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Dedicated to My Wife, Fombuh Lydia, and My Daughter, Queen Aghenui

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Dedicated to My Wife, Fombuh Lydia, and My Daughter, Queen Aghenui Official Bilingualism in Cameroon: An Empirical Evaluation of the Status of English in Official Domains Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der Philosophischen Fakultäten der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität zu Freiburg i. Br. Vorgelegt von Isaiah Munang Ayafor aus Kamerun. WS 2004/2005 Erstgutachter/in: Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. Christian Mair Zweitgutachter/in: Prof. Dr. Bernd Kortmann Ggf. Drittgutachter/in: Keine Vorsitzender des Promotionsausschusses Der Gemeinsamen Kommission der Philologischen, Philosophischen und Wirtschafts- Und Verhaltenswissenschaftlichen Fakultät: Prof. Dr. Hermann Schwengel Datum der letzten Fachprüfung im Rigorosum: 5 November 2005. 2 To my wife, Lydia Fombuh Ayafor, and daughter, Queen Aghenui, for the moral support, but also for the many sacrifices and difficult times we all experienced during this study. 3 Abbreviations and Acronyms A.C.C.T.: Agence de Co-opération Culturelle et Technique. A.E.F.: Administration Étrangère Française (?) AmE: American English A.U.P.E.L.F.: Association des Universités Partiellement ou Entièrement de Langue Française B.E.A.C.: Banque des États de l’Afrique Centrale BrE: British English CamE: Cameroon English CamP: Cameroon Pidgin (English) C.C.A.S.T.: Cameroon College of Arts, Science and Technology C.D.C.: Cameroon Development Corporation CELCOM: Cellule de Communication CEMAC: Communauté Economique et Monétaire d’Afrique Centrale CFA: Communauté Financière Africaine C.N.U.: Cameroon National Union C.P.D.M.: Cameroon Peoples’ Democratic Movement C.R.T.V.: Cameroon Radio and Television Corporation EC: European Commission EU: European Union EWL: English as a World Language G.C.E.: General Certificate of Education GCSE: General Certificate of Secondary Education G.H.N.T.S.: Guidance, Harmonization and New Technologies Section GMI: Groupement Mobil d’Intervention GNEL: Gesellschaft fűr Neue Englischsprachige Literaturen GTZ: Deutsche Gesellschaft fűr Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH ISB4: Fourth International Symposium on Bilingualism LSBD: Language Services and Bilingualism Division MAVEN: Major Varieties of English MEZ: Mezam Division 4 MIU: Mobile Intervention Unit NIC: National Identity Card P.A.I.D.: Pan African Institute of Development PFLB: Programme de Formation Linguistique Bilingue PLEG: Professeur des Lycées d’Enseignement Générale PIC: Professional Identity Card S.D.F.: Social Democratic Front SCNC: Southern Cameroons National Council SOPECAM: Société des Presses et d’Édition du Cameroun SO.NA.RA. Société Nationale de Rafinage StE: Standard English UN: United Nations UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organization USAID: United States Agency for International Development 5 Acknowledgements I am deeply indebted to the individuals and organizations that provided support for the completion of this study. Professor Dr. Christian Mair supervised the entire project and, most importantly, read and discussed every aspect and section of this dissertation with assiduity. His recommendations also helped to shape the form and contents of the final version. I am equally indebted to him for the exceptional friendliness, kindness, and patience that he demonstrated during my academic appointments, and the social concern he had for the well-being of my family. His support made my stay in Freiburg comfortable and conducive for research. I reserve special appreciation for DAAD (Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst), the German Academic Exchange Service that funded my research in Germany and financed two field trips to Cameroon in 2002. Professor Paul Nkad Mbangwana and Professor Augustin Simo Bobda, my initial home supervisors, studied my questionnaires and made valuable suggestions for the conduct of the fieldwork component of the study. Besides, they were already involved in the study at its early stage at the University of Yaounde 1 before it was transferred to the University of Freiburg in Germany. I am very thankful to my bosom friend, Dr. Kehbuma Langmia, who resolved logistical problems involved in surveying Cameroon’s Embassy in Washington D.C., helped me to get books and other on-the-spot research materials needed within the US, discussed many aspects of my methodology, and put me in contact with some scholars of 6 qualitative and quantitative empirical research at Howard and Bowie State Universities in the United States of America. Furthermore, I appreciate the cooperation of Mr. Alphonsius Akongatuh, Dr. Louis Abdou Kwame, and Mr. Chegnui Bekeny in helping me to find my way around Cameroon’s High Commission in London, UK, Cameroon’s Embassy in Paris, France, and Cameroon’s Embassy in Bonn, Germany, respectively. The following persons in Freiburg discussed several ideas in my work, provided tips about the use of