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Physical Connectivity between and A Mongolian Perspective

Tumurpurev Dulambazar, Institute for Strategic Studies, National Security Council of

ongolia is a landlocked and mineral-rich country, sandwiched between two major countries: and . Currently, Mongolia’s foreign trade is mainly carried Mwith the two neighbours and is highly vulnerable to the volatility of mineral prices. It is recognised that development of key infrastructure, such as rail and roads, will contribute to Mongolia’s global integration, diversification of its economy, and sustainable development. Since Mongolia’s key sector is mining, transportation issues hugely influence economic efficiency. According to statistics, transportation costs alone account for 18 percent of export expenses and 11 percent of its imports. Transportation challenge hugely impacts our economy and reduces its competitiveness in the world market.

The majority of Mongolian imports and exports are carried by railway, both within the country and in neighbouring countries. The main railway section of the Mongolian Railway is a trunk line between Sukhbaatar on the Russian border, through to Zamyn Uud on the Chinese border, and has a distance of about 1,400 kilometres (km). The Mongolian Railway company carries almost 80 percent of all freight and 30 percent of all passenger transport within Mongolia. Mongolia’s railway faces difficulties in both investment and lack of competitiveness. The Mongolian–Russian Joint Venture Company ‘Ulaanbaatar Railway’, of which both sides equally own a 50 percent share, has devised a reform plan. The Government Implementing Agency Railway Authority is also trying to reform the ‘Ulaanbaatar Railway’ to fully utilise the Trans-Asian Railway network (Figure 1).

Mongolia’s roadway network totals approximately 49,250 kilometres, connecting 21 major and towns and 160 soums, baugs (small administrative units in Mongolia). Roads are classified into state roads, which are intended to connect capital Ulaanbaatar with and major cities and with important border crossings, and local roads, which are intended to connect provinces to other provinces and other small distances (Figure 2). About 13,877 km of roads are classified as state roads. 36 Asia–Europe Connectivity Vision 2025: Challenges and Opportunities

Figure 1: Trans-Asian Railway Network

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Buslovskaya

60° N St. Petersburg 500 Km. 60° N Vologda RUSSIAN FEDERATION Kotelnich Ekaterinburg

Nizhniy Novgorod Tayshet Utyak Petukhovo Tatarskaya Krasnoe Smolensk Petropavlovsk Ryazan

