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In Memoriam Domesticity, Gender and the 1977 Apple II

Jesse Adams Stein

Jesse Adams Stein has ABSTRACT This paper considers one of taught design history and the first personal computers to be marketed art history at the School of the Art Institute of to a mainstream American audience in the Chicago, the University late : the Apple II. Lewis Mumford’s of New South Wales notion of “ideological and social preparation” (UNSW), Sydney, and the University of Canberra. is adapted to describe this period as a In 2009 she obtained a preparatory phase for the later ubiquity and Masters (emphasis in absorbing quality of our relationship with design history) at the School of the Art Institute personal computers. In examining the Apple

of Chicago, and was a II’s design alongside a key marketing image DOI: 10.2752/175470811X13002771867842 University Medalist in Art we can discern that domesticity and gender Theory at UNSW in 2005. She is currently a Ph.D. were crucial points of negotiation during candidate at the University this period. In the late 1970s marketing of Technology, Sydney, for Apple the image of idyllic domesticity with a research focus on twentieth-century quickly became a major context for Australian design history.

computer promotion, a development that Design and Culture [email protected] had gendered implications. The example of

1930s streamlining in the design of domestic 193 194 Design and Culture Jesse AdamsStein emphasize Apple products’ beauty and covetability, and beauty products’ Apple emphasize often commentaries popular While “appliance”. an to “machine” a from shift this of view clear a us offers Computer computer,Apple messages manifest within the industrial design of Apple’sof design products.industrial the within manifest messages communicated the about discussion meaningful more a for call a is moves away from questions of beauty or “good design.” Instead this conscious one – indeed it was something that computer sellers sellers computer that encouraged. something was it indeed – one conscious self- a quite was status appliance to conversion The workplaces). specialized in use for intended data-processors room-sized large, century: mid-twentieth the in use in computer of type other the with confused be to (not contexts multiple in use individual for designed first commercially marketed in the mid-1970s – units were that devices to refers computer” “personal Toterm clarify, the offices. home and bedrooms kitchens, rooms, living in place able tioned from a “machine” into a “personal appliance,” with a comfort- appliance. personal ubiquitous fully-fledged, a to “machine” a from PC the of ers the role that gender and domesticity played in the transformation of the Apple II, along with a key marketing image, this article consid- design industrial the memorializing and examining By 67–70). 2000: use value, and in relation to gender, status and domesticity (Atkinson its of perceptions to relation in imagination, collective the in identity malleable and contested highly a had computer personal the ago long so not that forget to easy is it century twenty-first the of nings begin- media-saturated the In 1980s. and 1970s late the in PCs of computer’s the forget to easy was It screen. the to given focus all with ignored, was itself object the 1990s, and 1980s late the in common was PC desktop upright beige, the When 1998). (Norman manner disruptive nicalities and functional components make them far too present, in a ers Technologycomput- that argued has Norman Donald commentator Personal computing:thepreparatory phase computer, appliance,streamlining, Cuisinart KEYWORDS: AppleII,domesticity, gender, keyboard, personal “machine” intoa“personalappliance.” and obscured thedevice, transformingitfrom a concealing plasticexteriorsimultaneouslysimplified Apple II’s startlingapplicationofaplasticcase:the household appliancesisusedasaparallelwiththe nological progression orapre-given setofcircumstances. resultedfrom1970s mere late tech- the in emerged that computers During its relatively short lifespan, the personal computer transi - computer personal the lifespan, short relatively its During As the first company to release a “consumer appliance” micro appliance” “consumer a release to company first the As ought to be invisible in our lives, but that their malfunctions, tech- as an object, particularly the early generation early the particularly object, an as materiality 1 This does not mean that the design forms of personal of forms design the that mean not does This 2 this analysis analysis this - the historical period of the “monastery to the factory” to factory” the to “monastery the of period historical the systems, and in decisions pertaining to design. If we were to broaden the instrumentality of new technology, in the application of organized about decisions early in expressed are stages “preparatory” These technology: of embrace widespread the for way the paving revolution, industrial notion of the “cultural preparation” that society underwent before the or emasculatingthreat inothers. destabilizing a as and cases, some in symbol status assuring an as conventions traditional more lenged (Webster tension chal- both devices computing new of existence The 119–20). 1993: with fraught still and ways home many the in in were roles workplace gender to attitudes 1980s the by 1970s, and 1960s the in tradition and labor to related values changing and feminism, third-wave of impact transformative the Notwithstanding development. technological and stereotypes gender of spheres ing chang- these in implicated were “office-in-the-home” the and home the office, The contexts. multiple in technologies new of uptake the about anxieties social mind in bearing buyers, potential its of titudes at- the negotiate to had – Commodore and IBM Packard, Hewlett as such corporations technology alongside – Apple words, other In it. within happening changes social and economic the society,and unavoidably American mainstream of biases was and baggage the by accompanied computers appliance consumer of production devices in the present. the in devices computer personal of quality absorbing and ubiquity current the of retrospect,in viewed negotiation; cal sense make we how informs it mainstream consumers, was a key moment of social and technologi- of the1970sand1980s. landscape social changing the in accepted altogether were objects tion, presenting the safe transi microcomputer’s the performed effectively which costume, theatrical a as 1970s late the Apple’sin of devices design industrial the of think to puter’s helpful is It culture. mainstream into infiltration these of hitherto unfamiliar objects, providing imagined contexts for the com- interpretations directed and instructed Computer Apple by used imagery marketing the 1980s early and 1970s late the In spark. Opening Opening spark. revelatory a carries 1934 in Mumford’sposition Lewis II, Apple the itself inthefactory. (Mumford [1934] 1962:3) manifested finally it before house counting the and army the perfected they before the will to order had appeared once more in the monastery and mechanical com­ become had Men While this discussion has taken place elsewhere, place taken has discussion this While The birth of the Apple II, the first personal computer marketed at marketed computer personal first the II, Apple the of birth The plicated machines to explain their bent and interest; and interest; and bent their explain to machines plicated Technics and Civilization and Technics 3 Apple Computer’s successful leap into the into leap Computer’ssuccessful Apple image of a domestic appliance before such affirmed them, functioning them, affirmed and , Mumford introduced the the introduced Mumford , Domesticity, Genderandthe1977AppleIIPersonalComputer 4 when recalling when include the ­include -