relevant computer software and specific applications, library formalities, and student life in general around the University of Freiburg: Stefanie Rapp, Bianca Kossman, Lars Hinrich, Tamsin Sanderson, Dr. Andrea Sand, Dr. Marianne Hundt, Andreas Sedlachek, Dr. Paul Skandera, Dr. Anne Schroeder, Dr. Dagmer Deuber, Professor Jurt Schwyter, Mrs. Claudia Kohler, and others whose names I have forgotten to mention but whose direct and indirect assistance I certainly still cherish. In a similar way, Mr. Jacob Tankwa Ayafor made available to me his personal computer in Bamenda, turned his home into a makeshift secretariat for the huge paperwork that was involved in my fieldwork, and participated directly in analyzing my questionnaires. Mr. Samuel Chenwi Achunchu provided me with free accommodation in Yaounde during my fieldwork, free use of his personal car for the many errands and interview appointments, and resolved logistical problems involved in meeting government officials at the Presidency of the Republic of Cameroon and in many offices. He also helped to resolve many huddles with meeting military respondents; he negociated in encounters where I was arrested by the police and gendarmes in Yaounde for trying to solicit responses in military premises. Mr. Francis Bekene Wayih of the Military 7 Logistics Headquarter in Yaounde helped me to meet my military respondents in the army and took charge of the distribution and collection of copies of the military questionnaires in offices where I was refused entry. Dr. Peter Alange Abety provided me with vital official documents and arranged interview appointments with his fellow cabinet Ministers. My gratitude also goes to Mrs. Meceline Lefe Shei who risked her job to allow me interview her for an ‘insider view’ of the Anglophone-Francophone employment ratio and official interaction within the National Social Insurance Fund, a parastatal company in Yaounde. She also took a similar risk to allow me to make copies of some vital official documents from her office, which I have analyzed in this study. Mr. Devine Fuh and Mr. Julius Fon coded and presented the data elicited through questionnaires. I wouldn’t have been able to manage this process using the SPSS software without their expertise. The following colleagues are to be thanked also for their useful views on this study: Dr Aloysius Ngefac, Dr. Samuel Atechi, Dr. Hilarious Ngwa Ambe, and Dr. Charles Ngiewih Teke. Finally, I thank all my informants for giving me the responses I needed to illustrate the views expressed in this study. 8 Table of contents Abbreviations and acronyms 3 Acknowledgements 5 Table of contents 8 Abstract 14 1. Introduction 15 1.1. Aim of the Study 19 1.2. The Scope of the study 20 1.3. State of the art: the spread and global status of English 22 1.3.1. Language status 31 1.3.2. Language policy and language planning 38 1.3.2.1. Language planning 38 1.3.2.2. Language policy in Cameroon 42 1.3.2.3. Official bilingualism as language policy 47 1.3.3. Language and attitudes 51 1.3.3.1. The three components of attitude 51 1.3.3.2. Attitudes of Anglophones and Francophones towards English 54 1.4. Attitude-related variables militating against the status of English 58 1.4.1. The demographic variable 59 1.4.2. The geographic variable 63 1.4.3. Cultural variable 65 1.4.4. The linguistic variable 67 1.4.4.1. International French language policy 67 1.4.4.2. The dominance of French in the West African sub-region 73 1.4.4.3. Dynamism and flexibility in English 75 1.4.5. Historical variables 78 1.4.5.1. British colonial attitude towards Cameroon78 1.4.5.2. The Nigerian Connection and its impact on Anglophones’ image in Cameroon 81 1.4.5.3. Linguistic implications of the historical variable 82 1.4.6. The political variable 86 1.4.6.1. The nation-state project and Francophone hegemony 86 9 1.4.7. The nature of language legislation 93 1.4.8. Attitudes of Anglophones and Francophones toward bilingualism 96 1.4.8.1. The dominance of Francophones in most positions and the reality that almost all texts in the central administration originate in French 96 1.4.8.2. The ‘outsider’ consciousness and moral endeavour to belong despite one’s self 97 1.4.8.3. The need for Anglophones to make themselves understood in order to be served 97 1.4.8.4. Effects of the law of linguistic accommodation and the ‘law of economy of effort’ 98 1.4.8.5. The ‘Everyone-understands-French’ cliché 98 2. Previous studies on bilingualism and English in Cameroon 101 3. Theoretical considerations, methods and data 113 3.1. Methodology 113 3.1.1 Methodological conception 113 3.1. 2. Theoretical framework 116 3.1. 3. Methodological principles 123 3.2. Methods 127 3.2.1 Qualitative interviews 129 3.2.2. Structured questionnaires 131 3.2.3. Participant observation 135 3.2.4. Document analysis: official/private records, and public/private documents 138 3.2.4.1. Visual data and photography 140 3.2.4.2. Public records 143 3.3. Sampling 145 3.4. Data analysis 151 3.4.1. Unstructured interviews 151 3.4.2. Structured Questionnaires 153 3.4.3.
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