Kochetovka Kartaly Kokshetav Barnaul Bryansk Rtisthevo Suzemka Tobol Ulan-Ude Chita Saratov Ecil Gryazi Ozinki Orsk Karimskaya Uralsk Iletsk Astana Lokot Liski Djetigara Semiglavii Mar Aul Belogorsk Chinghirlau Naushki Semipalatinsk Nikeltau Karaghandy Sukhbaatar Ereen tsav Kandagach Makat Ulaanbaatar Likhaya Aktogai Numrug Rostov Mointy Atyrau Khuut Aksarayskaya Baruun Uurt Ganyushkino Bichigt MONGOLIA Kavkaz Port Olya Beyneu Dostyk Krimskaya Kzyl-Orda Ushtobe Krasnodar Tyuratam Alashankou Oazis Karakalpakia Novorossiisk Grodekovo ROMANIA Urumchi 500 Km. Chu Changchun Baranovski Ussurijsk Tavantolgoi Zamyn-Uud Uglovaya Veseloe Lugovaya Nariin Sukhait Kungrad Djambul Tumen Gantiadi Nukus Shiveekhuren Namyang Khasan SamtrediaGEORGIA Uchkuduk Arys Gashuun Sukhait Nakhodka Vostochnaya Chimkent Tumangang Kapikule Dashowuz Urgench Kochkor Rajin Akhalkalaki Samur Sary-Agach Yalama Keles Kartsakhi Beyouk Kesik Arpa Dogukapi Gazodjak Andizhan Tinchlik Sirdarinskaya Kanibadam Torugart DEMOCRATIC Khavast Kars Turkmenbashi Navoi Kokand 500 Km. Khudjand PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC 40° N Balikesir Kalin Yeraskh Alyat Ulugbek Isfara 40° N Erzurum Ali Bairamli Eskisehir OF KOREAWonsan Alayunt Khodzhadavlet Kashi Cetinkaya Jolfa Agbent Turkmenabad TAJIKISDushanbeTAN Razi Karshi Tashguzar Onjongri Astara Kudukli Yangi Bazar Malatya Tatvan Pakhtaabad Kaesong Izmir Van Kapikoy Yavan Sufian Incheboroun Mari Kumkurgan Kulyab Bongdong Dorasan Tenzhen Chinese Line Miyaneh Bandar-e-Anzali Kerkichi Kurgan Tube Khoshad Suwon REPUBLIC OF Mersin Toprakkale Bandar-e-Amirabad Khairaton Sari Kunduz Gorgan Sarakhs Sheberghan Badakhshan Jinan Iskenderun Mazar-i-Sharif Sarakhs Qingdao Kyongju Shahrood Kashmar Naibabad Fariman Kholm Iksan Bamiyan Hajigak Jammu Garmsar Torbat Heidarieh Indian Line Mokpo and Syadara CHINA Gwangyang Badrud Kashmir Tabas Attock Xi'an Xizhou Khaneghein Khosravi Sangan Arak ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF Chadormalu Kundian Esfahan Ardakan Delaram Indian Line Shahdara Chinese Line Bafq Gereshk Faisalabad Dhandari Kalan Bandar Emam Khorramshahr Spezand Khanewal Sher Shah Koh-i-Taftan Lodhran Dalbandin Samasata Tanakpur Brahma Mandi New Rohri Mathura Janakpur Kakarvitta Phuentsholing Panitanki Hengyang Jaynagar Patna Birol Dali Radhikapur Parbatipur Kachang Khokropar Gwadar Mirpurkhas Mahisasan Singhabad Rohanpur Shahbazpur Kulaura Baoshan Port Qasim Mughalsarai Sitarampur Abdulpur Jiribam Yuxi 500 Km. Tongi Ishurdi Muse Bhopal Darsana Akhaura Tamu Gede Kalay Hekou Lao Cai , China Dohazari Quan Trieu Pingxiang Haldia Mongla Dong Dang Dong Anh Gundum Boten Ha Noi Cai Lan Wardha Tachilek Ha Long Hai Phong 500 Km. 20° N Mae SaiLAO PEOPLE'S 20° N Chiangrai DEMOCRATIC CHINA Sary-Agach Naypyitaw VIET NAM Chiangmai Keles REPUBLIC Tashkent Kholkobad Namangan Denchai Hekou Angren Tan Ap Vung Ang Nanning Pap Nongkhai Nakhon Andizhan Bago Mu Gia Lao Cai Sirdarinskaya Phanom UZBEKISTAN Densavanh Dong Ha Karasu Kanibadam Myawadi Kokand Osh Tinchlik Khavast Bekabad Khudjand Margilan Pingxiang Thanpyuzayat Bua Yai Quan Trieu Dong Dang Navoi Nakhonsawan Ubonratchathani Nau Three Pagoda Ye Isfara Pass Banphachi Nakhonratchasima Luu Xa Kaeng Khoi Lim Kep KYRGYZSTAN Namtok ChachoengsaoAranyaprathet Mohan Dong Anh Ulugbek Samarkand Yen Vien Gialam Nong Pla Duk Sisophon Boten Si Racha Cai Lan Kao Chi Chan Halong Jolarpettai Sattahip Map Ta Put Bat Deng Kratie Karshi Loc Ninh Tashguzar Yangi Bazar Darband VIET NAM Dekhanabad Kudukli LAO PEOPLE'S Pakhtaabad Chumphon Boysun Vung Tau Yavan Can Tho DEMOCRATIC Kumkurgan Kulyab TURKMENISTAN Kurgan Tube Talaimannar REPUBLIC Kerkichi Tuticorin

Termez Maho Khoshad Katunayake Khairaton Padang Besar AFGHANISTAN Sri Jayewardenepura-Kotte Sungai Kolok Kataragama Hambantota Tumpat Matara Wakaf Bahru Butterworth

Male Setia Jaya 500 Km. Belawan DARUSSALAM Tebingtinggi Tanjungbalai Kisaran Kajang Gemas RUSSIAN FEDERATION MALAYSIA Veseloe Rantauprapat Segamat Gantiadi Tanjung Pasir Gudang Padang Pelepas Sukhumi Makhachkala Panjang Naras SINGAPORE 500 Km. 0° Poti Sawahlunto 0° Muaro Padang Batumi Tbilisi Samur Yalama TRACK GAUGES Akhalkalaki Gardabani INDONESIA Ferry Link Sadakhlo Beyouk Kesik Teluk Bayur Indarung 1,676 mm Ayrum Akstafa Barkhudarly Kertapati Dogukapi AZERBAIJAN Lubuklinggau 1,520 mm Kars Ijevan Prabumulih Akhuryan Muaraenim Baku The designations employed and the presentation of material on this map ARMENIA Tanjung Enim 1,435 mm Masis Yerevan Martuni do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Erzincan Yeraskh Jermuk Alyat secretariat of the concerning the legal status of any country, 1,067 mm Erzurum Ali Bairamli Tanjungkarang PAPUA Belidag Panjang territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its Cikampek NEW GUINEA Merak frontiers or boundaries. 1,000 mm Djulfa Cirebon TURKEY Agbent Semarangtawang Jolfa Meghri Dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and 1,000/1,435 mm Razi Solobalapan Astara Kroya Kertosono Banyuwangi Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kapikoy Sufian Astara UNITED NATIONS Yogyakarta Port Moresby Tatvan Van Tabriz Malang Kashmir has not yet been agreed upon by the parties. TAR LINK-PLANNED/UNDER CONSTRUCTION ISLAMIC 2014 POTENTIAL TAR LINK REPUBLIC OF IRAN Bandar-e-Anzali Miyaneh BREAK-OF-GAUGE Rasht

