairly high over a ten-week

period of time. The standard errors of measurement estimated for the

test suggest that reasonable precision in determining individual

differences on level of occupational aspiration may be obtained by

grouping the Occupational Aspiration Scale scores into high, middle,

and low categories. On the whole, evidences of validity (Haller and

Miller, 1964; Westbrook, 1966) tend to support the hypothesis that

reasonable validity is present in this test. The Occupational

Aspiration Scale tends to be correlated with variables which a valid

level of occupational aspiration measure would be expected to be

correlated and to be uncorrelated with variables which a valid

measure would be expected to be uncorrelated.

Kuhlmann-Anderson Measure of Academic Potential (Seventh

Edition.--Unlike the other tests used in this study the Kuhlmann-

Anderson has a history of publication of test series which has been

found useful for nearly forty years. The seventh edition of the test 93

contains changes in grade levels covered by e:ch booklet, scores provided, and procedures for arriving at IQ's. A major change is the use of deviation IQ’s with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of

sixteen. Separate verbal and quantitative scores are also new with

the recent edition. Test reviews which consider reliability, validity

and norms are generally favorable (Merwin, 1965).

JIM Scale.— The JIM Scale, a measure of school motivation

developed by Frymier, was produced after a series of studies on junior

high school students was conducted by the author ^Frymier, 1961,

undated (a), undated (b)J. Essentially this research consisted of

analyzing the responses of several hundred junior high school students

who had been identified by experienced teachers as extremely high-

motivated or extremely low-motivated to determine items which

discriminated most effectively and consistently, fifty items from an

original list of more than 300 were selected which "seemed to

differentiate students according to their desire to do good work as

reflected in teachers' estimates, other experts' judgments, and

achievement on standardized examinations" (Frymier, 1965, p. 114),

The final form of the test consists of eighty items to which

the student is asked to express either slight or strong support or

agreement or slight or strong opposition or disagreement. Of the

eighty items, thirty serve as distractors. The remaining fifty items

are scored. In its original form agreement or disagreement was

indicated in the following way:

+1 - slight support, agreement +2 - strong support, agreement -1 - slight opposition, disagreement -2 - strong opposition, disagreement 94

To facilitate the use of machine scored answer sheets the following modifications in the directions to the students were made: Cochran,

1966, (b)J

1 - slight support, agreement 2 - strong support, agreement 3 - slight opposition, disagreement 4 - strong opposition, disagreement

The methodology used in arriving at a JIM Scale score

was determined by first eliminating from consideration the thirty non-scored items. Marks in response position one were assigned a weight of plus one, those in response position two were assigned a weight of two. The weighted marks in these two response positions were totaled to determine the total of the plus values.

Next, marks in response position three were assigned a weight of minus one, those in response position four were assigned a value of minus two. The weighted responses in positions three and four were totaled to determine the total of the minus value.

After the totals of the plus and minus values were determined, the two were added together algebraically. The sign of this total was reversed and 100 was added, thus giving a total JIM Scale score. (Cochran, 1968, p. 71)

Based on a sample of 3,179 students the following mean and standard deviation values are reported by Frymier (1966).

Level N Boys' Mean SD N Girls' Mean SD JIM Scale JIM Scale Scores Scores

12 215 128.76 21.57 267 133.86 20.30

11 272 121.87 23.19 235 130.78 26.12

10 279 122.35 22.12 259 129.54 21.29

9 296 120.21 21.12 279 124.43 23.12

8 266 117.74 24.87 281 125.02 26.27

7 299 115.44 24.56 231 124.06 23.12 1627 120.71 23.30 1552 127.92 23.76 95

A summary of reliability studies conducted by Frymier (1966) revealed for grades eleven, twelve and thirteen with a sample of 114 utilizing the split-half method a correlation of .83. Again with the split-half method in grades ten, eleven and twelve and a sample of sixty-seven a correlation of .83 was achieved. In a test-retest situation with a lapse of ten months and a sample of 717 students in grades seven and eight, a correlation of .70 was found.

Frymier (1967), in conducting studies regarding the validity of the JIM Scale found that the test discriminated at the .001 level between 366 high and low motivated boys and girls who had previously been identified by their teachers as high and low achievers. In general, it also appeared that the test was more accurate in discriminating among high and low motivated girls than boys. For purposes of this study, only girls' scores were used.

Administration of Instruments

The instruments used in this study were administered in English

classes to all students in the school in grades nine through twelve.

Prior to administration of the instruments, the researcher met with

all teachers who were to give the tests. At this time he reviewed

the procedures to be used so that variation in the testing procedures

would be minimized. The teachers were then given a three week period

in which to complete the testing. In most instances the tests were

given to students within a span of one week. The instructions and

first item or a sample item for each test are reporduced on the

following pages. 96

Index of Adjustment and Values.— Instructions for the "self" section of the revised form are as follows: \ Cochran, 1966 (a),

Take terns 1-37 given on the next page separately and apply them to yourself by completing the following sentence:

I am a (an) person

Turn the page and look at the list of terms. Nqtice the sample word, "Satisfied," at the top of the list. If you would substitute this term in the above sentence it would read "I am a satisfied person."

You will then decide how much of the time this statement is like you and indicate your choice by darkening the correct number on the accompanying answer sheet. Do not mark the answer sheet for the word, "Satisfied.11

Mark the answer sheet: "1" If, most of the time, I am like this. "2" If, about \ of the time, I am like this. "3" If, hardly ever, I am like this.

For example, for the word "Satisfied," if you had darkened Space "1" on the answer sheet, it would mean "Most of the time," I am a "Satisfied" person.

Remember: Make broad dark marks that completely fill the bracket around the number. Do not mark beyond the lines. Completely erase any marks you wish to delete. Use only a number 2 pencil. Mark only ONE answer for each question. CAUTION - Notice that the question numbers go across the answer sheet rather than down.

Begin with the word "Active." When you have answered questions 1-37 turn the page and read the directions for Part II.

For the revised "self-acceptance" section the instructions are

as follows:

You will now answer questions 38-74. Use one of the state­ ments given below to tell how you feel about yourself on terms 38-74. 97

Mark the answer sheet: "1" If, I like being as I am in this respect. "2" If, I neither like nor dislike being as I am in this respect. "3" If, I dislike being as I am in this respect.

Indicate your choice for the words below in the same manner as you did for words 1-37. For example, for the word "Satisfied" if you darkened space "1" on the answer sheet, it would mean "I like being as Satisfied as I am.

Now complete questions 38-74 using the words below. Begin with the word "Active." When you have completed questions 38-74 turn the page and read the directions for Part III.

In order to complete the third section, the "ideal self," the students were given the following instructions:

Using the same term, "Satisfied," complete the following sentence.

I would like to be a (an) ______person.

Then decide how much of the time you would like this to be an example of you and rate yourself on the following scale:

Mark the answer sheet: "1" If, most of the time, I would like this to be me. "2" If, about ^ the time, I would like this to be me. "3" If, hardly ever, I would like this to be me.

For example, for the word "Satisfied," if you had darkened space "1" on the answer sheet it would mean, "Most of the time, I would like to be this kind of person."

Now complete questions 7 5-111 using the words below. Begin with the word "Active."

Vocational Development Inventory.— The directions for this test are as follows:

Directions: There are a number of statements about occupational choice and work listed in this booklet. Occupational choice means the kind of job or work that you think you will probably be doing when you finish all of your schooling. 98

If you agree or mostly agree with the statement, use your pencil to blacken the circle in the column headed T on the separate answer sheet. If you disagree or mostly disagree with the statement, blacken the circle in the column headed F on the answer sheet. Be sure your marks are heavy and black. Erase completely any answer you wish to change.

Occupational Aspiration Scale.— The revised directions and first question of the modified form of the Occupational Aspiration

Scale are as follows:

Directions: This set of questions concerns your interest in different kinds of jobs. There are eight questions. Each one asks you to choose one job out of the ten presented. Read each question carefully. They are all different. Answer each one the best you can. Do not omit any.