195 Design and Culture 196 Design and Culture Jesse AdamsStein balanced technical attention with aesthetic concerns, designing designing The 2007). (Manock “inside-out” the concerns, and “outside-in” the from both which aesthetic with programs, attention design technical Stanford’s balanced of influence the noted has Manock Jerry designer Apple 59–61). 2000: (Atkinson technology exploration, space science of fiction cinema and the forms of pre-existing data-processingvocabularies visual the to connected been office andthebedroom. home the kitchen, the room, living the house: the of heart the into II, on the other hand, was to take bold steps up out of the basement, Apple The California. Alto, Palo in Club HomebrewComputer the at those as such hobbyists, and engineers computer zealous groupof small a to only interpretable wires, and microchips circuit-boards, exposed of array confusing a of up made was it – basements and garages in lived hobbyist’smachine The hobbyist’smachine. a not computer the the identity on of an efficientbestow and to reliable consumer appliance, attempted which design, industrial its suc was II’s cess Apple the of part crucial A 3). 1981: (Pollack consumers at marketed software and computers personal of industry entire an for catalyst a was II Apple the and 14–15), 1978: Computer (Apple computer” best-selling “world’s the of producer the be to claimed domesticity andconsumptionwere fullyimplicated. gender, to related conventions social and ideologies moment, tory prepara- this Within present. the in users its with enacts computer preparation for the co-dependency and constancy that the personal vated in the mid- to late twentieth century – can be seen as a form of culti- – technology information to people of history.relationship The design in computer the analyzing for springboard useful a provides humans of nature mechanical the and order” to “will the about tion Mumford’sproduction, began observa- Computer Apple since time (Figure 1). televisions their into plugged users that microcomputer a II, Apple the called device plastic wedge-shaped a market, consumer a at much astheyneededarefrigerator oravacuumcleaner? as computer personal a needed they that decide family” American that a personal computer fitted into his life? How could the “average “average the convinced become 1980s early or 1970s late the of man” American could How 1993). Lupton 111–23; 1993: (Webster assistants and secretaries female) (mostly typewriters, by used were they where on belonged keyboards 1970s, the of half first the in Meanwhile, code. computer entirely: language another spoke who their giant data-processors, or the obsession of computer hobbyists, were computers 1977, generally in perceived as the concern of the “straight suits” microcomputer at IBM, with II Apple the of the to release Prior sense. mainstream a in concept new relatively a was computer” “personal the time, the At 1970s. late the in beginning The industrial design language of early personal computers has computers personal early of language design industrial The In April 1977 Apple launched the first personal computer aimed computer personal first the launched Apple 1977 April In Accordingly we find ourselves examining this “preparatory” phase 6 The product was a remarkable success – by 1978 Apple 5 - the home also became more like an office – a place of numbers numbers of place and a crisis oil 1970s the of context the In imperatives. economic and – office an like more became also home the computer personal the of introduction the With 15–17). 2002: (Lally patterns of domestic activity transformed over the following decades mesticated, a transition that had major consequences for how social do- conceptually and domestic literally was the computer personal in The context. reshaped was meaning its home, the of system Moreover, once a product such as the Apple II entered the structured efficiency,of values modernist cated productivity, order stability. and communi- that devices computer personal producedof Apple line a computing with the familiar and supposedly simple domestic sphere, in Apple’s marketing imagery. and design industrial its in both exploration, further deserves 1980s played in Apple Computer’s conceptual vocabulary in the 1970s and from the late 1990s onwards. 1990s late the from Apple’s in design discern to easier is influence this arguably though are often described colloquially as being Design influential of on Apple’s School Ulm design, the and Braun company appliance German Apple Computer. PhotographbyRama,courtesyofRamaandtheMuséeBolo, Apple IIcomputer, includingdiskdrivesandamonitor, first released in1977by By connecting the formerly mystifying and convoluted world of of world convoluted and mystifying formerly the connecting By Lausanne, France.LicensedunderCeCILL,aCreative Commons 7 But the role that the domestic realm domestic the that role the But Share Alike2.0FranceLicense. Domesticity, Genderandthe1977AppleIIPersonalComputer Figure 1

197 Design and Culture 198 Design and Culture Jesse AdamsStein ors, hard corners and box-like forms), room-sized data-processors giant, IBM’s(as expressed in to the use of primary back col- lineage patchy a presents 1980s and 1970s sophistication andthe“new.”technological of indicators with forms familiar and stable humble, function of Apple’s design tactics, and the effectiveness of balancing the understand tomorrow,”to of begin can “vernacular we a of idea that runs at the heart of computing history.computing of heart the at runs that computers as “powerful, incomprehensible machines,” is a narrative The (ibid.). perceivedcomputers need for people to by be closer to computers, and the fear of perturbed less people making thereby machines, data-processing IBM’s “demystify” and “humanize” to supposedly done was This forms. vernacular older with aesthetic machine “functionalist” so-called a balanced that way a in tech nology computer presented Office Eames the that claims Kirkham corporation andtheworkofdesignersCharlesRayEames: IBM the between relationship mid-twentieth-century the when discussing tomorrow” of “vernacular the phrase the used Kirkham historian Pat Design IBM. as such faced, companies computer other public fears Alleviating and misconceptions about century. computers was an issue that mid-twentieth the from over left computers of threateningimage or alien removethe to tried Computer Apple use, a as domestic appliance. accepted be to computer personal the for decade a almost corporate culture. Although introduced as a consumer product in 1977, it took mid-twentieth-century in established labor of patterns the domestic context – the socially inscribed within mechanistic and organized – amplifying and reproducing effectively mediator, a as the home as a “number-cruncher,” an answer-provider and a status-signifier accompanying software such as ), held an important position over collective concerns. In this context, the personal computer (and individuals, as themselves, for out look to people encouraged time labor the of momentum political of privatizing the and moreflexible, became Modes situations. economic personal their re-examining were individuals and market, labor unsteady public an American experiencing the was 1980s, early the of recession economic the be further unpacked when it is paralleled with another period in in period another with paralleled is it when unpacked further be can appliances domestic Apple’sto Indeed connection appliances. domestic of shells plastic sealed hermetically and tame simple, the While the industrial design of other PC manufacturers of the late the of manufacturers PC other of design industrial the While (Kirkham 1995:347) selves to explaining their forms and language to non-specialists. them­ devoted Eameses friendly,”the “user made be to have Realizing that computers, the of “vernacular tomorrow,” would household for computers personal first the introducing When (Silverstone et al. 1992: 19). The Apple II began to operate 9 Apple’s computer cases echo 8 In borrowing Kirkham’sborrowing In in - puter developments,suchasByteandInterfaceAge. and in a growing number of print publications devoted to microcom - clubs hobbyist garages, labs, in existed microcomputer the wiring, and chips circuit-boards, exposed of world this microprocessor.In newly the Intel for released uses werefind who to 1970s, enthusiasts eager early and 1960s late the in California in hobbyists emerged had computer that of subculture a of) part was I (and to Apple the catered 8800, Altair the , first the of one Like that kit desired. they materials whatever in encase to choose could owners computer a essentially was I Apple The 2). (Figure 14) 2004: (Linzmayer Club Computer Homebrew the at asts enthusi- computer to sale for it presented Jobs Steve friend neurial entrepre- his and Wozniak 1976 in computer,and personal I Apple the built Wozniak Steve engineer hardware computer the 1974 In Streamlining andtheAppleII the birthofAppleII. An explication of this connection requires a brief contextual history of itself. style the of iteration an as existing Apple’sthan rather design, in repeated is appliances domestic streamlined 1930s in operating industrial design. In other words,of modern the ideological program many of the values and communicated messages of this earlier style rectly influenced by streamlined form, but that Apple’s design echoes di- was Apple’sdesign that industrial suggest to not is parallel This industrial design history: 1930s streamlining in domestic appliances. Wozniak, co-foundersofAppleComputerInc.,atthefirst West CoastComputer Faire, where theApple IIcomputerwasdebuted,inBrooks Hall,SanFrancisco, Portrait ofAmericanbusinessmen and engineersSteveJobs(left) California, April16or17,1977.PhotobyTomCalifornia, Munnecke/GettyImages. Domesticity, Genderandthe1977AppleIIPersonalComputer 10 Figure 2

