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Dark Legacies: Tracing Roots of U.S. Settler Colonialism

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DARK LEGACIES: TRACING ROOTS OF U.S. SETTLER COLONIALISM IN CONTEMPORARY TRIBAL ISSUES By CHRISTINE SUE BROWN A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY The Graduate School MAY 2016 © Copyright by CHRISTINE SUE BROWN, 2016 All Rights Reserved © Copyright by CHRISTINE SUE BROWN, 2016 All Rights Reserved To the Faculty of Washington State University: The members of the Committee appointed to examine the dissertation of CHRISTINE SUE BROWN find it satisfactory and recommend that it be accepted. C. Richard King, Ph.D., Chair Rory J. Ong, Ph.D. Orlan J. Svingen, Ph.D. Laurie Mercier, Ph.D. Mary B. Collins, Ph.D. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My first and foremost expression of gratitude goes out to my mother, JoAnn Brown, who repeatedly expressed her love, understanding, and support in a myriad of ways; I could not have sustained my efforts emotionally, physically, or spiritually without her. I also wish to recognize the sacrifices made by my daughter, Chelsea Maia Brown, whose entire childhood and adolescence were heavily impacted by her single mom’s pursuit of education—from community college in her infancy to undergraduate school in her toddler years to graduate school throughout her teens and young adulthood. She grew up watching me grow and learn, and I am truly blessed to have had her in my life throughout this journey. In addition to my family, I wish to acknowledge two special people as both colleagues and dear friends: Rose Smetana and Alys Webber. In her capacity as Academic Coordinator for Critical Culture Gender & Race Studies at Washington State University (WSU) in Pullman, Rose generously offered her wealth of knowledge and experience to help me navigate the white waters of academia on so many occasions that I have lost count. As a friend, she patiently lent a sympathetic ear, wise counsel, and moral support—lifting my spirits on some occasions and sharing my joy during others. Alys and I first met as fellow graduate students at Summer Field School in 2011. Our friendship deepened over the years as we bounced ideas off each other in long walks after class, attended the 2013 Oregon California Trail Association (OCTA) national conference together, and shared personal experiences in and out of academia. I sorely missed her companionship when she moved from the Pullman campus to Vancouver to finish her studies, but I take comfort in knowing that we are never more than a phone call away from catching up. iii My sincere thanks go out to each of the five members of my outstanding committee: Rich King, Rory Ong, Orlan Svingen, Laurie Mercier, and Mary Collins. I am fortunate indeed to have such a gifted and versatile panel of advisors and mentors. First, I would like to thank the Chair of my Committee, Rich King. His steady hand on the till over the past five years helped keep me on track. With his background in Cultural Anthropology, experiences as Chair of Comparative Ethnic Studies (CES) and Interim Chair of Critical Culture, Gender & Race Studies (CCGRS) during their challenging transition that combined three departments, and his impeccable academic credentials that include deep research on the topics of race and racism, Dr. King’s guidance and intellect inform every page of this project. His insightful, constructive observations in the final labors of this project hold a value beyond any measure that my words can hope to express. I have known Rory Ong since 2001, and I could not have survived all the turbulence of my initial forays into studies on culture and race (or the seven-year interruption that ensued in 2003) without his patient guidance. After my return in 2010, whether we were talking after the American Studies Colloquiums, during a formal appointment in his office, or simply while walking across campus, Rory took the time to address my concerns, allay my anxieties, and channel my enthusiasm while encouraging my research and ultimately guiding my queries in constructive directions. Always gracious, Rory nevertheless always kept me honest. While I met Orlan Svingen more recently in 2011 when I attended his Summer Field School in Virginia City, Montana, this project would not exist without our association which gave me a first-row seat to observe his passionate but reasoned role as a scholarly advocate on behalf of tribal nations that dates back decades. It was during the 2011 summer field school that he held in Virginia City that my focus and direction began to crystallize, and I found myself iv deeply engaged and profoundly committed to following in his footsteps while adding perspectives garnered from my earlier and current experiences in culture and race studies. Orlan’s most recent