Do not mark on the test booklet. Find the area labeled Test 1 on the left side of the separate answer sheet. You will make all marks for this test in the area marked Test 1 on the answer sheet. You are to darken the number of the answer that you choose. Make broad dark marks that completely fill the brackets around the number. Do not mark beyond the lines. Completely erase any marks you wish to delete. Use only a number 2 pencil. Mark only ONE answer for each question. CAUTION: Notice that the question numbers go across the answer sheet rather than down.

1. Of the jobs listed in this question, which is the BEST ONE you are REALLY SURE YOU CAN GET when your SCHOOLING IS OVER?

0. Biologist 1. Photographer 2. Head of department in state government 3. Barber 4. Representative in Congress 5. Maid 6. Sociologist 7. Home economist 8. Child care worker 9. Taxi-driver 99

JIM Scale.— The modified instructions for the JIM Scale were:

Cochran, 1966,

We are trying to find out how students think and feel about a number of important topics. In order to do this, we would like to ask you to answer some questions. This is not an intelligence test nor an information test. There are no "right" or "wrong" answers. The best and only answer is YOUR PERSONAL OPINION. Whatever your answer is, there will be many who agree and many who disagree. What we really want to know is HOW YOU FEEL about each statement.

Do not mark on the test booklet. Find the area labeled Test 7 on the left side of the answer sheet. You will make all marks for this test in the area marked Test 7 on the answer sheet.

Read each statement very carefully, and then indicate your agreement or disagreement by marking it according to the following scale, in the appropriate space on the answer sheet.

1 - slight support, agreement 2 - strong support, agreement 3 - slight opposition, disagreement 4 - strong opposition, disagreement

Statistical Analysis

The statistical procedures used to complete this study consisted essentially of the computation of coefficients of correlation and tests of significance of differences of means. All data were gathered through the utilization of instruments adapted in such a way that they could be administered with the use of a single scoring sheet. Data from this scoring sheet were punched onto IBM

cards. An intercorrelation matrix for variables central to the study was computed for each grade level and for each curriculum group.

These variables were Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self,

School Motivation, Level of Occupational Aspiration, Vocational 100

Maturity, and Intelligence. The seven matrices were for grades nine,

ten, eleven, and twelve, and for college preparatory, mixed and

vocational curricula.

A standard Fortran computer program was used to determine

Pearson Product-Moment coefficients of correlation using the

following formula:

N 4 XY - N £ XY P = - ■ ^ [N lY2 I ( 1 Y)fJ (n IX2 - it X) ^

Another standard Fortran program was used to complete a "t"

test of significance of difference of means. The formula for this

computation was as follows:

The program also printed out means and standard deviations

for each group. To determine the critical values of "t" a table

designed for this purpose was used (Ferguson, 1959). Critical values

of the correlation coefficients were determined by the same method

using a separate table.

In this chapter, the methodology of the study was described.

Chapter IV will present the findings of the study. CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS

This chapter presents the findings of the study. The data are reported as they apply to each of the questions posed in the statement of the problem. They are reported in tables and discussed following each table. The final section of this chapter contains a general

summary of the findings.

Question 1. What are the differences in the Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self, Vocational Maturity, Level of Occupational Aspiration, Motivation, Achievement, and Intelligence of ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades and College Preparatory, Vocational and Mixed curricula girls?

Table 1 gives the means and standard deviations of each of the

eight variables for the four grade levels and three curricular groups.

Table 2 provides the "t" ratio for a test of significance of

difference of means. A comparison of Self-Concept across the grade

levels and curricula indicate that all groups are relatively similar

with the exception of the tenth grade which shows a significantly

higher mean Self-Concept score (95.44) than any of the other grades or

curricula. Table 2 reveals this difference to be significant at the

.01 level when tenth grade scores are compared to each other grade

and, when visually examined, each curricula group. This group is

also relatively more homogeneous in this respect (SD m 6.77).

101 TABLE 1

MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF SC, SA, IS, VM, LOA, SM, ACH, AND IQ FOR 9TH, 10TH, 11TH, AND 12TH GRADES AND CP, V, AND M CURRICULA GIRLS

Variable 9 10 11 12 CP V M M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD

SC 91.92 7.90 95.44 6.77 92.15 8.17 91.59 6.81 92.91 7.45 92.97 8.82 92.48 8.47

SA 92.78 9.75 95.26 9.17 92.30 13.27 92.81 9.23 92.92 10.71 97.28 9.76 91.33 9.59

IS 103.09 5.77 102.69 8.09 104.20 6.19 102.09 6.61 103.84 5.93 99.05 10.93 102.70 5.06

VM 34.84 4.14 34.94 4.07 37.26 4.00, 38.47 3.52 36.42 4.35 33.34 4.12 37.11 4.06

LOA 42.60 10.89 43.30 10.01 45,62 12.07 44.79 8.73 46.07 10.45 33.42 5.92 41.14 8.86

SM 131.69 17.80 122.50 27.47 128.92 21.70 127.09 25.24 132.08 19.34 105.42 24.52 123.66 30.26

ACH 2.60 .71 2.58 .62 2.74 .58 2.80 .60 2.75 .63 2.36 .52 2.39 .69

IQ 120. 11.99 111. 13.27 123. 14.75 117. 14. 121. 11.43 101. 15.16 116. 14.82

9th N = 83 10th N = 72 11th N = 69 12th N = 44 CP N = 206 V N = 35 M N = 27 I TABLE 2

t RATIO OF SC, SA, IS, VM, LOA, SM, ACH, AND IQ FOR 9TH, 10TH, 11TH, AND 12TH GRADES AND CP, V, AND M CURRICULA GIRLS

Variable 9/10 9/11 9/12 10/11 10/12 11/12 CP/V CP/M V/M t t t t t t t t t

SC 2.93!b .176 .237 2.583, 2.939, .380 .042 .276 .224 D b SA 1.612 .254 .019 1.537 1.377 .223 2.246 .729 2.358 a a IS .356 1.130 .826 1.229 .394 1.599 3.788, .954 1.578 b VM .140 3.608 4.901, 3.104. 4.234, 1,633 3.877, .774 3.529, b D D b b b LOA .413 1.609 1.144 1.233 .808 .309 6.940, 2.759, 4.032, 0 v b b SM 2.487 .859 1.185 1.526 .892 .407 7.197, 1.959 2.577 a b a a ACH .214 1.252 1.553 1.544 1.860 .543 3.472,, 2.759 .195 a 4.552b 1.366 1.288 5.164. 2.376 2.154 9.457„ 2.319 3.901, IQ b a a a b

a = Significant .05 b = Significant .01 104

Mean Self-Acceptance scores for each grade level and curriculum group are also similar. The exceptions are the tenth grade girls (95.26) and the Vocational girls (97.28). The mean Self-

Acceptance score of the tenth grade girls is not significantly

different from that of eleventh and twelfth grade levels, but

approaches significance (.20) when compared with ninth grade girls1

Self-Acceptance. The most interesting finding relative to Self-

Acceptance was that the Vocational girls scored significantly higher

than the other two curricula groups (.05) and from visual examination,

higher than other grade levels.

Mean scores for Ideal-Self across all grade levels and

curriculum groups were similar with the exception of the Vocational

girls. Their mean score (99.05) was significantly lower than that of

College Preparatory girls (.05) and somewhat lower than that of the

Mixed group (.20). When compared with the findings of Self-Acceptance

it would appear that the Vocational girls have a lower Ideal-Self

and therefore possibly are more accepting of themselves.

An examination of the means from the VDI for Vocational

Maturity of girls in each grade shows higher scores with each

succeeding grade, ten through twelve. These differences are

significant (.01) when ninth and tenth girls are compared with eleventh

and twelfth grade girls with higher mean scores for the latter. As

Table 2 shows, ninth and tenth graders have essentially the same

Vocational Maturity and eleventh and twelfth graders are essentially

the same with the two groups differing significantly. An examination

of curricular groups reveals that College Preparatory and Mixed groups 105 are similar and both are significantly different from the Vocational group (.01) which has a lower Vocational Maturity mean score (33.34).