199 Design and Culture 200 Design and Culture Jesse AdamsStein 2008: 73–5). 2008: Kahney for 13; 2004: used (Linzmayer processors molds food and mixers plastic electric the at looking Macy’s, of section ap kitchen pliance the through wandering by case II Apple the for ideas hired onlynineweeksbefore thefair(Linzmayer2004: 12). was Manock 1977. 17, April on Francisco San in Faire Computer was to prepare a set of twenty Apple II computers for the West Coast be affordably and swiftly cast (ibid.). The need for speedy production designed he where calculators) to create a Packard, simple design for the Apple II case that could Hewlett left just had (who Manock Jerry designer product out-of-work the convince to managed Jobs However, cases. plastic alone let , of manufacturing large-scale into launch to money little had Jobs and Wozniak and (Kahney 2008:74). ally none chose to house their devices in manufactured plastic cases technology.chip Intel new using units computer virtu- Nevertheless, personal creating began 1977, Apple like early much By companies small 88). several 2010a: Atkinson (ibid.; case plastic simple a mystifying requireddecided, Jobs This, 13). 1997: (Kunkel functions computer of face the in confidence inspire and familiar, and safe seem to needed II Apple the appliance, consumer a as recognized like look to had – II Apple the – computer into the broader consumer market, Jobs believed that the next Apple Tobreak programming. and circuitry developing on focused group The 73–4). 2008: “style” of (Kahney the hobbyist industry was demonstrably anti-aesthetic; this hobbyist devoted the beyond public, broader a to appeal would that computer personal out-of-the-box” other contemporary motherboards, and aimed to market a “straight- that Jobs “disliked [the] amateurish suggests hobbyist aesthetic” of the Apple Kahney I and Leander journalist to Technology 88). sold 2010a: be (Atkinson time the could at exist even not computer did that market a personal consumers, the that envisioned Jobs an idealoffunction” (117).Inasimilarvein, R.L. Rutskyarguesthat: of the modern artifact was “used to express not actual efficiency but utility,and rationality valued that language a design the insists, Miller spoke designers modernist Although 116). 1987: (Miller one” loose very a generally is constraint that object, an of form and shape the on constraint certain a impose must purpose functional “although first consumer-appliance microcomputer. his in for wished Jobs that efficiency and stability integrity, stylistic comfort, domestic of principles same the expressed Macy’s in at gazed Jobs that appliances household of edges plastic sealed The 75). 2008: (Kahney II Apple the design to Manock instructing when Cuisinart Several Apple commentators claim that Jobs hunted for design for hunted Jobs that claim commentators Apple Several incorporated, been just only had Inc. Computer Apple 1976 By field, hobbyist the within good been had sales I Apple Although Anthropologist Daniel Miller reminds us that in modern design, design, modern in that us reminds Miller Daniel Anthropologist ® electric mixer, which Jobs allegedly used as an example an as used allegedly Jobs mixer,which electric 11 One product that particularly appealed was the the was appealed particularly that product One a consumable (73). To(73). consumable a be - attempted complexcomputationaltasks. users as even assurance, of sense a conveys corners and chamfered edges beveled its of tactility comforting the and keys, brown its of clack dull the II, Apple self-contained the of hum assuring The market. II’shome Apple the the into discussing entrance been have well as might He 186). in 2001: [1979] (Meikle complexity” of face confidence the of feeling “a a inspire for to casing served appliance streamlined household the how describes Meikle toaster. refrigerator a a or radio, a was device the whether of regardless skin, unified a under parts disparate concealed units all-in-one smooth, irregular prism. Manock’s work for the Apple II was hardly an elegant ingly box-like. To us today, of course, it seems a large and graceless angled keyboard assured and that the vents computer did The not appear 13). threaten- 1997: (Kunkel corners “grippable” chamfered, keys. The sides have vertical vents wrapping around the edges, with brown with keyboard in-built an containing face open an presenting front, the at wedge sloping a has It components. produced plastic shell two from beige angular an in encased is II Apple 1977 The The 1977AppleII form.” visual in – efficiency dependability, ruggedness, – virtues out standing its “dramatizes design Coldspot’s the that claimed Sears for form The design. its of program conceptual the through but case, the of form the through not – history design in practices earlier to linked be may form wedge plastic II’s Apple of instability and economic peril. time a at desired particularly was which object, the of dependability and efficiency the in assurance and confidence the a prompted in 1930s design product of streamlining The 115–16). 2005: (Meikle and swiftness machine the of expressed efficiency” “visual the dependability,communicating that forms of favor in function” follows 1930s eschewed the (often dictum misunderstood) “form modernist the of designers industrial major that contends Meikle Jeffrey torian his- Miller,design to vein similar a In function. enabling necessarily without rationality of language visual a spoke it functional; and ian computer hyper-individualized consumers’demandforcontrol. control continued through the 1970s and 1980s, when the personal for desire modernist greatly.the However,differ periods two these of contexts economic and social the that reiterate to necessary is it course, Of 3). (Figure plainness and width bulk, its through power iar yet “high-tech” object that performed its (supposed) strength and In 1936 a publicist for Loewy’sfor publicist a 1936 In streamlined Refrigerator Coldspot of representation,matter ofaesthetics.(Rutsky1999:4) a more becomes technology rather, tech, high In end. an to means a or tool a simply as – function or mentality high tech can no longer be defined solely in terms of its instru­ 14 This terminology could easily describe the Apple II – a famil- 12 A streamlined case was soothing: 13 Domesticity, Genderandthe1977AppleIIPersonalComputer appeared to be utilitar be to - -