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Legend of Height Data Sources:

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 1. Digital Elevation Model: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), USA (http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/topo/globe.shtml) Source: UNESCAP (2014a). 2. Inland water body: The Department of Geography, University of Maryland, USA (http://www.geog.umd.edu/landcover/1km-map.html)

Table 1: Mongolia’s Road Network Extent 2000–2014

Road Type 2000 2006 2009 2014 State 11,060 11,210 11,210 13,877 Paved 1,310 1,880 2,180 5,811 Gravel 1,370 1,480 1,550 1,132 Improved earth 1,360 1,360 1,230 694 Dirt track 7,010 6,480 6,240 6,240 Local 38,180 38,030 38,030 38,150 Paved 390 390 500 650 Gravel 490 490 550 550 Improved earth 510 490 490 490 Dirt Track 36,780 36,630 36,460 36,460 Total 49,250 49,250 49,250 49,250 Paved 1,710 2,270 2,680 6,461 Gravel 1,860 1,980 2,100 1,782 Improved earth 1,870 1,860 1,730 1,184 Dirt Track 43,790 43,120 42,710 39,823 Source: ADB (2011). Physical Connectivity between Asia and Europe: A Mongolian Perspective 37

Figure 2: Mongolia’s Road Network

Khandgait Khankh

Ulaanbaishint UVS Arts Suuri Baga-Ilenkh Altanbulag KHUVSGUL Sukhbaatar Murun SELENGE Ereentsav BAYAN- Ulgii Dayan ULGII DARKHAN-UUL Havirga ZAVKHAN Bulgan ORKHON KHENTII Choibalsan ARKHANGAI Ulaanbaatar

TUV DORNOD Undurkhaan Yarant GOVISUMBER Altai Baruun-Urt KHOVD Choir SUKHBAATAR Bichigt GOVI-ALTAI UVURKHANGAI Burgastai DUNDGOVI BAYANKHONGOR Sainshand DORNOGOVI Zamiin-Uud

UMNUGOVI Paved road Gashuun Sukhait Gravel road Improved earth and dirt track

Mon 11-3729a HR Paved Road Source: ADB (2011).

According to the , the road sector of Mongolia will be expected to implement massive investments in a short time and then to consistently maintain the new highways at a high standard. However, Mongolia’s current small-scale road sector will unlikely have the capacity to scale up and deliver upon such expectations without extensively modernising its financing mechanisms, business processes, organisation, and education systems. Mongolia’s government needs to implement a comprehensive capacity development programme for the road sector for about 5 years.

Mongolia–China–Russia Economic Corridor: Infrastructure Cooperation and Regional Economic Development

The ‘Millennium Development Goals-Based Comprehensive National Development Strategy of Mongolia’ (Government of Mongolia, 2007) stipulated that energy exports and regional transportation services shall be developed at an entirely new level, which will connect the two neighbouring countries, and become a transportation ‘bridge’ between Asia and Europe. In addition, it underlined support for private sector participation in the infrastructure sector. The purpose of the policy for developing the rail transportation system pursued by the Mongolian government is intended to become independent of a single market for exporting mining products. Thus, work is under way to build a new rail route to Russia and China. 38 Asia–Europe Connectivity Vision 2025: Challenges and Opportunities

In the project ‘The Silk Road Economic Belt and 21st Century Maritime Silk Road’—developed in March 2015 by the National Development and Reform Commission of China, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the Ministry of Commerce of China—from the Chinese side are roads and railroads to the north of Beijing, Tianjin, Hebei , the Autonomous Region, and the three Northeast provinces; the border-crossing points with Mongolia and Russia are included in the economic corridor of the three countries. It requires conducting technological cooperation with Russia in accordance with the projects named ‘Northeast Revitalization Plan’ and ‘The Development of Western China’. Also the ‘Program of Cooperation between the Far Eastern and Eastern Siberian Regions of the Russian Federation and the Northeastern Region of the People’s Republic of China (2009–2018)’ was released in 2009. This programme reflects China–Russia cooperation on infrastructure, transportation, the capacities of border checkpoints, investment, labour, technological parks, and the sector, with some projects having coordination among the regions.

The ‘Eurasian Economic Zones’ forum encourages foreign investors to invest into the regions of Russia’s and Siberia from where the minerals, natural gas, and coal are exported to China and Northeast China. The Far East and Siberia are a huge market for Chinese investment, technology, and labour. The ‘Federal Target Program on Economic and Social Development of the Far East and Zabaykalye up to 2013’ and the ‘Strategy for the Socio-Economic Development of the Far East, the Republic of Buryatia, Zabaykalsk Krai and Irkutsk Oblast for the Period up to 2025’ were adopted in 2007 and 2009, respectively. The Development Fund for Far East and Baikal Region and the Ministry for the Development of the Russian Far East were also established. Russian Railways has developed the ‘Strategy for Developing Rail Transport in the Russian Federation up to 2030’, which aims at using the natural resources of the Far East and Zabaykalye regions to increase the volume of domestic transportation important for socio-economic development, in order to increase transport to Mongolia, China, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK), and Japan. Work is ongoing on technological renovation of the Siberian and Baikal– railway routes.