When Level of Occupational Aspiration was determined from the

Occupational Aspiration Scale, scores are similar across each grade level. The single exception was a comparison of the ninth grade girls with eleventh grade girls where the means of 42.60 for ninth grade and 45.62 for eleventh showed a trend toward a significant difference (.20). The Level of Occupational Aspiration for

Vocational girls was significantly lower (.01) than either College

Preparatory or Mixed curricular groups. They were also more homogeneous (SD = 5.92).

As measured on the JIM Scale ninth grade girls and College

Preparatory girls were higher than other grade levels and curricular groups in School Motivation with means of 131 and 132 respectively.

When compared with tenth grade girls, ninth graders were significantly different (.05). An examination of scores across curricular groups shows that each is significantly different from the other (.01) with

College Preparatory the highest with a mean of 132, the Mixed group next with a mean of 123, and Vocational group last with a mean of

105. The School Motivation of the Vocational girls appears to be

lower than that of any grade level by visual examination while the mean of the College Preparatory girls appears to be higher than

tenth, eleventh, or twelfth grades.

At each grade level the Achievement level is similar when

measured by grade point average. No significant differences appear.

However, both eleventh and twelfth graders have higher grade point 106 averages, 2.78 and 2.80 respectively, than do ninth and tenth grades,

2.60 and 2.58. These differences approach significance (.20). The grade point average of College Preparatory students, 2.75, was significantly higher (.01) than the Vocational group, 2.36, and also significantly higher (.05) than the Mixed group, 2.39.

In terms of Intelligence, three grades reveal mean IQ's with no significant differences: ninth, 120; eleventh, 123; and twelfth,

117. The tenth grade group had a mean IQ of 111 which is significantly lower than any of the other groups (.01). An examination of the intelligence quotients of the curricular groups shows a similar circumstance existing with College Preparatory girls having a mean IQ of 121, Mixed group 116 and Vocational group 101, all being significantly different, one from the other (.01).

A survey of the data across grade levels provides a description of each group. The ninth grade class is somewhat more intelligent as measured by standardized tests of intelligence, is highly school motivated, and shows itself to be little different from other grades in Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self, and Level of

Occupational Aspiration. As expected, their Vocational Maturity is not that of older girls.

The tenth grade girls as a group are significantly less intelligent as measured by standardized intelligence tests, have less

School Motivation than other groups, especially when compared to the ninth grade. They are at the expected level of Vocational Maturity

as well a? Level of Occupational Aspiration. However, they have higher Self-Concepts and somewhat higher Self-Acceptance than girls 107 in the other grades. Their achievement level is no different; if anything somewhat lower than eleventh and twelfth grades.

The eleventh grade girls, with the ninth graders are more intelligent. With the twelfth graders they are more vocationally mature. In other respects they do not differ from the rest of the grades. With their higher Intelligence, however, one might expect higher Self-Concept and Self-Acceptance than was found.

Twelfth grade girls were the most vocationally mature. In other respects they were closest to the mean on almost every variable.

The College Preparatory girls were more vocationally mature than the Vocational or Mixed curricula girls. They had higher Level of Occupational Aspiration. They were most school motivated of any group and compared with the more intelligent of the other groups on standard tests of intelligence.

The girls in the Vocational curriculum were more accepting of * themselves and had lower Ideal-Self images. Their Level of

Occupational Aspiration was lower than other groups. Their

Intelligence and School Motivation were both significantly lower and

probably because of these, their Achievement level was also low.

The Mixed curriculum group compared in some ways with the

College Preparatory girls and in others with the Vocational. They

had similar Self-Acceptance to College Preparatory, being lower than

the Vocational; similar Ideal-Self to College Preparatory, being

higher than Vocational. They were like the College Preparatory girls

in Vocational Maturity, but between the other two groups on Level of 108

Occupational Aspiration. Both School Motivation and Intelligence were between the other groups but their Achievement, like that of the

Vocational curriculum, was low.

Question 2. What is the relationship of Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self, Vocational Maturity, Level of Occupational Aspiration, School Motivation, Achievement and Intelligence each with the others for girls in the ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth grades and College Preparatory, Vocational and Mixed curricula?

Table 3 presents an intercorrelation matrix for those variables for each grade level. Of the twenty-eight correlations, six reveal significance at the .05 level for all four grades; fifteen show r's significant for at least one grade; seven are not significant at any grade level. The first six correlations significant for all grades were Self-Concept and Self-Acceptance,

Ideal-Self and Self-Concept, School Motivation and Vocational

Maturity, Achievement and School Motivation, IQ and School Motivation

and IQ and Achievement. The range of these correlations was from low negative (-.27) to medium positive (+.62). With one exception where

they were significant for all grade levels, correlations were at the

same level. The exception was in the r's for IQ and School

Motivation. Here, the ninth and eleventh grade groups had a some­

what lower correlation between Intelligence and School Motivation

than did the tenth and twelfth grade groups. However, the nature of

distribution of intelligence quotients for these two groups account

in part for the lower correlations. Both ninth and tenth grades had

significantly higher mean IQ's. This tended to make the group some­

what more homogeneous and would thus result in a lower r. 109

TABLE 3

INTERCORRELATION MATRIX FOR SC, SA, IS, VM, LOA, SM, ACH, AND IQ FOR 9TH, 10TH, 11TH, AND 12TH GRADE GIRLS

Variable Variable Grade SC SA IS VM LOA SM ACH IQ

SC 9 th 10th 11th 12th SA 9th .58b 10 th ,59b 11th .42b 12th .62b IS 9th .57b .50b 10 th .59b .29a 11th .41b .16 12th .32b .25 VM 9 th .00 .04 .22a 10th .19 .23 .34b 11th .27a .11 .21 12th .12 -.18 .20 LOA 9th .18 .15 .20 .04 10th .07 -.07 .17 .34b 11th .18 .15 .17 .27a 12th .31a .17 .22 .29a SM 9th .13 .17 .15 .39b • 31b 10th .04 -.02 .28a .53b .35b 11th .28a .06 .37b .35b .46b 12 th .36a .09 ,46b .46b .23 ACH 9th .15 .00 .17 .13 .04 .37b 10th -.01 -.01 .27a .32b .37b .45b 11th -.02 -.27a .08 .18 .28a ,27a 12th -.04 .06 .06 .23 .28a .39a IQ 9th .00 -.14 .17 .14 .18 .28b .51b 10th .00 .00 • 42b .39b .43b .50b .49b 11th -.14 -.12 .10 .16 .46b .27a .48b 12th .09 -.13 ,34a .53b .30a .57b .46b

9th N= 83 10th N = 72 11th N = 69 12th N = 44 a = Significant .05 df= 81 df = 7 0 df = 67 df = 42 b = Significant .01 110

Variables which showed discrepancies among the grades In statistically significant r's were Vocational Maturity and Self-

Concept, Vocational Maturity and Ideal-Self, Level of Occupational

Aspiration and Vocational Maturity, School Motivation and Self-

Concept, School Motivation and Ideal-Self, School Motivation and

Level of Occupational Aspiration, Achievement and Self-Acceptance,

Achievement and Ideal-Self, Achievement and Vocational Maturity,

Achievement and Level of Occupational Aspiration, Intelligence and

Ideal-Self, Intelligence and Vocational Maturity, and Intelligence

and Level of Occupational Aspiration. At at least one grade level

there was a statistically significant relationship between these

variables.

The coefficients of correlation between variables which did

not reach significance for any grade level were four; Vocational

Maturity and Self-Acceptance, Level of Occupational Aspiration and

Self-Acceptance, Level of Occupational Aspiration and Ideal-Self,

School Motivation and Self-Acceptance, Achievement and Self-Concept,

Intelligence and Self-Concept, and Intelligence and Self-Acceptance.

Significant correlations among variables were equally frequent

for eleventh and twelfth graders with fourteen r's reaching the

confidence level of .05. In the tenth grade, seventeen r's were

significant while in the ninth grade only nine variables were found

to be significantly related to one another. As was mentioned

previously all r's were in the low medium to medium positive range.