201 Design and Culture 202 Design and Culture Jesse AdamsStein run programs. run mands until they could finally learn all the commands they needed to com- computer of manual lengthy a on rely to had often users and patience, required that process frustrating a was II Apple the Using Processor Marketing theAppleII:TheThinkingMan’s “Food” 1970s. the of and chiseled angular casings of then-familiar calculators, cash registersthe and kitchen appliances echoed that mold a was it design; of small-point, three-column copy often filled print ads, particularly ads, print filled often copy three-column pages small-point, full of advertisements: print in text of amounts large using by contractors often tried to convince readers of the Apple II’s simplicity computer’sthe simplicity.Ironically,emphasized Apple’s advertising what theyunderstoodtheword computertomean. understood the workings of the computer. The sealed case became fully never consumer” “mainstream the Indeed warranty). their lose they (lest hardware the rewire and device could their apart pull longer hobbyists No consumers. mainstream and – hobbyists place both took for mystification and the “deskilling” using certain when a Thus functioned device. computer a how understand to had mechanics obscured the nature of data-processing: users no longer Jobs hadhopedtoprovoke (Kunkel1997:22;Kahney2008:75). that trust) produced(and consumables excitement sealed hype, the hermetically these of appearance the 1977, April in Faire Computer Sealed in a plastic case, the Apple II’s concealment of internal internal of concealment II’s Apple the case, plastic a in Sealed Apple IIcomputer(keyboard detail).PhotographbyRama,courtesyofRama and theMuséeBolo,Lausanne,France.LicensedunderCeCILL,aCreative 15 17 When the Apple II was launched at the West Coast West the at launched was II Apple the When Consequently, much of Apple’s marketing strategy Apple’smarketing of Consequently,much Commons Share Alike2.0FranceLicense. 16 Figure 3 style” publications, such as such publications, style” as such magazines in II Apple the feature to processor. to references man’s thinking the as II Apple the tipped functionality efficient its “food” and informality conscious This home. American middle-class the of image popular the in introduction social of site informal an as understood was and productivity, efficient of ideas coded as a female domain, the 1970s American kitchen also inferred did Chiat/Day’sApple. did for language visual design became more refined and simplified in the early 1980s, so too differedfirms advertising two the markedly, Apple’s as and industrial of styles The 1984). (Dougherty Regis operations acquired advertising McKenna’s Chiat/Day 1981 In agency. advertising McKenna Regis the used Computer Apple 1981, to 1977 From 1982. before Kitchen Computer) was a concept microcomputer, promoted in in promoted microcomputer, concept a was Computer) Kitchen puter but Apple Inc. did not allow copyright permission. This article will will endeavor,article therefore, to describe This the image in detail. permission. copyright allow not did Inc. Apple but article, this for advertisement the of image an reproduce to made magazine the in appeared first that belonged in the vertising agencies agreed on, however, was that personal computers the computer’s introduction is significant. at Jobs Macy’s.inspired have to said is that appliance the mixer, electric the remarkablyCuisinart looks a that like appliance an is bench, kitchen on right, Norma’s to background the In use. in II Apple the of scene the at smile to turns boardand chopping kitchen a frontof in Presumably she is the man’s wife; let’s call her Norma. the Norma stands by reinforced background.kitchen the in focus, soft is in woman, a depict to choice scene the of “normality” apparent The mug. coffee orange an holds hand right his on while keyboard, II affectionately Apple hand the left his rests He II. Apple his at angle an gazes at and head his cocks profile, in seen Bob, papers. of pile a and monitor television a by accompanied table, kitchen the on sits a man in a blue turtleneck sweater. Let’s call him Bob. His computer in a fashionable 1970s kitchen, sitting atop a wooden table, in use by stylish but casual domestic environment. The computer is presented full-page photograph depicting the Apple II computer being used in a of feature central In company’syears. the early in range budget their of out as technology. Later, more mainstream magazines were selected, such and science machines, in interested already were who men found: indicates where the company thought their easiest market was to be The idea of a kitchen appliance for women that was that women for appliance kitchen a of idea The The In Scientific American Scientific The had already emerged; the Honeywell H316 (or Honeywell Honeywell (or H316 Honeywell the emerged; already had was a double-page print advertisement print double-page a was Introduction II Apple Apple II Introduction, the choice of the kitchen as the site of 21 domestic realm in promoting the personal computer. is a carefully composed, carefully a is Introduction II Apple The . Large advertisements in mainstream “life mainstream in advertisements Large . TIME and in July 1977. Efforts were Efforts 1977. July in Byte , would have been have would Newsweek, 20 Domesticity, Genderandthe1977AppleIIPersonalComputer 18 Although still more or less One thing that both ad- both that thing One Byte and 19 Apple’s choice Interface Age Interface also a com- a also , the Byte, -