fifteen years of work with the Shoshone-Bannock Tribes, and more specifically the Lemhi Shoshone (Sacajawea’s people), coupled with his general knowledge about and experience with U.S. tribal history and law garnered from decades of previous work with other tribal nations transcends its initial importance to both this project and to my overall sense of purpose. Quite simply, he has been a guiding light in more ways than I can count. Similarly, Mary Collins has illuminated my path through the complex landscape of tribal communities in today’s tangled network of federal, state, and local interactions and subsequent relationships with tribal people, particularly as we constantly redefine the changing role of anthropologists in a highly sensitive environment of political and social tensions. Her introductions to other luminaries in the field such as Anthropologist Darby Stapp and Coeur d’ Alene Tribal Historic Preservation Officer (THPO) Linda Wagner opened invaluable avenues of awareness that I could not have accessed on my own. The presence of members of various local tribes at her retirement party and their sincere gifts of gratitude offer a rare testimonial to the level of respect that she holds in their hearts and their communities—and now, in mine. As a professor on the Vancouver campus, Laurie Mercier and I had fewer opportunities to interact, but those rare moments yielded genuine pearls of wisdom. As former President of the Oral History Association, Laurie brings unique perspectives to the table in that regard. Although the physical distance between the Vancouver and Pullman campuses restricted our face-to-face interactions and opportunities for her to contribute and enlighten presented less frequently; when they did, Laurie never failed to offer highly relevant, insightful comments at every stage of this endeavor. She always managed to provoke deep contemplations and astute self-evaluations that v pointed me in profoundly productive directions of inquiry for which I am, and will remain, deeply grateful. Special recognition goes out to Victor Villanueva who has maintained a presence in my life as a constant and supportive mentor from the beginning of my doctoral education in 2001— sometimes active front and center stage, and other times, quietly supporting and inspiring in the wings. As one of my staunchest allies and steadfast, enthusiastic supporters, I am proud to count Victor as a lifelong colleague and dear friend. Nor could this project exist without the loving care, friendship, guidance, and gracious hospitality extended by my many tribal friends from the Shoshone-Bannock, Wind River Shoshone, Southern Ute, Yakama, Nez Perce, Tlingit, Blackfeet, and Southern Ute communities. In particular, my deepest thanks go out to Shoshone-Bannocks Leo Ariwite, Darrell Shay, Frances Roy, Leah Hardy, Elder “Snookums,” Carol and Rodney Weiser, Darren Evening Dorsey; Wind River Shoshone Ann Abeyta; Southern Utes Erwin and Carolyn Taylor (and all their children and grandchildren); fellow WSU classmates Nez Perce Renee Holt, Alaska Tlingit Shae Gamble, Yakama Shawn Lamebull, Blackfeet Autumn Jones and Blackfeet Jody Pepion. I also wish to thank former Native American Retention Counselor Franci Taylor; Dr. David Warner, Alumni and Instructor in Critical Culture Gender and Race Studies; and all the women in the Native American Women’s Association (NAWA) within the Coalition for Women Students at WSU. Finally, I wish to recognize the generous and enthusiastic guidance and assistance from Yakama Tribal Anthropologist David Powell and Gifford Pinchot National Forest Rangers Rick McClure and Cheryl Mack who have worked with the Yakama Nation for years to protect sensitive cultural landscapes, archaeological sites, and traditional gathering grounds. All three vi individuals offered invaluable experiences, shared expert knowledge, and provided copies of essential primary documents from the archives of the Yakama Nation and the U.S. Forest Service. Without the unique benefit of combined dedication, labor, and contributions from this diverse host of dear friends, brilliant mentors, and consummate professionals, this project never would have materialized, and I will remain grateful for, as my tribal friends are fond of saying: time immemorial. vii DARK LEGACIES: TRACING ROOTS OF U.S. SETTLER COLONIALISM IN CONTEMPORARY TRIBAL ISSUES Abstract by Christine Sue Brown, Ph.D. Washington State University May 2016 Chair: C. Richard King Drawing on the traditions and perspectives of ethnic studies, history and anthropology, I examine historical roots of U.S. settler colonialism and how they shape contemporary tribal issues in the U.S. Driven by the forces of territoriality and occupation, colonial strategies and derivative mechanisms have fostered misconceptions about
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