Table 4 provides data for an intercorrelation matrix for

College Preparatory, Vocational and Mixed curricula. These reveal Ill

TABLE 4

INTERCORRELATION MATRIX FOR SC, SA, IS, VM, LOA, SM, ACH, AND IQ FOR CP, M AND V CURRICULA GIRLS

Variables Variables SC SA IS VM LOA SMACH IQ Curriculum

SC CP V M SA CP .57b V .28 M .73b IS CP .30b ,33b V .57b .28 M .59b .54b VM CP .08 .09 .17 V .14 .00 .26 M .13 .27 .38a LOA CP .21a .19a .15 .17 V .10 -.02 .30 .17 M .04 .10 .04 .14 SM CP .13 .11 .20a ,31b .25b V .40a .04 .46b ,40a -.05 M .02 .17 .13 ,67b .26 ACH _ CP -.09 -.12 .06 .21a .18 .32b ___ V .45b -.02 .30 .14 .04 .41a M .31 .15 .28 .35 -.01 .22 ___ IQ CP -.21a -.13 .06 .18 .20a .25a .49b V .22 .00 .49b .33a .15 .51b .28 M .07 .18 .15 .27 .15 .15 .33

CP N = 206 V N * 35 M N - 27 df « 204 df = 33 df - 25 a = Significant .05, .195 = .333 - .381 b - Significant .01, .254 = .425 = .487 112 that one set of r's is significant for all three groups, that for

Ideal-Self and Self-Concept. Eighteen of the twenty-eight r's are significant for at least one of the three curricula. These r's range from low negative (-.21) to high positive (.73). Significant r's found for curriculum groups do not correspond to those found for grade levels. Just as means and standard deviations differed for grade levels and curriculum, so do the interactions of these variables upon one another differ with these groups.

Of the seven sets of correlations in which none reached significance the following were found: Vocational Maturity and

Self-Concept, Vocational Maturity and Self-Acceptance, Level of

Occupational Aspiration and Vocational Maturity, School Motivation and Self-Acceptance, Level of Occupational Aspiration and Ideal-

Self, Achievement and Self-Acceptance, Achievement and Ideal-Self,

Achievement and Level of Occupational Aspiration and Intelligence and Self-Acceptance. The two instances of negative correlation were found for Intelligence and Self-Concept of College Preparatory gills and for Achievement and Self-Acceptance of eleventh graders.

The interaction of each variable with all others for each grade level and curriculum group can be seen in the series of tables which follow. These relationships differ within groups and thus are

considered separately. Table 5 presents an intercorrelation matrix

for these variables for ninth grade girls. The critical ratio of the

coefficients of correlation with eighty-one degrees of freedom at the

.05 level of significance for a two-tailed test is ,217 and at the .01

level, .283. Of the twenty-eight r's eight are significant at .01 113 and one at .05. The range of r's for the ninth grade across the matrix is from -.14 to +.58. An examination of each variable reveals the following.

TABLE 5

INTERCORRELATION MATRIX FOR SC, SA, LS, VM, LOA, SM, ACH, AND IQ FOR 9TH GRADE GIRLS (N = 83)

Variable Variable SC SA IS VM LOA SM ACH IQ

SC SA .58b _ IS .57b ,50b ___

VM .00 .04 .22a

LOA .18 .15 .20 .04

SM .13 .17 .15 .39b . 3 1 b ___

ACH .15 .00 .17 .13 .04 ,37b ___

IQ .00 -.14 .17 .14 .18 .28b ,51b ___ . rt ll Significant .05 df = 81 jo ii Significant .01

Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, and Ideal-Self.— Only three significant correlations are found for Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance and Ideal-Self. These are .58 for Self-Concept and Self-Acceptance,

.57 for Self-Concept and Ideal-Self and .50 for Self-Acceptance and

Ideal-Self. These compare with the r's reported by Bills [undated,

(b)J. An examination of the remainder of the variables indicates

that possession of a high Self-Concept among ninth graders as a group 114 is not dependent upon Vocational Maturity, high Level of Occupational

Aspiration, School Motivation, Achievement or IQ. Likewise, Self-

Acceptance at the ninth grade level does not appear to be related to any of the above. Regarding Ideal-Self, those who hold a higher perception of Ideal-Self are those with greater Vocational Maturity at the ninth grade level, r = .22. A trend toward a significant low positive relationship between Ideal-Self and Level of Occupational

Aspiration appears, r = .20.

The correlations for Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance and

Ideal-Self compare with those found in other studies of these variables using the Bills Index of Adjustment and Values. These tend to be moderately high positive correlations. The significant relationship between Ideal-Self and Vocational Maturity must be interpreted with caution; it is low positive.

Vocational Maturity and Level of Occupational Aspiration.—

Vocational Maturity of ninth grade girls was significantly lower than that of eleventh and twelfth graders. It was positively correlated with Ideal-Self, .22 and with School Motivation, .39.

Thus, those ninth graders with higher Ideal-Self scores and higher

School Motivation tended to be more vocationally mature. All other correlations with Vocational Maturity were very low. The single other significant correlation with School Motivation was with Level of Occupational Aspiration, .31. The higher motivated girls, who were also more vocationally mature had a higher Level of Occupational

Aspiration as well. All other variables showed no relationship to

Level of Occupational Aspiration. 115

School Motivation, Achievement and Intelligence.— School

Motivation was significantly related to Vocational Maturity, .39, to

Level of Occupational Aspiration, .31, Achievement, .37, and

Intelligence, .28. All were significant at the .01 level and can be

interpreted as low positive relationships. This condition tended

to be true across all grade levels. Achievement as measured by grade point average for ninth grade girls was significantly related to

School Motivation, .37, and Intelligence, .51. No other correlation with Achievement exceeded .17. Thus, performance in school did not

seem to affect Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance or Ideal-Self, nor did

the more vocationally mature or higher occupational aspirers perform

any better in school. Intelligence correlated significantly only

with School Motivation, .28, and Achievement, .51. The more

intelligent girls did not aspire higher in occupations, were not any

more mature vocationally and had no higher Self-Concept nor Ideal-

Self. There was a tendency in fact, for the more intelligent girls

to have scored lower on Self-Acceptance scales, -.14. In general,

these findings support those of other studies which imply that girls

of higher intelligence tend to respond to press in such ways as to

result in both higher Ideal-Self patterns and lower Self-Acceptance.

For the ninth grade there appear to be several clusters of

correlations. Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance and Ideal-Self had

medium positive correlations; School Motivation, Achievement and IQ

had low medium-correlations; and Vocational Maturity and Level of

Occupational Aspiration correlated with School Motivation but not

with each other. 1X6

Table 6 presents an intercorrelation matrix for the eight variables for tenth grade girls. The critical ratio of the coefficients of correlation with seventy degrees of freedom at the .05 level of significance for a two-tailed test is .232 and at the .01 level, .303. Of the twenty-eight r's fourteen are significant at .01 and three at .05. The range of r's for the tenth grade across the matrix is from -.02 to +.59. There are more significant correlations on the matrix for tenth grade girls than for any other grade level. At this grade level there-was also a significantly lower mean on Intelligence and School Motivation and significantly higher On Self-Concept and Self-Acceptance. An examination of each variable for the tenth grade girls reveals a pattern of correlations in some instances much like those of other grade levels and in other instances a uniqueness. It is likely that the correlations of this group of girls which differ from those of the other grade levels are, in all likelihood, a function of the differences in mean Intelligence and School Motivation as well as

Self-Concept and Self-Acceptance. No similar studies are reported in the literature which reveal significantly lower means of the variables under investigation and the influence of this condition on the interrelationships of variables. Since this portion of the research sample is one grade level unit, the implications of these differences are considerable in terms of school programs. Planning

for differences among grade levels should be reflected in the development of curriculum as well as in the guidance program. 1X7

TABLE 6

INTERCOERELATION MATRIX OF SC, SA, IS, VM, LOA, SM, ACH, AND IQ FOR 10TH GRADE GIRLS (N = 72)

Variable Variable SC SA IS VM LOA SM ACH IQ

SC SA .59b

IS .59b .29a

VM .19 .23 .34b

LOA .07 -.07 .17 .34b

SM .04 -.02 .28a .53b .35b

ACH -.01 -.01 .27a .32b .37b .45b o o IQ .00 * .42b .39b .43b .50b .49b ___

a = Significant .05 df = 70 b - Significant .01 * Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance and Ideal-Self.— Self-Concept,

Self-Acceptance and Ideal-Self all correlated significantly one with the other. Ideal-Self and Self-Acceptance were somewhat lower, .29.