Mongolia’s Transport Sector Activities in the Greater Tumen Initiative

The Greater Tumen Initiative (GTI) is a regional cooperation mechanism between People’s Republic of China, Republic of Korea, Mongolia, and Russian Federation, supported by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (Dulambazar, 2015). The member governments of GTI highly prioritises development options for economic cooperation in the Greater Tumen Region, aimed at developing proper transport infrastructure and a logistical network to support economic cooperation among GTI countries. Physical Connectivity between Asia and Europe: A Mongolian Perspective 39

The ‘One Belt, One Road’ strategy initiated by China, ‘Eurasia Initiative’ proposed by Russia, and the ‘Grassland Road’ by Mongolia will be linked more closely and will effectively promote the building of the China–Russia–Mongolia transport corridor and boost the regional economic cooperation in the Greater Tumen Region.

To promote cooperation in the transport sector, the GTI Transport Board was established in 2009; it meets annually. Transport sector development efforts related to transport corridors in Northeast Asia are important for the countries of the GTI and North (NEA).

Northeast Asia Transportation Corridors

In 2001, the Transportation Subcommittee of the Northeast Asia Economic Conference Organizing Committee identified nine Northeast Asia transport corridors that all countries of the region can use as major international corridors. Six of these nine corridors have been identified in the GTI Transport Corridor Study as trans-GTR Transport Corridors:

1. Tumen Transport Corridor (TTC): Ports in Tumen River Delta–Changchun–East Mongolia–Siberian Land Bridge (SLB) a. Tumen Road Corridor b. Tumen Rail Corridor 2. Suifenhe Transport Corridor (STC): Ports in Primorsky Territory in Russia–Suifenhe– Harbin–Manzhouli–Zabaykalsk–SLB 3. Siberian Land Bridge (SLB): Ports in Primorsky Territory in Russia–Europe 4. Dalian Transport Corridor (DTC): Dalian–Harbin–––SLB 5. Korean Peninsula West Corridor (KWC): Busan–Seoul–Pyongyang–Sinuiju–Shenyang– Harbin–SLB 6. Korean Peninsula East Corridor (KEC): Busan–Ra-Son–Khasan––SLB

The other NEA transport corridors are:

1. BAM Railway: Vanino–Taishet–SLB 2. Tianjin–Mongolia Transport Corridor: Tianjin–Beijing–Ulaanbaatar–SLB 3. China Land Bridge (CLB) Transport Corridor: Lianyungang Port–Kazakhstan–Europe 40 Asia–Europe Connectivity Vision 2025: Challenges and Opportunities

In August 2013, at the Third Meeting of the Transport Board of GTI in Vladivostok, Russia, Mongolia proposedTransport two additional transport channels Topics in the Tumen transport in corridor, to which the BoardTransport agreed to add in the Tumen transportTopics area. These arein the (1) Ulaanbaatar– Undurkhaan–Baruun–Urt–BichigtGreater railway, Tumen and (2) Sainshand–Baruun–Urt–Khuut–Bichigt road. Region ƒ Transport Corridors in the Greater Tumen Region ƒ Sea-LandFigure 3: GTIIntermodal Transport RoutesRoutes

5 GTI = Greater Tumen Initiative. Source: Greater Tumen Initiative Secretariat (n.d.).

GTI researchers pointed out that these corridors are strategically important for the development of NEA. Through these channels Mongolia will gain possibility to reach port and the other East Asian sea ports to transport coal and other minerals.

Emphasising the importance of transit development, Mongolia organised the Transit Commission Meeting in 2015. The main constraints and problems limiting the use of the transport corridors were identified, and these included inadequate development of the infrastructure, especially missing rail and paved road sections along the corridors.

Mongolia supports the initiative of transport corridor development in the GTR, including in eastern Mongolia as this is crucial for the development of GTR and Mongolia.

China, Russia, and Mongolia have striven to strengthen cooperation with long-term strategic plans. Focusing on real development needs, the three countries look to economic cooperation for preferred and essential fields of strengthening tripartite cooperation. Physical Connectivity between Asia and Europe: A Mongolian Perspective 41

The three have approved the Mid-term Roadmap for Development Trilateral Cooperation between China, Russia, and Mongolia.

Construction of the Chinese Silk Road Economic Belt Strategy (part of the One Belt, One Road Initiative), the Trans-Eurasian Belt Development proposed by Russia, and the Prairie Road by Mongolia will be linked more closely. This will effectively promote the building of the China–Russia–Mongolia economic corridor and boost the regional economic cooperation and development of the entire Eurasian continent.

