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Curry-Machado Thesis INDISPENSABLE ALIENS : THE INFLUENCE OF ENGINEERING MIGRANTS IN MID -NINETEENTH CENTURY CUBA JONATHAN CURRY -MACHADO A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of London Metropolitan University, for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy September 2003 ii ABSTRACT How can a small group of migrants, who have barely registered in the history books, have had any significance for the society into which they came? Henry Elkins, and the other foreign engineering workers, or maquinistas , who were thrown into prison with him in 1844, accused of involvement in a plot to end slavery and overthrow Spanish rule in Cuba, might have asked themselves this same question. Yet their story, along with that of the other North Atlantic maquinistas who travelled to Cuba to operate the revolutionary new steam technology that was being introduced into the island’s sugar mills, railways and mines, is revealing of the unexpected ways in which migrants might engage with and influence society. Coming from cities that had been transformed by the industrial revolution, of which they were the vanguard, they arrived in a Spanish colony dependent upon transnational commercial networks for its wealth, and African slavery for its labour. Having emigrated in search of opportunities denied them in the overcrowded labour markets from which they came, they were not disappointed, so valuable were their skills to Cuba’s position as the world’s leading sugar producer. But their high salaries and technological contributions could not buy them a place in Cuban society. Though their interaction with the complex matrix of Cuban identity divisions led them to rearticulate themselves, they were different and resented, and they found themselves increasingly defined by this otherness. Ironically, this exclusion helped them to have an unforeseen significance. This did not come through their direct agency, but indirectly, acting as catalytic influences upon wider societal conflicts and developments. Their presence exacerbated the existing social divisions and stimulated responses in rulers and oppressed, such that the superficial innocence of Elkins and his co-accused hid their profound complicity with the events in which they had become unconsciously caught up. iii CONTENTS Abstract .......................................................................................................................................ii Contents.................................................................................................................................... iii List of Tables........................................................................................................................... v List of Figures ......................................................................................................................... v List of Maps............................................................................................................................ vi List of Illustrations................................................................................................................ vi Preface .......................................................................................................................................vii Sources.................................................................................................................................... ix Labelling the maquinistas and choosing the time frame ................................................. xii Aims and structure of the thesis .......................................................................................xiii Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................xvii Chapter One – Introduction: The Escalera , Maquinistas , and the Wider Debates....... 1 Transnational Networks ..................................................................................................... 12 Nation at the intersection of transnational networks ......................................................... 12 Migration from a transnational perspective....................................................................... 15 Technology transfer ............................................................................................................ 23 Identity, Interaction and Influence.................................................................................... 24 Intersectional Identities ...................................................................................................... 26 Influence.............................................................................................................................. 37 Conclusion – The debates and the maquinistas ................................................................. 41 Chapter Two – Transforming the Sugar Industry: Commercial Networks and Machines................................................................................................................................... 44 Sugar and the transnational commercial networks......................................................... 47 Cuba and the Atlantic commercial networks...................................................................... 54 Foreign merchants in Cuba................................................................................................. 59 Rise to power of the merchant banks................................................................................... 65 Steam and machinery .......................................................................................................... 70 The modernisation of Cuban sugar..................................................................................... 71 The import of foreign engineering ...................................................................................... 77 The technological network .................................................................................................. 84 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 92 Chapter Three – Maquinista Migration: Recruitment, Travel and Arrival.................. 95 Cuba and the migratory networks .................................................................................... 96 The Migration of maquinistas ............................................................................................ 104 Recruitment ...................................................................................................................... 104 Migratory reasons and paths ............................................................................................ 111 The Journey....................................................................................................................... 119 Arrival in Cuba................................................................................................................... 123 Arrival in the tropics ........................................................................................................ 123 Immigration into Cuba ..................................................................................................... 128 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 136 Chapter Four – Seasonal Migration, Social Advancement and Technological Development.......................................................................................................................... 138 Location and Movement of Maquinistas ......................................................................... 140 Seasonal migration............................................................................................................ 141 Marital status ................................................................................................................... 148 The terms of employment................................................................................................. 152 Working conditions........................................................................................................... 152 Possibilities for advancement............................................................................................ 157 The maquinistas and the advance of technology ............................................................ 169 Technological innovation.................................................................................................. 169 iv Technological influence of the foreign maquinistas .......................................................... 174 Conclusion – Developing the technological network ................................................... 182 Chapter Five – Contradictory Identities and Hegemony: The Relationship of Maquinistas with Cuban Society....................................................................................... 185 Complex identities and contradictions of perception................................................... 187 Juridical status.................................................................................................................. 190 Race................................................................................................................................... 192 Class.................................................................................................................................
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