Neither Self-Concept nor Self-Acceptance were significantly related to any other variable. Ideal-Self, however, showed significant low medium positive correlations with Vocational Maturity, School

Motivation, Achievement and Intelligence. Thus the highly motivated, intelligent, achieving tenth grader had higher Ideal-Self perceptions.

The correlation between Ideal-Self and Vocational Maturity, .34, which was also found at the ninth grade may have been attributed to the more homogeneous Vocational Maturity scores. Their reaching of 118 the significance level was, for all purposes attributed to the higher

N and thus lower critical value of r.

Vocational Maturity and Level of Occupational Aspiration.—

Vocational Maturity and Level of Occupational Aspiration were significantly correlated, .34, at the .01 level. Vocational Maturity was also significantly correlated at the .01 level with School

Motivation, .53, Achievement, .32, and Intelligence, .39. Level of

Occupational Aspiration showed low medium positive correlations significant at .01 with School Motivation, .35, Achievement, .37, and

IQ, .43. Thus in this group of fairly average intelligent girls who are less motivated towards school and who have higher Self-Conqepts and Self-Acceptance, the more vocationally mature as well as the higher occupational aspirers were the brighter, motivated achievers.

School Motivation, Achievement and Intelligence.--School

Motivation was significantly correlated with Ideal-Self, .28,

Vocational Maturity, .53, Level of Occupational Aspiration, .35,

Achievement, .45, and IQ, .50. Achievement: was significantly related

to Ideal-Self, .27, Vocational Maturity, .32, Level of Occupational

Aspiration, .37, School Motivation, .45, and IQ, .49. Intelligence

correlated medium positively with all other variables except Self-

Concept and Self-Acceptance. For the latter two there were .00

correlations. For the tenth grade there appears to be a cluster of

scores which correlate highly with one another among six of the eight

variables. These include all except Self-Concept and Self-Acceptance.

The correlations for these are somewhat higher than those for any

grade level. Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance and Ideal-Self correlate 119 with one another, but only Ideal-Self seems to be related to other variables.

Table 7 presents an intercorrelation matrix for the eight variables for eleventh grade girls. The critical ratio for the

coefficients of correlation with sixty-seven degrees of freedom at

the .05 level of significance for a two-tailed test is approximately

.24 and at the .01 level, .31. Of the twenty-eight r's seven are

significant at .01 and seven at .05. The range of r's for the

eleventh grade girls were significantly higher in Intelligence and

with the twelfth graders were more vocationally mature. An

examination of each variable for eleventh grade girls reveals a

number of interrelationships with also differ from the other grade

level groups. Again, these are probably a function of the higher

mean Intelligence of this group and the concomitant influence of

Intelligence upon other factors. A report of these intercorrelations

follows.

Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance and Ideal-Self.— The pattern of

correlations among these variables is somewhat different for eleventh

graders than for either ninth or tenth grade girls. Self-Concept

and Self-Acceptance, .43 and Self-Concept and Ideal-Self, .41

correlated significantly. Ideal-Self and Self-Acceptance were not

related. The more vocationally mature and the more highly school

motivated girls tended to have higher Self-Concept scores, .27 and

.28 respectively. Self-Acceptance was not related to any other

variable positively. There was a low negative correlation between

Self-Acceptance and Achievement, -.27, significant at the .05 level. 120

Evidently among this group of girls, those who were achieving in school accepted themselves less. The girls with higher Ideal-Self scores were those who tended to be more school motivated, .37.

TABLE 7

INTERCORRELATION MATRIX FOR SC, SA, IS, VM, LOA, SM, ACH, AND IQ FOR 11TH GRADE GIRLS (N = 69)

Variable Variable SC SA IS VM LOA SM ACH IQ

SC —

SA .43b

IS .41b .16

VM .27a .11 .21

LOA .18 .15 .17 .27a

SM .28a -.06 .37b .35b .46b

ACH -.02 -.27a .08 .18 .28a .27a

IQ -.14 -.12 .10 .16 .46b .27a .48b

a = Significant .05 df “ 67 b = Significant .01

Vocational Maturity and Level of Occupational Aspiration.— The

Vocational Maturity scores of the eleventh graders were higher than

the two lower grades. Vocational Maturity had a low medium

relationship with Self-Concept, Level of Occupational Aspiration and

School Motivation. It was not significantly related to Self-

Acceptance, Ideal-Self, Achievement or Intelligence. Level of

Occupational Aspiration was positively related to Intelligence, 121

.46, Achievement, .28, School Motivation, .46, and Vocational

Maturity, .27. The more intelligent, achieving, motivated girls tended to be more mature vocationally and to aspire to a higher level of occupational attainment. This same set of relationships were obtained with the tenth grade girls and for the most part with the twelfth graders.

School Motivation, Achievement and Intelligence.— School

Motivation, Achievement and Intelligence are all significantly related one to the other, .27, .27, and .48. Achievement and

Intelligence have the highest relationship. School Motivation is

also related to Self-Concept, .28, Ideal-Self, .37, Vocational

Maturity, ,35, and Level of Occupational Aspiration, .46. This

condition is similar to that found in grades ten and twelve.

Achievement as measured by grade point average is positively related

to Level of Occupational Aspiration, .28, as well as School

Motivation and Intelligence. It has a significant low negative

correlation with Self-Acceptance, however, -.27. It would appear

that the intelligent, achieving, motivated eleventh grade girls are

not self-accepting. Relative to intelligence in this bright group,

mean IQ = 123, no relationship of significance was found with

Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self and Vocational Maturity.

The more intelligent girls, however, had a higher Level of

Occupational Aspiration, were more highly school motivated and had

higher grade point averages. For the eleventh grade girls, School

Motivation appeared to be most highly correlated with other variables.

As with other grade levels School Motivation, Achievement and 122

Intelligence were Interrelated. Perhaps one of the most significant findings was the negative relationship between Self-Acceptance and

Achievement.

Table 8 presents an intercorrelation matrix for the eight variables for the twelfth grade girls. The critical ratio of the coefficients of correlation with forty-two degrees of freedom at the

.05 level of confidence for a two-tailed test is approximately .290, and at the .01 level, .380. Of the twenty-eight r's, seven are significant at .01 and seven at .05. This compares with the one .05 and eight .01's of the ninth grade girls, the three .05's and fourteen .01's of the tenth graders and the seven .01's and seven

,05's of the eleventh grade girls. The range of r's for the twelfth grade across the matrix is from -.08 to +.62. This is comparable to the other groups which tended to reveal correlations from near zero to moderately high positive in range.

This group of girls had the highest mean Vocational Maturity

score of any grade level, but in other respects did not differ

significantly. The high Vocational Maturity scores were to have been

expected due to the nature of the variable of Vocational Maturity as measured by the Crites instrument, the Vocational Development

Inventory. This instrument compares respondents with others within

the same age range and identified the high scores as those most like

those at the upper levels of each range. The spurious findings of

differences among the groups, particularly with the tenth and eleventh

grade girls were not the case with the seniors. The interpretations

from the matrix of interrelationships among variables would pertain 123 primarily to the grade level of the group rather than to a marked difference. The smaller number of subjects in this research sample allows for a lower r for significance than for the other groups by grade level. Obviously, the smaller N is attributable to the attrition rate of the school. An examination of each variable for the twelfth grade girls follows.