Central Asian Regional Economic Cooperation’s Corridors via Mongolia

As of 2015, the 166 projects of the Central Asian Regional Economic Cooperation (CAREC), worth around US$27.7 billion, have been implemented in the four core areas of cooperation—transport, trade facilitation, trade policy, and energy. Through CAREC, US$560 million has been invested in Mongolia. The programme is improving Mongolia’s transport and trade infrastructure and policies, and is helping make the country’s economic growth more sustainable.

Mongolia connects with Central Asian counties via two main corridors as road, road/railway by following routes that overlap with Asian Highway 4 and Asian Highway 3.

1. CAREC (4a): Yarant–Khovd–Olgy–Tsagaannuur in the western region 2. CAREC (4b): Altanbulag–Darkhan–Ulaanbaatar––Choir–Sainshand–Zamiin Uud in the central region

The Mongolian Asian Highway links include the following three main corridors:

1. AH-3 that links regional markets of Siberia with the hinterland markets and the international eastern seaboard ports of China via main vertical road, Altanbulag– Darkhan–Ulaanbaatar–Nalaikh–Choir–Sainshand–Zamiin Uud 2. AH-4 that links the regional markets of the Siberian region with Autonomous Region in China to the border with Pakistan via the western vertical main road, Tsagaannuur–Olgy–Khovd–Yarant 3. AH-32 that forms the country’s principal east–west horizontal arterial corridor, Khovd– Uliastai–Ulaanbaatar–Choibalsan–Sumber–Nomrog has its eastern junction with AH31 that provides access to the Korean Peninsula and its western junction with AH-4 in the western region of Mongolia (Figure 4). 42 Asia–Europe Connectivity Vision 2025: Challenges and Opportunities

Figure 4: Asian Highway Routes

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Vyborg Torpynovka 60° N St. Petersburg 500 Km. 60° N RUSSIAN FEDERATION

AH8

AH7 AH6

Moscow AH6 AH Krasnoyarsk AH6 Petuhovo 6 AH6 Chelyabinsk E30 Chistoe Isilkul AH6 Omsk Novosibirsk E30 E30 AH60 Krasnoe Petropavlovsk Karakuga AH4 AH8 Troisk AH6 Cherlak E1 AH7 AH62 Pnirtyshskoe 19 Kaerak E30 Kostanai AH64 Barnaul AH30 E123 AH60 AH30 E125 AH63 E127 Tambov E121 AH64 Irkutsk Ulan-Ude Saratov Kurlin AH7 Borysoglebsk AH61 Pogodaevo AH64 AH6 Chita Kursk Ozinki AH64 AH60 AH6 E38 (AH67) (AH64) AH3 AH62 Shiderty E12 AH61 Voronezh Ural'sk Astana 7 Veseloyarskyj AH AH6 Krupets Kamenka AH7 (AH67) 4 Belogorsk E38 AH8 Zhaisan E123 Krasny Aul E1 E125 Kyahta 19 AH61 Arkalyk AH67 Semipalatinsk Heihe AH63 Altanbulag Zabaykalsk Blagoveshchensk E38 Aktobe Karabutak AH60 E121 Tashanta (AH67) Ulaanbaishint Darkhan Georgievka AH3 Manzhouli AH30 AH61 AH4 Volgograd E38 AH6 Donetsk AH70 AH67 Khabarovsk AH32 E40 E40 AH60 (AH67) Ulaanbaatar Nalayh AH8 AH7 Hovd AH32 Sumber Arshan AH32 AH31 E1 Atyrau A Zhezkazgan E125 Choybalsan Tongjiang 19 (AH70) 0 H63 Taskesken (AH70) Uliastay Kotyaevka AH7 KAZAKHSTAN E105 Numrug Port of Odessa E40 Aralsk Baketu Ondorhaan AH62 Bakhty AH33 Astrakhan E121 E123 AH67 Takeshkan Choir Ucharal AH3 AH32 E40 AH68 H30 Yarantai MONGOLIA Harbin A 19 Beyneu E014 Dostyk E1 AH60 AH8 Burubaital AH4 E40 Alatawshankou Daut-ota Saynshand AH AH60 AH5 AH31 6 Pogranichny AH70 AH5