203 Design and Culture 204 Design and Culture Jesse AdamsStein ers. consum- appliance as men of emergence the suggesting also while Apple’sstereotypes,rolesand gender existing of carefulnegotiation could beeasilyimagined(Heckman2008:55–6). computer’sapplications the business domestic calculations, engineering and for device a as seen solely longer No computer.” the of step in the history of computing by marking a shift in the conception revolutionaryrepresents “a H316 the that observes Heckman Davin quo. status present the disrupt not does it doing so In user. female intelligence authority,and more power having as presented arguably was appliance Computer Kitchen the case, this In (171). fect’ subservient housewife … was a very prevalent one at the time” ence to their general social context: “the idealized notion of the ‘per refer with representations such judge must we that notes Atkinson housewives. obedient of depictions patronizing often and ditional tra- highly featured frequently Computer Kitchen Honeywell the for Marketing checkbook. family the balancing and planning meal with assistance recipes, storing included Computer Kitchen Honeywell the of uses imagined The 163–77). 2010b: (Atkinson manufactured were units expensive a very – of number gift small a “dream” and – a stunt as publicity Catalogue Christmas Marcus Neiman a in included was commercially,but sell to intended never was It 1969. ful masculine subject – an empowered male consumer.male empowered an – subject masculine ful “progress,” while also lending him the status of a graceful but power modern of nexus organizing the to Bob’sconnection of viewer the carefully wristwatch, positioned in a the shot. It wears is the only also timepiece in Bob the image, reminding graph. a of image color a a hardness in the foreground scene. The displays bright lighting that casts strong shadows on his jaw and emphasizes dow). Conversely, Bob, with his technology, is exaggerated by crisp, containing the kitchen, woman and nature (the trees outside the win- zone the backgroundarea– the on focus soft a Thereis house. the inside inward, gazes hand, other the on on Norma, effects world. outside direct the have will II, Apple the on home, his in makes he actions any that suggests advertisement The window. the towards a way that leads the eye diagonally up to the left, with a trajectory out in positioned is Bob suggestive; arethemselves language body and II and the electric mixer – are hardly subtle. Bob’s and Norma’s gaze to theAppleII in theevening,afterwork: introducedbe could user the that emphasizing time, the of ventions of histime,evenwithintheease ofhisdomesticenvironment. in rational, is who man control a and actively participating as in the ordered economic framework presented is (Mumford Bob 14). presence 1963: civilizing [1934] symbolically a held clock the now, as Then, commoditized. of became time it, development with the capitalism: industrial on influential deeply as clock the positioned But The language of the advertisement takes into account labor con- labor account into takes advertisement the of language The 22 The parallels between Bob and Norma – as well as the Apple the as well as – Norma and Bob between parallels The advertisement tells us much about much us tells advertisement Introduction II Apple The 23 Mumford than its than - - - often slower to transform. The feminization of the keyboard is a is keyboard the of feminization The transform. to slower often were objects to attached attitudes social distribution, gender place feminized. correspondingly typewriter,were the as such work, their enable to seen “tapping away” on keyboards. on away” “tapping seen being by status their undermine to desire, the nor skills, the neither had had they so generally material; typed their generate assistants positions or secretaries managerial or executive in working Men Juliet Webster reminds usthat: stereotyping. gender of studies to relation in context historical the (male) consumingpublic. and the tone instructional reassuring typeface, interior,friendly kitchen able familiarity of the domestic scene, including its warm colors, recogniz- absurdity.humorous However,or the estrangement produced have easily could juxtaposition a Such context. domestic a in used being was technology of form new entirely an which in normalcy mythical applying efficiencyandorganizationtomomentsofleisure. and life, home and life working of activities the blurring home, office the brought also it domesticated, became computer personal the While office. an as such setting, public a in it with relationship their ground” for users to engage with the “training device before a having provided to perform home The study. the or bedroom the kitchen, loosely defined here: such an office could exist in the living room, the only is office” “home the of family.idea nuclear The the “protecting” and managing role, traditional their in computer. patriarchs assisted a it Indeed, needed family modern responsible the implications: moral connoted device organizational this of consumption ner.The man organized an in economically, “managed” is business, a like ance, the computer, for both relaxation such as the oven and the refrigerator, Bob uses his household appli- appliances household employing dinner, over labors Norma While Although second-wave feminism resulted in changes in work in changes in resulted feminism second-wave Although be seen to be performing a “low grade” function. (Webster (Webster 1993: 119) function. grade” “low a performing be to seen be they lest keyboards of operation the instance, for eschewing, distance, this maintain successfully to order in technologies these of ignorance own their fostered men … distance) their kept men which from technologies gendered (highly cabinet filing the and photocopier, the typewriter, the of days the In In order to understand the need for Norma’s approval, let us recall From the outset, Apple’s marketers struggled to present a kind of had noprevious computerexperience. your owninstructionsandwatchingthemwork,evenifyou’ve entering evening, first the II Apple your Yourunning begin can approval of a woman – makes this image safe for an unsure 25 The tools that women used used women that tools The and organization. The home, Domesticity, Genderandthe1977AppleIIPersonalComputer 24 - -

205 Design and Culture 206 Design and Culture Jesse AdamsStein whole company, not for individual use). individual for not a company, by whole used and/or managerial (implicitly calculations complex and for data input (clerical labor, typing) and computers for data computers searches gender: by separated be (loosely) can which multiple functions, into separated were computers decades following the In Balsamo) reminds usthat: of Anne (via technology.Hayles computer Katherine act and N. input data the women, association: contested single, a into merge to seemed elements disparate Three 137–54). 2010a: Atkinson 66–9; 2000: Atkinson 119; 1993: (Webster anxiety masculine a of was source and work, clerical lower-level with associated be to tinued con- typing of act the mid-1980s the to up disappear,and to time long a take conventions and memories prewar some point: in case the keyboard, resting passively, while their other hand engages in an on hand one only have to computer,tend the they at directly sitting ers, either overlooking others working on the computer, or, if they are manag- as depicted frequentlyare they typing: presentedrarely are (when Apple released its first computer with a mouse, the Lisa), men 1983 to up Apple’smaterial of manual much and In advertising 59). 2007: (Atkinson 1984 to up certainly Apple, to specifically applied Atkinson’s claims about gender biases in computer literature can be role separation: gender their in subtle from far were material marketing in tographs neutral and safe to a wide group of potential customers, staged pho- seem computer the make to order in 1980s; early the to 1970s the of literature technology computer in inherent sexism the describes Atkinson quo. status the maintaining nor while and use keyboard encouraged malized gently marketing) their (and products their whereby equilibrium an maintain to had Apple as such companies carry alatentemasculatingthreat. whether it was attached to a computer or a typewriter – continued to regardlesskeyboard– of The 139). 2010a: (Atkinson activity clerical low-level connote to continued typing of act the supervisors, male this resulted in women having more technical competence than their Balsamo 1996:133) 1; 2005: (Hayles “computers”. called were – labor clerical this calculations do – to and it employed was were predominantly who women who people performed 1940s, and 1930s the In woman, orlookingoverhershoulder. (Atkinson 2000:68–9) the to work handing – stand men while work the out carrying and computer, operators the at as sitting portrayed are Women … portrayed assistants. are women or while scientists managers, engineers, executives, as portrayed are Men Computer manufacturers were well aware of these attitudes, and 26 Although in many cases cases many in Although - finding its feet as an object with a structuring meaning within the the within household. meaning structuring a with object an as feet its finding was computer personal the when moment initial the “preparation,” had notquiteeventuated–in1977. transition this appliance, household acceptable an into computer clear hardvery trying personal was the Computer transform Apple to that is it though Even user. the to next manual BASIC Apple the of presence constant the and television, a of connection the parts, of lugging the angular,requiring an thing, still hulking is II Apple The Norma’sstance. to relaxed Bob’scompared to pose awkwardness an is There scene. this in home” “at perfectly seem not does still II falls short of appearing blissful and altogether comfortable; the Apple office context and to the redefinition of domestic productivity through unconventional the of emergence the to leisure, and labor between distinctions blurred increasingly the to fundamental were opments devel- Its period. this over transformations technological and social of the home. The Apple personal computer was at the center of both economy moral the into computer the of entry unsettling the of atic representation“reality,”a of symptom- means and indicative both is of thisshiftingnetwork. center the at artifact active an is II Apple The control. and pleasure between and leisure, and work between distinctions the muddling overlap, ownership spheres and the interest Thus commercial labor, domesticity, control. of and ownership of sense that enforce further – technology his wife, his house, his – possessions so-called his him, surround that images The years?” two in worth I am “What and worth?” I am “What question, the answers program generating graph- His command. in and satisfied completely is He business. of terms in and home at – domains various his over Bob’scontrol or adrink. action of some kind, such as writing on paper, or holding a clipboard is enteringcommands. passively,typing not is Bob he secretarialwork. with associated not on the computer monitor imply that his actions on this computer are not is graphs the Bob and keyboard the on that hand single his typing: specifically demonstrate to pains at was Apple keyboard. a using was he because diminished been have may that masculinity or status any him returning computer,thereby the on Bob’sactivity assuring an with us regards she – viewer the us, towards and husband, her towards directed also is home the gender. inside of gaze Norma’sMoreover, terms in divisions clear estab implies already advertisement this have that We keyboard. computer the and Bob between distance of cultivation the through masculinity about ideas The Apple II marks the beginning of this Mumfordian period of of period Mumfordian this of beginning the marks II Apple The But is But Essentially, the the Essentially, The 1977 smile. Norma’s countenance indicates that she endorses endorses she that indicates countenance Norma’s smile. The 27 The Apple II Introduction advertisement reinforced norm­ Apple II Apple Apple II Introduction II Apple Apple II Introduction II Apple convincing? The domestic scene domestic The convincing? Introduction advertisement, although by no by although advertisement, presents the promise of of promise the presents Domesticity, Genderandthe1977AppleIIPersonalComputer lished ­lished ative