TABLE 8

INTERCORRELATION MATRIX FOR SC, SA, IS, VM, LOA, SM, ACH, AND IQ FOR 12TH GRADE GIRLS (N « 44)

Variable Variable SC SA IS VM LOA SM ACH IQ

SC

SA .62b _. j—

IS .32a .25 ___

VM .12 -.18 .20 _

LOA .31a .17 .22 .29 a

SM . 36a .09 .46b .46b .23 ___

ACH -.04 .06 .06 .23 .28a .39b ___

IQ .09 -.13 .35a .53b .30a .57b .46b ___

a = Significant .05 df = 42 b = . Significant .01

Self-Concept, Self-Accept ance and Ideal-Self.— Of these three

Self-Concept and Self-Acceptance correlated highest, .62. Self-

Concept and Ideal-Self were significantly related at the .05 level,

.32, and Ideal-Self and Self-Acceptance were unrelated. Girls with 124 higher Self-Concept scores also had higher Levels of Occupational

Aspiration, .31, and School Motivation, .36, both significant at the

.05 level. Aside from the high positive relationship with Self-

Concept, Self-Acceptance was not related to any other variable.

Girls with high School Motivation had higher Ideal-Self scores, .46, and higher IQ's, .35. The latter was significant at the .05 level.

In general the relationships of these three variables with others tended to follow the pattern of the eleventh grade girls. The motivated, high aspd-ring girl had higher Ideal-Self and Self-Concept.

Vocational Maturity and Level of Occupational Aspiration.— The

Vocational Maturity scores of the twelfth grade girls were higher

than for any other grade level with a mean of 38. Within this group

the more intelligent girls were more vocationally mature. Level of

Occupational Aspiration and School Motivation were both significantly

related to Vocational Maturity, .29 and .46 respectively. The more

vocationally mature girls did not have significantly higher grade

point averages. In terms of Level of Occupational Aspiration, the

brighter girls with better grades aspired higher as did the more

vocationally mature. Level of Occupational Aspiration was also

associated with Self-Concept; girls with higher Self-Concepts

aspired higher vocationally.

School Motivation, Achievement and Intelligencer^-As with

other grade levels School Motivation, Achievement, and Intelligence

were all significantly intercorrelated at the medium positive level.

School Motivation was also significantly related to Self-Concept,

.36, Ideal-Self, .46 and Vocational Maturity, .46. Both Achievement 125 and IQ were significantly related to Level of Occupational

Aspiration. The more intelligent girls aspired higher occupationally, were more mature vocationally and had higher ideal selves. These conditions, however, did not result in higher Self-Acceptance, -.13.

For the twelfth grade girls one cluster of intercorrelations appears among the variables of Achievement, Intelligence, School Motivation and Level of Occupational Aspiration. These are not consistently related to Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance or Ideal-Self and only in part are related to Vocational Maturity. Aside from the consistent pattern among School Motivation, Achievement and IQ which appears at all grade levels no other differences are noted.

Table 4 presented an intercorrelation matrix for the eight variables for girls in the College Preparatory, Vocational and

Mixed curricula. The critical ratio of the coefficients of

correlation for the College Preparatory group with 204 degrees of

freedom at the .05 level of significance for a two-tailed test is

.195 and at the .01 level .254. For the Vocational group with

thirty-three degrees of freedom the critical ratio at the .05 level

is .33 and at .01, .425. For the Mixed group with twenty-five

degrees of freedom critical ratios are .381 and .487 respectively.

The table reveals that the range of r's for the College Preparatory

group is from -.21 to +.57. For the Vocational group the range is

from -.02 to +.57. For the Mixed group the range is from -.01 to

+.73. Of the twenty-eight r's for each curriculum group, seven are

significant at the .01 level for College Preparatory, five for

Vocational and four for the Mixed group. At the .05 level of 126 significance, five r's are found for the College Preparatory group, four for the Vocational and one for the Mixed group.

In terms of the relative scores of the groups on each'variable it is recalled that the College Preparatory group had higher

Motivation, higher Intelligence, higher grade point average, higher

Vocational Maturity, higher Ideal-Self, and lower Self-Acceptance than the Vocational group. The Mixed curriculum girls were similar to the College Preparatory girls in Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self,

Vocational Maturity and Intelligence. They were similar to the

Vocatipnal group In Achievement and were midway between the two in

School Motivation. An examination of the interrelationships of these variables for the curricular groups reveals the following.

Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance and Ideal-Self.— College

Preparatory and Mixed curricular groups show a similar pattern of significance with positive correlations among the variables Self-

Concept, Self-Acceptance and Ideal-Self. All are significant at the

.01 level and can be interpreted as falling within the low medium to high medium range. Within the Vocational group, however, only Ideal-

Self and Self-Concept are significantly related, .57. Girls with higher Self-Concepts have higher Ideal-Self scores but are not any more self-accepting. In part this can be attributed to the higher level of Self-Acceptance for the entire group. For the College

Preparatory group, Self-Concept is also significantly related to

Level of Occupational Aspiration and negatively related to

Intelligence, both at the .05 level with r's of +.21 and -.21 respectively. For the Vocational group, girls with higher 127

Self-Concepts were more highly motivated towards school and had higher grade point averages. In the Mixed group no other variables related significantly with Self-Concept. With regard to Self-

Acceptance the only other significant relationship was found in the

College Preparatory girls who tended to be more self-accepting when they had higher levels of Occupational Aspiration. In the other two curricular groups no other significant relationships were found with

Self-Acceptance. The Vocational girls with higher IQ's who were school motivated also had higher Ideal-Self scores. Ideal-Self was related to Vocational Maturity, .38, in the Mixed group and to School

Motivation, .20, in the College Preparatory group. Other correlations were not significant.

Vocational Maturity and Level of Occupational Aspiration.—

Vocational Maturity was significantly related to School Motivation for the College Preparatory group, .31, Vocational group, .40 and the Mixed group, .67. It was significantly related to Achievement in the College Preparatory group, .21, and to Intelligence in the

Vocational group, .33. In the Mixed curriculum the vocationally mature girls had higher Ideal-Self scores. Level of Occupational

Aspiration was a function of Intelligence only in the College

Preparatory curriculum and at that, the relationship was low, .20.

Likewise, there was a low positive relationship in the College

Preparatory curriculum for this variable with Self-Concept, Self-

Acceptance and School Motivation. Level of Occupational Aspiration was not significantly related to any other variable in either the

Vocational or Mixed curricula. 128

School Motivation, Achievement and Intelligence.— The pattern of interrelationships among School Motivation, Achievement and

Intelligence found at each grade level was present only in the

College Preparatory curriculum. In the Mixed group there was no significant relationship among any of the variables. With the

Vocational girls the more intelligent girls were more highly motivated but not as high achievers. The more highly motivated girls did achieve higher. Thus Achievement appears to be more a function of Motivation than Intelligence in the Vocational curriculum.

School Motivation was found to correlate significantly with

Ideal-Self, .20, and Vocational Maturity, .31, and Level of

Occupational Aspiration, .25, in the College Preparatory curriculum.

It correlated significantly with Self-Concept, .40, Ideal-Self, ,46, and Vocational Maturity, .40 in the Vocational girls' group. The single instance of significant relationship of School Motivation with any other variable in the Mixed curriculum was with Vocational

Maturity where a high positive correlation, .67, was found.

In the College Preparatory group girls with higher IQ's tended

to have lower Self-Concepts, -.21. They had higher occupational

aspirations, were more motivated in school and achieved higher. In

the Vocational curriculum, Intelligence was not related to Self-

Concept, Self-Acceptance, Level of Occupational Aspiration or

Achievement. The brighter Vocational girls, however, had higher

Ideal-Self scores, were more vocationally mature and school motivated.

In the Mixed group, as was the case with nearly every variable, no

significant relationship was found between Intelligence and any 129 other factor. Again, a part of this may be explained In terms of the sample size and the higher critical value of r.

A survey of College Preparatory, Vocational and Mixed groups reveals that distinct patterns of relationships can be identified among the three curricula. Partly because of the size of the group,

College Preparatory girls appear to be more like groups identified at the grade levels than did the other two. On the other hand, significant differences were found with these girls. Intelligence was negatively correlated with Self-Concept. All but two of the correlations were in the low positive range. Vocational girls appeared to have no pattern of relationships among Self-Concept,

Self-Acceptance and Ideal-Self. The more motivated achievers had higher Self-Concepts, however. Within this group, Achievement was more a function of Motivation than Intelligence. A single note­ worthy correlation was found for the Mixed curriculum aside from the

Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance and Ideal-Self relationships. This was the fact that the vocationally mature girls appear to be more highly school motivated. In general the Mixed group revealed practically no pattern of relationships among the variables. The

term "Mixed" appears to have more than one meaning with regard to

these girls.

