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The Mandala Culture of Anarchy: the Pre-Colonial Southeast Asian International Society The Mandala Culture of Anarchy: The Pre-Colonial Southeast Asian International Society Pandu Utama Manggala Australian National University, Australia Abstract Throughout the years, study on pre-colonial Southeast Asian international relations has not garnered major attention because it had long been seen as an integral part of the China- centred tribute system. There is a need to provide greater understanding of the uniqueness of the international system as different regions have different ontologies to comprehend its dynamics and structures. This paper contributes to the pre-colonial Southeast Asian literature by examining the interplay that had existed between pre-colonial Southeast Asian empires and the hierarchical East Asian international society, in particular during the 13th- 16th Century. The paper argues that Southeast Asian international relations in pre-colonial time were characterized by complex political structures with the influence of Mandala values. In that structural context, the Majapahit Empire, one of the biggest empires at that time had its own constitutional structures of an international society, albeit still sought close relations with China. Keywords: Pre-Colonial History, Southeast Asia, Mandala, Tributary System Introduction relations was seen as stable and regional order had been achieved until the arrival of Throughout the years, study on pre- the Western powers in the 19th Century colonial Southeast Asian international (Kang 2007). However, pre-colonial relations has not garnered major attention Southeast Asian countries were far from because it had long been seen as an integral peaceful and stable under the tribute part of the China-centred tribute system. system. Fierce competition for survival and Moreover, Southeast Asia has often been domination had characterized the balance regarded as a political “backwater” of power politics throughout the pre- compared to East Asia because Southeast colonial era (Shu 2012b, p. 46). Asia as a region is seen as relatively For that reason, there is a need to “passive”, always subjected to the influence provide greater understanding of the of great powers (Peng Er & Teo 2012, p.2). It uniqueness of the international system as is often said that under the Chinese different regions have different ontologies hierarchical order, Asian international to comprehend its dynamics and structures. Journal of ASEAN Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1 (2013), pp. 1–13 © 2013 by CBDS Bina Nusantara University and Indonesian Association for International Relations ISSN 2338-1361 print / ISSN2338-1353 electronic 2 The Mandala Culture of Anarchy This paper contributes to the pre-colonial themselves by a common set of rules and Southeast Asian literature by examining the institutions for the conduct of their interplay that had existed between pre- relations. Furthermore, detailed analysis of colonial Southeast Asian empires and the pre-colonial Southeast Asian international hierarchical East Asian international relations is elaborated using Reus Smit’s society, in particular during the 13th-16th three normative beliefs of constitutional Century. The paper draws a boundary from structures of an international society (1999). Kang’s (2007) and Suzuki’s (2009) article These three normative beliefs are the ‘moral that too much focus on the centrality of purpose of state’, the ‘organizing principle China-dominated regional hierarchy. of sovereignty’, and the ‘norm of procedural Nevertheless, both articles are used to justice’. understand the nature of China’s The rest of the paper is organized in the hegemonic presence in pre-colonial following way. The next part elaborates Southeast Asia. some theoretical grounding to be used in The paper argues that Southeast Asian the analysis. The comparative investigation international relations in pre-colonial time of Kang’s and Suzuki’s article is the starting were characterized by complex political point to analyse the complex political structures with the influence of Mandala structure that existed in the East Asian values. In that structural context, the international society and further added Majapahit Empire, one of the biggest with Wendt’s conception of anarchy. The empires at that time had its own second part discusses some essential constitutional structures of an international characteristics and the constitutional society, albeit still sought close relations structure of the Majapahit Empire. The third with China. Therefore, the paper debates part explores the interaction between the the nature of hierarchical China’s tributary Majapahit Empire and hierarchical East system in pre-colonial Southeast Asia. In Asian international society. The focus is to policy terms, the findings of the article highlight the international structures that indicate that the interactive dynamics existed and how those structures shape the within the subsidiary system created norms relationship between the Majapahit Empire that are rooted in the cultural memory of a and the China’s tributary system. Lastly, the region. This helps to explain, for example paper concludes with a summary of the the conduct of foreign policy in the main findings and discusses the implication Southeast Asia. of the study. The method of this paper is cross- disciplinary studies which combine the finding of area studies and international Anarchy, Hierarchy and the East Asian relations theory to provide a deeper International Society understanding of the process of socialization and mutual adaptation Anarchy is a crucial yet highly between the Southeast Asian and the East contentious concept in international Asia international society. The term relations. In its formal sense, Anarchy international society used in the article means that there is no supreme authority refers to Bull & Watson (1984) above states. In the classical texts of understanding of international system international relations theory, anarchy is which is a society of state that is built upon often became the central theoretical debate. inter-subjectivity through common interests On the one hand are proponents of the and common values. This society bound realist theory who accept the condition of Journal of ASEAN Studies 3 anarchy but argue that this does not Kang’s (2007) article explains that Asian necessarily preclude order, society, and international relations have historically community beyond the nation state. The been hierarchical order under Chinese other hand are liberalists who assert that domination prior to the intervention of anarchy is incompatible with order and the Western powers (p. 164). Nevertheless, it realization is only possible once anarchy is was the hierarchical order that had created replaced by governance of one sort of stability in the region as there was no another (Evans & Newnham 1998, p. 19). evidence of external balancing or other In the development stage of the debate, coordinated efforts to constrain China. Kenneth Waltz with his influential Theory Kang derives the hierarchic model from of International Politics employed anarchy assumptions that states are the main unit of and power as central analytical concepts to analysis and anarchy is the prevailing the balance of power theory. Waltz (1979) condition for international system. argued that the international system Although he draws on his argument from functions like a market which is ‘interposed realist assumptions, Kang rejects the neo- between the economic actors and the results realist notion that ‘hierarchy’ cannot coexist they produce. It conditions their with anarchy in the international system, calculations, their behaviour and their and instead uses ‘hierarchy’ as “shorthand interactions’ (pp. 90-91). By this, Waltz for unequal relations amongst states, but asserted that it is ‘structure’ that shapes and short of hegemony or empire” (Goh 2009, p. constrains the political relationship of the 107). In short, Kang tries to combine the component units. In an anarchical world, logic of anarchy and hierarchy in the sense states need to rely only on self-help and of realist understanding. balance of power is created through The main premise for Kang’s argument balancing behaviour by weaker states is that the region more comfortable with a towards the potential hegemon (Shu 2012a, strong China because of “the cultural p. 4). Moreover, Waltz and other neorealist prominence of Confucianism, the disparity proponents have sought to contrast the in economic and military strength, and the concept of anarchy with the idea of long-standing influences of the tribute hierarchy. According to neorealist, because system” (Kang 2010). In contrast with neo- the system is anarchy it cannot be a realist that emphasizes balancing against hierarchy (Evans & Newnham 1998, p. 224). the predominant power, Kang believes that Several IR scholars have made lesser states will most likely bandwagon for surpassing arguments to reject the profit (Kang 2007, p. 167). Some of the exclusiveness of anarchy and hierarchy. For benefits are security protection, bigger example, Lake (2009) uses the notion of opportunities for market and trade, and ‘degrees of hierarchy’ along a single- external arbitration. The hierarchical order dimensional continuum between total itself is preserved through a combination of anarchy and complete hierarchy to identify benefits and sanctions that the central different forms of hierarchical relations. power provides to the lesser power. However, not many scholars have Kang’s article provides a new analytical specifically examined the
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