207 Design and Culture 208 Design and Culture Jesse AdamsStein surface-oriented and blandly celebratory, blandly and surface-oriented often is design in interest general this While design. industrial in est computer technology. an as perceived was button mouse a shoot” with and “point of act assertive the and secondary, was typing the socialcomplexitythatshapespersonalcomputersto this day. personal of success and computers. An emphasis on beauty and development simplicity, however,the reduces in motives major are of history the of controland power right: is heart Gelernter 2). 1998: (Gelernter computing the at concept central a is beauty of this form that asserts he Moreover, power.” and simplicity of marriage happy “a is beauty that argued has Gelernter David commentator main words used to describe recent Apple design. Indeed computer the of one colloquially, now, is “Beauty” dramatically. transformed it) to responded have consumers how (and Apple of identity design and output product the Group), Design Industrial Apple the head to Ive Jonathan of appointment his (and 1997 in CEO as Jobs Steve of return the With of States. United desires the in and particularly people, needs affluent perceived the address that values nicated commu of set a with marketing and software hardware, its bued im has Inc.) Apple (now Computer Apple incorporation, its Since Moving BeyondtheCurrent AppleHype neutrality.gender of point the to board key- the of triggers associative gendered traditionally the tempered mouse computer the and GUI the that suggested also has Atkinson and labor patterns, as well as transformations in advertising strategy. perception gender-role in changes societal broad included factors of the ’s gender presently. Suffice to say, a combinationissues of factors led tothese a perception to attend not will article this and the design, Macintosh’s on written been has Much computing of interaction. human–computer perceptions and transformed thoroughly that audience way a mainstream in a to interface) user (graphical GUI the and mouse the brought Computer the of advent The 1984. in Macintosh the of advent the with stage new a to sitioned tran “preparation” of period this Arguably, systems. computerized minimalist aesthetics of certain modes of mid-twentieth-century mid-twentieth-century of modes certain of aesthetics minimalist slick, the recall to seem may design industrial Apple’srecent face, sur the On culture. material in artifacts as function actively devices Apple’s electronic how personal interpret to us helps efficiency and deeply conservative) undercurrent of principles of control, assurance (often an Detecting present. and past design, industrial Apple’s to provideapproachesto groundworkcritical also solid other but for II, Apple the memorialize to only not intention my is It ideals. those of lineage the ponder to us leads also it Inevitably organization. social and individual as well as Apple’sbehaviors normative to connection Apple’s recent commercial success has increased popular inter popular increased has success Apple’scommercial recent neutrality in the mid- to late 1980s. These 28 With the mouse, the act of act the mouse, the With 29 it forces us to consider consider to us forces it engagement with engagement active - - - - - which have become fully entrenched social conventions in more more in decades. recent conventions social entrenched practices, fully become mechanized have and which attitudes individualized increasingly computer’s personal the of infancy, Apple’stime industrial design and marketing imagery established the At through systems. productivity domestic computerized of redefinition the to office and unconventional context the of emergence the to leisure, and labor between distinctions blurred increasingly the to fundamental were and social both of center developments Its period. through this transformations the technological at was The computer 1980s. personal and 1970s Apple the in engineering and in design revolution the computer of part small a only was appliance personal a of the extentthatuserbecomesliketechnologyitself. to user’slife, the into integrates seamlessly and swiftly product the on Apple’s “user-friendly” nature could be another way of saying that remarking words, other In computers. like more become have people may rather, onwards; 1977 from “personal” more become not have Computers it. enabling than rather agency our challenge may that manner a in behavior our augment and direct alter, effectively which include objects such as the Apple II or the Macintosh’s mouse, “those who are mechanized” (Latour 1992: 232). Such prescriptions, 1. Notes thankstoDrMichael Golec. With Acknowledgement itself. form expressedthroughboth directive throughand language object’sthe are mechanism” the of “prescriptions objects, designed with how, describes Latour Bruno on. depend we devices as technological the efficient computer and as networked organized, as ourselves: become to have we back users question the deflect found we be can when observations interesting More made or “friendly.” design simplified its “humanized,” has Apple not because is It exclusively all-consuming? so intimate, so comfortable, so become with theplasticcaseandmarketingofAppleIIin1977. began it 2001; iMac “lampshade” white startling the with start not did pattern This rationalization. and efficiency (traditional) of values are modernist design Apple’s by communicated ideals the that modern architecture. However, it may be more significant to observe The attempt to imbue the Apple II with the assuring disposition disposition assuring the with II Apple the imbue to attempt The How did the cold and intimidating world of computer technology computer of world intimidating and cold the did How – what to use the machine for. If useful applications are found found are applications useful If for. machine the use to what – owners computer home many facing Pollack predicament “a discussed Andrew journalist 1981 in example, For as appliance. an status fledgling microcomputer’s the to reference made 1980s frequent early and 1970s late the in journalists Computer 30 Latour also notes how mechanized objects benefit benefit objects mechanized how notes also Latour Domesticity, Genderandthe1977AppleIIPersonalComputer