Summary

A summary of the differences and relationships among Self-

Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self, Vocational Maturity, Level of

Occupational Aspiration, School Motivation, Achievement and 130

Intelligence for ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth and College

Preparatory, Vocational and Mixed curricula girls reveals the following. Self-Concept scores are similar across all groups with the exception of the tenth grade girls who have higher Self-Concepts than any other group. Self-Acceptance scores are also similar across groups again with the exception of the tenth grade girls and

Vocational girls both of which are more self-accepting. Ideal-Self scores are similar for all groups except the Vocational girls who have significantly lower Ideal-Self perceptions. Vocational Maturity

ig a function of grade level and curriculum. Eleventh and twelfth grade girls and College Preparatory and Mixed curriculum girls are more mature vocationally. Level of Occupational Aspiration is a

function of curriculum with Vocational girls having significantly

lower aspirations. School Motivation appears to be a function of

curriculum choice with College Preparatory girls being more highly motivated, followed by the Mixed curriculum and the lowest,

Vocational girls. Tenth grade girls were significantly lower than

ninth grade girls in School Motivation but similar to eleventh and

twelfth graders. Thus, School Motivation was probably not a function

of grade level. Achievement as measured by grade point average was

similar across the grades. Both Vocational and Mixed curricular

groups achieved at a lower level. Girls in various grades differ

in Intelligence with two groups, ninth and eleventh grades, being

significantly higher than tenth grade. Among curricula the more

intelligent girls appear to choose College Preparatory and the less

intelligent, Vocational. 131

As was anticipated Vocational Maturity appears to be a function of grade level. Other variables were not. The grades differed significantly on mean IQ's and School Motivation. The latter probably being a function of the former. Both of these probably contributed to the findings of Ideal-Self and Self-Concept being higher in the tenth grade. Lower IQ and lower School Motivation were associated with higher Self-Concept and higher Self-Acceptance.

A number of variables seem to be highly related to curriculum.

College Preparatory were more intelligent, higher in School

Motivation, had a higher Level of Occupational Aspiration, and achieved higher grade point averages than did the other curricula.

Vocational girls were unique in that they were less intelligent, had less School Motivation and a lower Level of Occupational Aspiration.

They also had a lower Ideal-Self and perhaps consequently, higher

Self-Acceptance.

Relative to the relationships among the variables, Self-

Concept, Self-Acceptance and Ideal-Self tended to be interrelated at the medium positive correlation range. Likewise, School Motivation,

Level of Occupational Aspiration, Achievement and Intelligence were interrelated at the medium positive range. Vocational Maturity is more highly correlated with School Motivation than Level of

Occupational Aspiration. Of all the variables, School Motivation appears most highly related to others.

In general, girls with high Self-Concepts will have higher

Ideal-Self scores, higher Self-Acceptance, and, in the upper grades, have more School Motivation. Self-Acceptance has little or no 132

relationship with any other variable and tends to be negatively related to Achievement and IQ, Relationships among the variables

are more a function of curriculum than grade. Where grade

differences appear it is more likely that they are a function of

differences in the variables for that grade rather than grade level

itself.

Interaction of variables differ within curricula. Achievement

is a function of Intelligence and School Motivation in the College

Preparatory girls but only a function of School Motivation in the

Vocational girls. Level of Occupational Aspiration is influenced

by Intelligence and School Motivation in the College Preparatory

girls and is related to Self-Concept and Self-Acceptance. In the

other curricula there are no variables which related to Level of

Occupational Aspiration. More intelligent Vocational girls are

more likely to have higher ideal-selves and be more vocationally

mature. With these same girls, School Motivation contributes to

a higher Self-Concept and Ideal-Self. With regard to the variables

of Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance and Ideal-Self, there is less

certainty about the relationship with Vocational girls.

Of the three groups, the Mixed curriculum girls show little

or no pattern of interrelationships. The College Preparatory and

Vocational girls appear to have definite patterns, each different

from the other. The College Preparatory girls appear less self-

accepting and to be less satisfied with being intelligent or with

their high School Achievement. For them performance requires

intelligence as well as motivation. The Vocational girls are more 133 accepting of themselves, regardless of circumstance of other variables. Achievement In the Vocational curriculum Is more a function of Motivation than Intelligence. A girl can succeed merely by desiring to do so unlike the College Preparatory girl who must also have school ability.

Chapter V contains a summary and conclusions of the findings and implications for vocational guidance of adolescent high school girls. CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

It was the purpose of this study to determine the interrelationships of selected school-oriented vocationally related variables of adolescent high school girls. These variables included

Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self, Vocational Maturity,

Level of Occupational Aspiration, School Motivation, Achievement and

Intelligence. The interrelationships were examined for ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grade levels and for College Preparatory,

Vocational and Mixed curricula. A secondary purpose was to draw tentative conclusions about the vocational nature of these high school girls in order to provide guidelines for their career counseling. The study evolved from a similar study conducted on boys and utilized data collected as a part of the evaluation of a vocational education program in the high school attended by the subjects.

The sample for the study was drawn from the female population attending the comprehensive high school in Hudson, Ohio, during the

1967-68 school year. Of the 369 females in the high school, 264 were selected for the study on the basis of having taken the entire battery of instruments utilized in this study. An examination by grade level reveals eighty-three ninth, seventy-two tenth, sixty-nine

134 135 eleventh, and forty-four twelfth grade females. Of these, 206 were

College Preparatory females, thirty-five were in the Vocational curriculum and twenty-seven were in the Mixed curriculum.

Specifically, the study sought to answer the following questions:

1. What are the differences in the Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self, Vocational Maturity, Level of Occupational Aspiration, School Motivation, Achievement and Intelligence of ninth, tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grade and College Preparatory, Vocational, and Mixed curricula girls?

2. What is the relationship of Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self, Vocational Maturity, Level of Occupational Aspiration, School Motivation, Achievement and Intelligence each with the others for girls in the ninth, tenth, eleventh and twelfth grade and College Preparatory, Vocational and Mixed curricula?

3. What implications from the findings of the differences and relationships among Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self, Vocational Maturity, Level of Occupational Aspiration, School Motivation, Achievement and Intelligence can be drawn for the school counselor concerned about and working with the vocational development of high school girls?

The data were analyzed through the computation of coefficients of correlation and tests of significance of differences of means. An intercorrelation matrix for variables central to the study was computed for each grade level and for each curriculum group. These variables were Self-Concept, Self-Acceptance, Ideal-Self, Vocational

Maturity, School Motivation, Level of Occupational Aspiration,

Achievement and Intelligence. The seven matrices were for grades 136 nine, ten, eleven, and twelve and for College Preparatory, Vocational

and Mixed curricula.

Conclusions

I. The following conclusions can be drawn from a survey of

thp findings as they relate to the questions posed in thp statement of

the problem.

1. Groups of high school girls differ significantly from one

another on variables central to vocational development. These

differences will be either spurious or will be related to school

practices such as curriculum or grade level. The spurious

differences among groups of students will be reflected in their

classmates and their school experiences and will undoubtedly affect

the vocational development of individual girls. Differences among

school groupings, reveal that College Preparatory girls have higher

mean intelligence, are more motivated to do school work, and achieve

higher grade point averages. The girls who select the Vocational

curriculum are less mature vocationally, have lower levels of

occupational aspiration, lower mean intelligence, and are less

motivated to achieve in school.

Girls in the Vocational curriculum have lower ideal-self

images. However, they are more self-accepting than their counter­

parts who have selected the College Preparatory curriculum. Their

standards are thus less stringent relative to themselves and are more

readily reached. There is less perceived press and this condition is

related to their position in and/or decision to enter a Vocational 137 curriculum rather than College Preparatory. The Mixed curriculum girls tend to be more like the College Preparatory girls than the

Vocational.