Port of Constantza 500 Km. AH63 E125 Jinghe Urumqi Suifenhe E121 AH61 Horgos Kuitun Aktau E40 AH7 AH5 Erenhot Changchun Ussuriysk Zhetybai E123 (AH62) E40 Kaskelen Zamin-Uud Razdolnoe AH6 AH61 AH5 AH32 Hasavjurt Merke Kordai E40 AH5 Hunchun Mahachkala AH5 AH5 Georgievka Almaty AH31 Quanhe Port of Varna Larsi Nukus Nahodka Sukhumi GEORGIA AH81 AH8 E40 Chaldovar Bishkek Tulfan Wonjong Vladivostok Senaki (AH61) Kara Balta Sonbong Hasan Poti Khashuri E121 AH5 Kazmalyarskiy AH70 AH4 Khasan Kapikule AH5 Tbilisi AH5 E40 7 KYRGYZSTAN Batumi Bekdash Zhibek Zholy AH Shenyang Chongjin A Samsun Samur UZBEKISTAN Naryn AH6 H1 Istanbul Kazakh Chernyavka AH61 AH5 AH5 Syrdaria Tashkent (AH5) E80 Gerede E70 Sumgayit AH63 Andijon E125 AH3 AH1 Merzifon AH Buka Torougart DEMOCRATIC AH1 AH1 E80 85 AH86 AZERBAIGaziJAN Baku AH7 AH31 (AH5) Amasya Bayburt ARMENIA AH5 E40 Navoi Aybek AH1 AH1 Yerevan E60 Mammed Turkemenbashi TURKMENISTAN E40 AH5 Osh AH65 Turugart Beijing Dandong Sinuiju 500 Km. AH1 AH5 PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC 40° N E80 Eraskh Alat Bukhara AH5 ) KaramykSary-Tash AH5 40° N Ankara Refahiye Askale AH81 (AH70) Sivas E80 Dogubayazit E121 Samarkand (AH62 AH65 Irkeshtam Arkaxtam OF KOREA AH87 AH1 AH1 Farap Alat E60 Bilasuvar E60 AH TAJIKISTAN E60 Kashi Dalian Pyongyang Turkmenabat 63 AH62 Dushanbe Tanggu AH6 Kosong AH87 AH5 AH AH6 Eyvoghli Vakhdat 66 AH1 Ganseong Usak Afyon Astara Guzar E60 AH1 E90 AH84 Tabriz 121 Ashgabat Tursunzade AH4 Izmir TURKEY AH8 AH70 E AH5 AH62 AH7 Gaesung E60 Kulob Shijiazhuang Munsan AH1 Chovdan AH5 Mary E60 AH66 AH84 Diyarbakir Gudurolum AH65 Kulma Toprakkale Pass Termez Nizhniy Panj Adana E90 Rasht Inche Boroun Bajgiram Khorugh Pass Seoul Qucham Hairatan Honqiraf Lanzhou REPUBLIC OF Icel AH70 Gorgan Sarahs Shirkhan Iskenderun Qazvin Sari A Khunjerab JAPAN H KOREA AH1 AH1 AH78 Mashhad AH75 Mazar-i-Sharif AH76 Daejon Daegu Sarakhs 7 (AH8) 7 Polekhumri AH5 AH1 Tokyo Sabzevar AH1 AH76 AH7 AH1 Damghan AH1 AH42 AH8 Serkhetabat AH1 Nagoya Saveh Tehran Semnan A AH4 Jammu Busan (AH6)

H Djbulsarcj Tourghondi Bamiyan Zhengzhou Osaka AH2 7 Golmud Lianyungang Qom 0 AH77 and AH34 AH1 Khosravi AH78 AH34 AH2 Salafchegan AH75 Kabul Dogharun Kashmir CHINA AH8 Herat Hassanabdal AH1 AH2 Xi'an ISLAMIC Peshawar AH1 AH42 Rawalpindi Islamabad REPUBLIC OF IRAN AH1 AFGHANISTAN AH8 AH1 Birjand AH51 Esfahan Dilaram (AH7) AH5 AH75 Nanjing Dera Ismail AH5 AH78 Kandahar Attari AH2 AH1 Lahore (AH70) Zarang AH71 AH7 Xinyang Ahvaz AH72 Nehbandan Milak Wahgah Shanghai Anar Speenboldak Chaman AH51 AH1 AH2 Zabol AH2 AH1 Kerman Dashtak (AH2) Bandar Emam Quetta Multan (AH4) Wuhan AH70 AH2 Zahedan AH42 Taftan Bramhadev Mandi AH2 Mahendranagar AH3 Mirjaveh Kalat AH2 AH2 AH2 Rampur (AH4) NEKohalpurPAL Kathmandu PAKISTAN AH2 Changsha Rohri AH1 BHUTAN AH75 Agra Narayanghat Bandar Abbas AH7 Pathlaiya AH48 A AH2 H Birgunj Kakarbhitta Phuentsholing AH3 4 Raxaul