209 Design and Culture 210 Design and Culture Jesse AdamsStein 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. data-processors in the 1950s and 1960s were frequently seen seen frequently were 1960s and 1950s the in data-processors Large fear. of undercurrent an as well as computers for siasm enthu- an both expresses culture popular Mid-twentieth-century See, forexample,Diaz2008. exists is an “office-in-the-home” market (see Salisbury 1985: 29). John CEO Sculley: “There 1985 is no home Apple’s market,” concluding that what quotes actually Salisbury F. David Journalist – many of which made up a growing “office-in-the-home” market. professionals such as writers, scientists, researchers and doctors and households family businesses, small hobbyists: computer of Here the term “consumer” refers to buyers beyond the subculture contexts (seeShanks1998:15). their with have objects that relationship active the stresses also encoded within them, archaeologist and theorist Michael Shanks are that “prescriptions” behavior-altering possess mechanisms” “nonhuman that assertion Latour’s from Following 237). 1992: Latour (see others deny and actions certain circumscribe face computer’sa how instance, inter and mechanisms form, design for consider, would society in computers of account full a that elements. “nonhuman” demands Latour’sof position 227. 1992: Latour example, for See, function the of appreciation an of expense the at human the prioritizes approach this might that Latour argue Bruno conventions. and patterns social indi of and cator to response coded and complex a as computer the positions manner,and pattern-shaping a in function to ability object’s its the of and object’sagency the construction of acknowledgment less with meaning, social puts the on computers emphasis of central examination Atkinson’s 163–79. 2010b: 2007: Atkinson Atkinson 191–205; 2005: Atkinson 3–25; 2008: Atkinson 46–61; 59–72; 2000: Atkinson 1–32; 1998: Atkinson example, for See, Apple. of analysis this informed have design computer to relation in stereotypes gender and codes social on studies whose Atkinson, Paul to debt my acknowledge I Again 1992: 97–112;Hedstrom 1988:155–6. Wheelock 111–23; 1993: Webster 1982; Kessler-Harris 1993; and workforce gender labor roles in the office and the home,changing see, for example, Lupton the to relating discussions For programming thanthisarticlehasthespacetoprovide. Apple II, with more discussion about hobbyist clubs and software the of history brief offersa publication This 87). 2010a: (Atkinson Atkinson notes that the Apple II was originally named the Apple ][ Walters 2008. 1998; Levy 2006; Kahney 2008; Scanlon 2007; Sudjic 2009: 46; Gelernter 2006; Burrows Apple’s 188–9; 2006: Antonelli include: design describing commentaries popular of examples Some (Pollack 1983). appliance” household common a become could computers … - - 18. 17. 16. 15. 14. 13. 12. 11. 10. 9. 1984 Macintosh. Apple’s 1984 Super Bowl commercial for for commercial Bowl Super 1984 Apple’s Macintosh. the 1984 for was campaigns known well most Chiat/Day’s of One dling clothes”(Levy1994:15). SeealsoNorman1998:24. roots. Not surprisingly, since the industry itself was still in swad- hobbyist its ways many in bore it tool, valuable a was II Apple the While use. to frustrating was it ways many revelation,in but Steven Levy on the Apple II: “My first machine, it was a continual things todifferent people”(Atkinson2010a:9). different means computer word very “the that notes Atkinson 68, 2008: (Heckman 71–4, 84,92–4). 1980s and 1970s the in technologies in emerging forms design the in expressed as appliances, as computers anthropomorphismand design, “smart” about tions Atkinson in observa- useful very some makes Heckman Davin 226. 2010a: cited also is Palton appliance.” kitchen a of “quiet look the having as II Apple the describes 55) (1986: Palton in Meikle2005:108. quoted Sears, for Refrigerator Coldspot the for publicist Loewy Golec. Closereading ofKunkel1997wasalsoinfluential. The author owes this observation to discussions with Dr Michael consumption processes (seeMeikle2005:114). and production the of integration efficient the describe to and transition smooth-operating any describe to lexicon American an Moreover, in the term streamlining was ultimately adopted into the functions efficient other products.of sales up speed to seen was it – sense economical had streamlining course, Of (Levy 1994:140). processors” food at Macy’slooking to hours, go four would for exercise,Steve two-week a was “It Manock: Jerry quotes Levy 1998. 1985, to 1975 from published Age Interface in ways nuanced Martin 2003:168–81.SeealsoAtkinson2010a:56–7. in discussed is design, modern with ment engage- its and IBM, of aesthetic bureaucratic organized, The 128–48. to seen was 2003: Highmore example, for See, image. public their improve “family-oriented” and “friendly” as companies computer presenting and etc.), detection, (missile operations military US for work in involved were IBM as such companies Equally, 21). 2010a: (Atkinson threatening” potentially and … inspiring “awe and “forbidding” as computers early describes Atkinson Paul and 347) 1995: (Kirkham awareness corporate this to refers Kirkham threatening. as computer the of notion public subtle this of aware were entirely.companies Computer disappeared not had it 1970s, the by dissipated definitely had as computers could such overpower us, outsmart us. While this Films concern 2001 Odyssey uncontrollable. and intimidating as (1968) and and (1968) Deskset (1957) suggest a fear that that fear a suggest (1957) Domesticity, Genderandthe1977AppleIIPersonalComputer from 1975 to 1975 from Byte Space Space