With the exception of vocational maturity, differences in variables central to vocational development are not a function of the age of the girl. High school girls differ in intelligence, achievement, and level of occupational aspiration according to their curriculum choice. Schools, through their curriculum organization, reflect and influence broader career patterns and career interests of girls. To some degree schools perpetuate vocational patterns rather than provide exploratory experiences. Girls will interact with others similar to themselves. They will tend to find themselves

channeled in fairly specific vocational directions and levels based upon a decision made on curriculum. In part, their career patterns will have been established comparatively early in life.

2. When interrelationships among variables are examined, it

can be concluded that these are not associated with grade level. A

single exception is the interrelationship with school motivation

where there appears to be an increasing relationship between school motivation and ideal-self as girls progress through the grades.

Thus, the interaction of variables upon each other are a function of

educational and career decisions as manifested in curriculum choice.

The medium positive relationships among the variables self-

concept, self-acceptance and ideal-self were similar to the findings

of other studies including those which researched high school boys. 138

Among these variables, self-concept is related to both self-acceptance and ideal-self, but the latter two are not related to one another.

Both motivation and intelligence affect achievement in school.

However, intelligence is less a factor in achievement with Vocational girls than with College Preparatory. To succeed in the College

Preparatory curriculum a girl needs to have scholastic aptitude as well as motivation. This is less true in the Vocational curriculum.

On the other hand, the higher the intelligence of girls, particularly those in the College Preparatory curriculum, the lower the self­ acceptance. This could be a reflection of the social situation among high school youth, or it may be a function of the particular pattern of perceptions among girls of high intelligence. In either event, this negative relationship does not reflect the usual perceptions of adults where intelligence is generally associated with high ideal- self and an assumption of self-acceptance.

Generally, level of occupational aspiration is positively

related to a number of variables. Higher level of occupational

aspiration is associated with higher intelligence, higher achievement,

increased school motivation and higher vocational maturity. There is

an implicit status element in level of occupational aspiration among

girls just as among boys. In many cases this status is not achieved

in the part-time or delayed entry positions open to women. Girls will

have less opportunity to implement their abilities and motivations at

the occupational levels aspired to. 139

Implications

The following Implications can be drawn as suggestions for school counselors Involved In educational and vocational development of girls. A number of these Implications are reinforcements of those found In the literature on the vocational guidance of adolescent girls.

School counselors should be aware of unique differences among groups of students in their school, such as grade level or curricula.

Where such groups are significantly lower on selected variables, programs of group guidance and group counseling might be initiated t? lessen or enhance the effects upon the group. At times such differences may warrant organizing the guidance program by grade level.

School counselors should recognize at least three distinct patterns of educational and career development among adolescent girls. One involves the high achieving, intelligent, motivated college bound girl who is likely to be less self-accepting. The other involves the less intelligent, lower achieving, less motivated girl who is likely to be more self-accepting. A third group represents ambivalent girls who apparently have not yet come to grips with one common pattern or another.

School counselors need to provide settings in which girls can examine their feelings and needs relative to decision making among patterns of work, education and marriage. These can be private or

group, but they must allow for an examination of feelings or emotions

as they affect alternatives. 140

School counselors should assist girls In recognizing the special kind of press they face and the special dynamics which comprise females in our society. The immediate personal impact of this press in the school setting shall be expectant. The resultant uncertainties and distortions should be brought to the school situation for examination. Early curriculum planning and subsequent career implications should comprise a part of counseling.

School counselors should be particularly concerned with self- perceptions, self-concept, self-acceptance, and ideal-self. Where these are negatively affected by specific school demands, knowledge and understanding should be brought to bear upon girls' self- awareness.

School counselors should note the pattern of shifts in girls' energies across the goals of career, work and marriage. These have implications for school performance and educational and vocational planning.

School counselors should assist in curriculum development designed to provide for the vocationally oriented girl, not only in terms of skills but in terms of accepting the working role. The importance of education, even among the vocationally oriented, needs to be stressed if up-grading and continual growth are to be realized.

Even the working woman of today must plan to take an educational stance if she is to keep abreast of rapid change which affects her working role. The dichotomy between school and work must be breached.

School counselors must provide experiences and insights that allow career oriented girls to maintain their femininity. The 141 condition of Intelligence, motivation and achievement ought to be as well accepted by girls as by boys. In part the counselor works in the inner realm of feelings and emotions on the part of the girl; in part he works in the developmental milieu of the school.

School counselors should recognize that the statistical description of women in education and women in work has little psychological meaning for girls in their attainment of fulfillment through their own life decisions. An occupational information approach to vocational development will not suffice to provide the kinds of understanding necessary for girls coping with identity through work.

School counselors should realize the fulfillment in the dual marriage-career role. They should assist in the acceptance of the potential for this role; provide adequate exploratory experiences for decision making; and direct attention toward curricula which consider both. Homemaklng needs to be given a more creative orientation so that it has application not only for the domestic girl who plans to marry immediately upon high school graduation but the education or pareer bound girl as well.

School counselors should be particularly aware of the encapsulating nature of a college education. In a real sense they should recognize that the four years spent in college constitute a moratorium on self-fulfillment through either career or marriage.

School counselors should recognize deviations among the common patterns of girls as either healthy coping strategies or neurotic unsuccessful attempts to achieve identity. Evidence for the efficacy 142 of deviations can. be both empirical and subjective. Instruments such as those used in the current study can provide much insight into the psychological cynamics of girls. Opportunities through individual and group counseling can provide subjective descriptions into the dynamics of deviancies.

School counselors who are males need sensitize themselves to

the condition of being female. Empathy is crucial. Much of the press which creates the problems for actualization for the female stems

from the male. The counselor as a man may well let his own biases

block his gaining of insight into the difficulties facing women. At

worgt, he may impose his own needs for masculine identity upon the

adolescent girl attempting to achieve a feminine identity.

School counselors must find role models of self-actualizing

women who have achieved through a number of acceptable patterns of

development. They should recognize the particular need for role

models of gifted, achieving, young girls and women. In all likelihood

they would have to go outside education, a traditional career to find

such persons.

School counselors, in some circumstances, need to view women

as a culturally disadvantaged group, or at best a minority group and

apply the same concerted efforts at understanding and assisting

adolescent girls striving toward womanhood as they would other

culturally disadvantaged groups. Much of the difficulty facing

counselors who attempt to address themselves specifically to the

problems in vocational development of girls rests in the low

visibility and confusion surrounding the circumstances. 143

School counselors must contribute to the growing body of information on career development of girls. In part this oan be research personally conducted and in part it can be cooperation with other researchers in sharing observations.

School counselors should become more actively involved in the out-of-school setting in which adolescent girls will ultimately function in their work roles. They should become familiar with the opportunities available within their community, but more important they should become aware of the kinds of press which the local society imposes upon their students. Often, school counselors are more aware of the abstract broad cultural press than they are the local situation.

Finally, school counselors themselves should press for

counselor education programs, including in-service education which give adequate attention to adolescent girls' identity, adolescent

girls' vocational development, and effective programs of vocational

guidanoe of adolescent girls.

Recommendations for Further Study

1. There should be an expansion of coverage of other

variables for the same group of girls to include the influence of

significant others, both in the school and the home and community.

2. A longitudinal study needs to be conducted to gain more

evidence on the influence of the same findings on subsequent life

decisions and satisfactions of these adolescent girls.

3. Research studies such as the current one need to be 144

integrated with larger, more comprehensive projects such as those currently being conducted on vocational development. Fragmentation of research, lack of a comprehensive design for vocational development,

and dissipation of energies in comparatively small projects all result

in the loss of valuable information on a topic common to many such

projects.

4. A replication of the current study should be attempted in

schools which differ on characteristics of the pupil population.

5. The current study should be extended at least two years

before high school and two years beyond to gain a clearer picture of

the dynamics of development through high school,

6. Data are available on the same variables for boys from the

same high school classes. These need to be compared with those of

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