3 AH4 Kanpur Jaigaon Nagaon Phulbari AH1 AH42 AH1 (AH2) AH2 Jorabat AH1 Hyderabad Barauni AH14 Kunming AH3 Karachi Tamabil AH14 AH43 BANGLADESHSylhet (AH2) Moreh Ruili 500 Km. Barhi Hatikamrul AH1 AH47 AH1 AH41 Dhaka Katchpur Tamu Muse AH3 Bongaon Jessore AH41 Lashio Nanning Guangzhou Kolkata Benapol Hekou Shenzhen Kharagpur AH1 AH14 Mongla Chittagong A AH1 Mandalay AH14 Lao Cai Youyiguan AH45 H Jinghong 4 Huu Nghi 1 (AH2) AH1 Nagpur AH46 Cox's Bazar Dong Dang AH1 Viet Tri (AH2) Kyaing Tong Nateuy AH46 Meiktila AH2 Oudomxai Ha Noi Teknaf Pakmong AH14 Hai Phong 20° N AH47 MYANMAR LAO PEOPLE'S AH1 500 Km. 20° N Naypitaw Bhubaneshwar DEMOCRATIC

AH1 Mumbai INDIA REPUBLIC AH13 AH45 Vientiane AH1 AH15 Visakhapatnam AH2 1 Uttaradit Ban Lao AH1 Hyderabad Payagyi Thakhek Tak AH15 Yangon AH1 Dong Ha Seno AH16 AH26 AH12 AH16 Hue Myawadi Mae Sot AH16 Vijayawada Khon Kaen Da Nang AH1 Hoi An THAILAND 1 PHILIPPINES AH1 AH43 (AH2) Pakse AH1 Youyiguan AH47 AH1 Jinghong AH19 Huu Nghi AH12 Manila AH14 1 AH3 AH3 RUSSIAN FEDERATION Hin Kong Dong Dang AH1 Veunkham AH26 Mongla Daluo Leselidze Bang Pa-in Kabin Buri VIET NAM Bangkok AH19 Tranpeangkreal Kyaing Tong VIET NAM Hasavjurt Mahachkala Stung Treng Mohan Viet Tri AH1 Sukhumi AH82 Chennai Chonburi Poipet Legazpi AH2 AH2 Boten Bangalore Laem Chabang CAMBODIA Matnog Nateuy Ha Noi Larsi AH45 Kratie Oudomxai Hai Phong GEORGIA AH8 AH1 Allen AH26 AH14 AH81 AH1 Nha Trang AH1 Poti Senaki AH5 1 Khashuri A Tachilek AH3 Pakmong H Phnom Penh MYANMAR AH5 AH5 AH1 (AH82) 4 AH1 3 Moc Bai E60 1 Bien Hoa Akhaltsikhe Bavet AH3 AH13 AH12 Batumi Tbilisi Samur AH1 Sarpi Vale AH82 Kazmalyarskiy Ho Chi Minh Chiang Rai Chiang Kong Sarp Sihanoukville City Liloan Louang Phrabang Sadakhlo 2 Vung Tau

Zdanov Red Bridge H Surigao Muang Ngeun A Trabzon Bagratashen Kazakh Madurai E70 Bavra Uzungala Tallaimannar Akurik Gumri AH81 Paravakar AZERBAIJAN Dhanushkodi AH43 LAO PEOPLE'S AH82 Vanadjor AH5 Samgayit Trinconmalee AH83 Ganja E60 AH86 Baku DEMOCRATIC Bayburt Gazi AH44 AH26 Ashtarak ARMENIA Mammed Dambulla AH26 AH15 AH1 Yerevan Kurunegala AH13 REPUBLIC Keoneau Vinh AH26 E80 Eraskh Alat Hat Yai AH2 Cau Treo AH1 Askale AH81 Colombo AH18 Zamboanga Davao Vientiane AH15 Gurbulak Sadarak Sri Jayawardhanapura-Kotte AH43 E80 AH81 Goradiz Bilasuvar SRI LANKA Sa Dao Dogubayazit AH1 Sungai Kolok Uttaradit Ban Lao Kapan Thanaleng AH1 AH2 Bazargan Galle (AH15) AH1 Julfa Matara 1 TURKEY Agarak Banda Aceh Rantau Kota Bahru Bandar Seri AH15 Aghband AH25 Panjang Thakhek Jolfa Butterworth Begawan Udon Thani Eyvoghli Ordubad Meghri Nour Douz BRUNEI DARUSSALAM Nakhon AH1 AH16 Phanom Male 500 Km. Astara MALAYSIA Tak Phitsanulok Dong Ha Tabriz Myawadi AH12 Seno AH16 AH84 AH1 Mukdahan Densavanh AH1 Medan Kuala Lumpur Mae Sot AH16 Lao Bao MALDIVES AH13 AH16 Savannakhet AH1 AH8 Tebingtinggi AH18 AH16 Hue AH84 Diyarbakir Khon Kaen E90 ISLAMIC AH2 AH1 Da Nang MALAYSIA 1 REPUBLIC OF IRAN Rasht THAILAND Hoi An Senai Utara Nakhon Sawan Singapore SINGAPORE INDONESIA 0° 500 Km. 0° AH25 Capital City Asian Highway Route INDONESIA

Potential Asian Highway Route Ferry Link AH25

The designations employed and the presentation of material on this map Tanjung Karang PAPUA Bakauheni do not imply the expressing of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Cikampek NEW GUINEA Merak Jakarta Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, AH2 Surabaya territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its Bandung frontiers or boundaries. AH2 UNITED NATIONS Port Moresby Dotted line represents approximately the Line of Control in Jammu and 2010 TIMOR-LESTE Kashmir agreed upon by India and Pakistan. The final status of Jammu and Kashmir has not been agreed upon by the parties.