211 Design and Culture 212 Design and Culture Jesse AdamsStein 22. 21. 20. 19. Atkinson has noted that there is an abundance of “innate gender traditional highly frequentlyconfirms which 1980s, early “innate of and 1970s the from abundance imagery an advertising computer is in sexism” there that noted has Atkinson 2008: 68). (Heckman imagination” popular the into broadly more filter would ‘thinking’ of practice cultural the with associations powerful ‘thinking’ machines, and so it was inevitable that these Heckman has noted that “computers had long been considered been felt”(Heckman2008:120). strongly most has forcecomputer’s the that home the of rest the in is it [but] kitchen the on focused always have automation home of “historically,discussions that observed has Heckman edu/graphicdesigna/index.php/Image:Appleii.jpg https://wikis.otis. webpage: course design graphic Design’s and Art of College Otis the see example, For Internet. the on of Images 1997: 5;alsoHeckman2008:72). (Frank themselves” find and rules break to consumers “upon calling advertising”, and liberation; of devices as “touted often computer products promoted by companies such as Apple are and mechanized productivity in efficiency the 1980s. Thomas Frank notes that self-interestedness, to related practices tional conven- and mainstream maintained effectively Macintosh the quo remained unchallenged. Consumption of products such as status the while the all – ,renegade a or of artist identity an – mythos creative and alternative an into buy to consumers allowed Macintosh a of purchase The viewing. first on notice on computer to hard is that detail small a T-shirt– Macintosh the woman running the of a of representation count abstracted you the unless pictured, computer a is advertisement the in Nowhere is logo. Apple text rainbow the This of graphic ‘1984.’” a by like followed be won’t 1984 why see you’ll And text: Macintosh. introduce scrolling will by Computer Apple 24th, followed January is “On which explosion, glowing a screen in the hits hammer the of arc The screen. Brother” the “Big into hammer a hurls and “drones” IBM of hundreds past runs She shorts. running T-shirtorange white and a in woman directly, but symbolically represented its arrival through a young computer Macintosh the depict not did it – confusing and sial controver was advertisement The IBM. of supremacyBrother” Eighty-Four advertisement played on George Orwell’s classic novel Chiat/Day.The with association in and Clow, Lee and Hayden Steve by written a Scott, – Ridley Bowl by directed Super sequence the peculiar during 1984, 22, January on screened first commercial The IBM. case, this in Brother,” “Big neering domi a against underdog resistant the as itself presenting of company’stactic the of example unsubtle an is Macintosh the The Apple II Introduction II Apple The to present Apple as the destroyer of the “Big “Big the of destroyer the as Apple present to are relatively easy to find find to easy relatively are Nineteen - - 30. 29. 28. 27. 26. Atkinson, Paul. 1998. “Computer Memories: The History of Computer Apple Computer. 1978. Apple II advertisement. Apt Gave Computer Cheerful This “iMac: 2006. Paola. Antonelli, References 25. 24. 23. History andTechnologyForm.” History , 15(1/2):1–32. Standards forTechnology.” Metropolis,April. Apple’sOur to Changed ForeverForm and Interface, Personable 1992: 232–3. face messages, instruction manuals and marketing. See Latour how to use an object. This may come in the form of labels, inter of markers linguistic and visual mean I language” “directive By See examplesofthissortwritinginnote2. Atkinson 2007:59–61. type the also See 154). 2010a: with (Atkinson altogether” disappear to writer computer the of association the allow to was achieve did mouse computer the and GUI the “What Atkinson: Atkinson 2010a:150). similar Atkinson’s by discussions of computer influenced advertising (see Atkinson 2000: been 66–70; has brochures of analysis these My III. Apple and IIe Apple Plus, II Apple the II, for Apple brochures, and advertisements print of manuals, number Apple a of assessment an from observation this make I computer functionshere. SeeAtkinson2010a:139. For the sake of brevity I have reduced the complexity of multiple 1992: 97–112;Hedstrom 1988:155–6. :82–96; Cockburn 1992 :82–96; Haddon 1992; Kirkup 1993; Webster example for See work.” “women’s as and seen be to clerical came that positions point bookkeeping the to increased, positions clerical in shortages during the Second World War, the number of women gender divisions. To provide some background: with male labor under the describing lying biases that had been inherited from mid-twentieth-century 1980s, and 1970s the of technology with identifications gendered documented have studies Many text abouttheAppleII.Notably, thetoneisinstructional. contains advertisement double-page this of page second The Weller 1996:197–9. their ideal subjects as rational, organized men. See Kirkham and catered to male consumers focused on seriousness, presenting of the twentieth century. Pat Kirkham discusses how advertising stream watch advertising for men, particularly in the second half main- of language the to reference in is observation latter The domestic behavior. and power gender, of issues these with negotiation complex) but offersof this pattern, a particularly clear (and arguably quite 137–54). 2010a: Atkinson (see skill technical and authority status, to regard with stereotypes,

1992:

32–47; Kirkham 1996; Wheelock Wheelock 1996; Kirkham 32–47; is part is Introduction II Apple The Domesticity, Genderandthe1977AppleIIPersonalComputer Byte, August: 14–15. - - -

213 Design and Culture 214 Design and Culture Jesse AdamsStein Atkinson, Paul. 2007. “The Best Laid Plans of Mice and Men: The Men: and Mice of Plans Laid Best “The 2007. Paul. Atkinson, Construction Social The Briefcase: a in “Man 2005. Paul. Atkinson, Explaining Engine: (In)Difference “The 2000. Paul. Atkinson, Balsamo, Anne Marie. 1996. 1996. Marie. Anne Balsamo, Atkinson, Paul. 2010b. “The Curious Case of the Kitchen Computer: Atkinson, Paul.2010a.Computer.London:ReaktionBooks. of Fall and Rise The Swallow: to Pill Bitter “A 2008. Paul. Atkinson, Hedstrom, Margaret L. 1988. “Beyond Feminization: Clerical Workers 2008. Davin. Heckman, 2005. Katherine. N. Hayles, of Case The Consumption: ICT “Explaining 1992. Leslie. Haddon, Culture, Business Cool: of Conquest The 1997. Thomas. Frank, Ad Apple’s of Birth The “Advertising: 1984. H. Philip Dougherty, Braun.” 1960s in Is Apple of Future “The 2008. Jesus. Diaz, Gender, Technology: of Circuit “The 1992. Cynthia. Cockburn, Burrows, Peter. 2006. “Who Is Jonathan Ive: An in-Depth Look at the Computer Mouse in the History of Computing.” Computing.” of History the in Mouse Computer , 18(2):191–205. Journal ofDesignHistory Form.” Type a of Emergence the and Computer Laptop the of Personal the of Design Computer.”the , 13(1):59–72. JournalofDesignHistory in Diversity of Disappearance the , 23(a2). History Products and Non-Products in Design History.” the Tablet Computer.” DesignIssues,24(4):3–25. 23(3): 46–61. University Press. 1870 Since Workers (ed.), Gregory Anderson In 1960s.” the to 1920s the from States United the in Dream ofthePerfectDay.Durham,NC:DukeUniversity Press. Chicago Press. Texts Literary and Subjects Spaces. LondonandNewYork: Routledge. Domestic in Information and Media : Technologies Consuming Computer.”Home the (eds), Hirsch Eric and Silverstone Roger In Chicago: Consumerism. University ofChicagoPress. Hip of Rise the and Counterculture, Insert.” NewYork Times (March 1),D25. secrets-to-apples-future. http://gizmodo.com/343641/1960s-braun-products-hold-the- Guide Gadget The Gizmodo: Spaces. LondonandNewYork: Routledge. Domestic in Information and Media : Technologies Consuming (eds), Hirsch Eric and Silverstone Roger In Power.” and Identity 25. Magic.” Apple’sDesign Behind Man Reading CyborgWomen. Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress. The White-Blouse Revolution: Female Office Office Female Revolution: White-Blouse The . Manchester and New York: Manchester Manchester York: New and Manchester . A Small World: Smart Houses and the the and Houses Smart World: Small A My Mother was a Computer: Digital Digital Computer: a was Mother My Technologies of the Gendered Body: Body: Gendered the of Technologies . London and Chicago: University of of University Chicago: and London . , November 3. Available online: online: Available 3. 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