40° E 60° E 80° E 100° E 120° E 140° E

Legend of Height (in metres) Data Sources:

1. Digital Elevation Model: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), USA (http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/topo/globe.shtml) Source: UNESCAP500 1000 (2014b).1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 metres 2. Inland water body: The Department of Geography, University of Maryland, USA (http://www.geog.umd.edu/landcover/1km-map.html)

The Asian Highway is a network of 141,000 km of standardised roadways criss-crossing 32 Asian countries with linkages to Europe. The Asian Highway project was initiated in 1959 to promote the development of international road transport in the region. The Intergovernmental Agreement on the was adopted on 18 November 2003 by an intergovernmental meeting held in Bangkok, was signed in April 2004 in Shanghai, and entered into force on 4 July 2005.

Mongolia Shows the Way for Asia–Europe Connectivity

Development of key transport infrastructure, such as railways and roadways, will contribute to Mongolia’s global, as well as Asia–Europe, integration, diversification of economy, and sustainable development. As Mongolia’s key sector of economic development is mining, transportation development will have a large influence on economic efficiency. Mongolia is planning to enhance cooperation in the ASEM region in multiple ways, including NEA, greater Tumen Region, as well as CAREC region. The ‘Millennium Development Goals- based Comprehensive National Development Strategy of Mongolia’ stipulated that energy exports and regional transportation services shall be developed at an entirely new level, which Physical Connectivity between Asia and Europe: A Mongolian Perspective 43

will connect the two neighbouring countries, and become a transportation ‘bridge’ between Asia and Europe. Mongolia fully supports the initiative of transport corridor development in the GTR including three eastern . Especially, connecting eastern Mongolia to East Asia via railway is crucial for the development of Mongolia as well as NEA.

China’s Silk Road Economic Belt Strategy (part of One Belt, One Road Initiative), the Trans- Eurasian Belt Development proposed by Russia, and the Prairie Road by Mongolia will be linked more closely. This will effectively promote the building of the China–Russia–Mongolia economic corridor and boost the regional economic cooperation and development of the entire Eurasian continent. Mongolia’s efforts, aided by its neighbours China and Russia, are an example of fostering physical connectivity between Asia and Europe, via Northeast Asia. Leading by example, the Mongolian chairmanship of ASEM will be a golden opportunity to bring ASEM towards a consensus on establishing formal mechanisms to foster physical connectivity under the aegis of ASEM.

REFERENCES

ADB (2011), Mongolia: Road Sector Development to 2016. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank. China Daily Europe (2016), ‘Report on China’s economic, social development plan’, 18 March, http://europe.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2016-03/18/content_23956824.htm (accessed 13 June 2016). Dulambazar, Tumurpurev (2015), ‘Mongolia’s cooperation in the GTI transport corridor’, Blue Book: 20 Years in Greater Tumen Regional Cooperation, CAIT. Government of Mongolia (2007), ‘Millennium Development Goals Based Comprehensive National Development Strategy of Mongolia’, Ulaanbaatar. Greater Tumen Initiative (GTI) Secretariat (n.d.), ‘GTI Regional Transport Strategy and Action Plan’, Beijing, China: GTI, http://www.tumenprogramme.org/UploadFiles/pdf/RTS%20 brochure.pdf GTI (2013), ‘Integrated Report Infrastructure & Cross-border Facilitation Study for the Trans-GTR Transport Corridors’, Beijing, China: GTI. Li Kun (2015), ‘Strategic significance of second meeting by presidents of China, Russia and Mongolia’, CCTV, 15 July, http://english.cntv.cn/2015/07/15/ARTI1436944229967193.shtml (accessed 13 June 2016). 44 Asia–Europe Connectivity Vision 2025: Challenges and Opportunities

Ministry of Road, Transport, Construction and Urban Development (n.d.), ‘Road, Transport Sector of Mongolia’, https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/doc/2009/wp5/GE2- wkshp1-Mongolia.pdf (accessed 13 June 2016). National Statistical Office (2014), Mongolian Statistical Yearbook 2014. Ulaanbaatar: National Statistical Office. Otgonsuren, B. (2015), ‘Mongolia–China–Russia Economic Corridor Infrastructure Cooperation’, ERINA Report, No. 127, December. UNESCAP (2014a), ‘Trans-Asian Railway Network’, http://www.unescap.org/sites/default/ files/TAR%20map_GIS.pdf (accessed 13 June 2016). UNESCAP (2014b), ‘Asian Highway Route Map’, http://www.unescap.org/resources/asian- highway-route-map (accessed 13 June 2016).