Intermarriage and Halakhic Creativity: the Book of Ruth*

Yair Zakovitch

Intermarriage and Halakhic Creativity: The Book of Ruth*

The Book of Ruth tells of a family from Beth- The main protagonists in the Book of Ruth – lehem in Judah, beginning with a disaster but Ruth, Naomi, and Boaz – are each faultless, ending happily. Not by chance, the book shows model figures of outstanding merit. profound connections with the Torah (the Hebrew term for the Pentateuch), its stories and B. Female Protagonists. The Second Temple laws. Indeed, the web of connections that run Period was a time when books were written with between this small book and the Torah had a female protagonists, books that took the name single and clear purpose. Revealing that purpose of their chief character: Esther, Judith (a book is the subject of this paper. included in the canon of the Jews of Alexandria, the Septuagint), and Ruth.

1 C. Placement within the Canon. It is clear that the writer of Ruth, which, in the Hebrew Bible, Before we can understand how the Book of is counted among the Writings (the third section Ruth’s relation with the Pentateuch served its of Scriptures, following the Pentateuch and ideological agenda, we should first establish when Prophets), intended for his book to be positioned Ruth was written in order to determine the socio- between Judges and the Book of Samuel – where political context to which it was aimed and in it sits in the Septuagint – and he shaped his story which it initially functioned. accordingly, planting elements that would link The Book of Ruth is set in the days of the it with those books. The connections between judges (1,1), but it was written in the Second the Book of Ruth and the two last stories in the Temple Period (about the mid fifth century book of Judges, the story of the sculptor Micah BCE). This becomes apparent from a number of and the journey of the Danites (Jdg 17-18) and features: the story of the concubine from Gibeah (chap- ters 19-21), are many. These three stories men- A. Characterization. Literature written in the First tion characters from Bethlehem in Judah: the Temple Period does not include perfect, unstained Levite lad (17,7ff.), the concubine (19,1ff.), and characters. It is in the Second Temple Period that – of course – Naomi and her household, and we encounter such characters. We see this, for David, with whom the Book of Ruth comes to instance, when we examine the change that occurs an end. in David, the flesh and blood figure who, in the The book of Judges’ two “appendices” repre- Book of Samuel, is a complex character contain- sent a fitting preparation to the story of Ruth: ing both good and bad but who, in Chronicles, the redactory refrain that appears twice in each has been revised, with all his errors, transgressions, story, “In those days there was no king in Israel…” and faults erased as though they never existed. (Jdg 17,6; 18,1; 19,1; 21,25), readies the reader for

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the kingship –for the birth of David. Also the Certain shared expressions also bind the two atmosphere of Ruth is different: no longer the intended neighbors: in both, the man speaks to violent and tempestuous tone of the two appen- the [woman’s] heart (Judges 19,3; Ruth 2,13); the dices to Judges, in Ruth we find ourselves in a expression nas’a ’ishah appears in both (21,23: 1,4, quiet and idyllic setting that is all loyalty and though with different meanings); as does the graciousness. negative ’al followed by an address that expresses A particularly detailed relationship exists relation: “No, my brothers, no, pray, do no between the Book of Ruth and the story that was harm” (19,23); “No, my daughters, for my lot is meant to be its immediate neighbor, the story of more bitter than yours” (1,13). the concubine from Gibeah, though this relation- At the end of Ruth we find two elements that ship was primarily formed antithetically: bind it to its intended neighbor on the other side, 1. Whereas the concubine leaves her husband’s the beginning of the Book of Samuel. The wom- house—“and [she] went away from him to her en’s words to Naomi about the newborn, “for father’s house in Bethlehem” (19,2) and he must your daughter-in-law, who loves you, bore him, persuade her to “bring her back” (v. 3), Naomi and she is better to you than seven sons” (4,15), attempts to dissuade her daughter-in-law from reminds us of Elkanah’s words to the barren accompanying her to Bethlehem and to convince Hannah: “Am I not better to you than ten sons?” her to return to her mother’s home in Moab; (1 Sam 1,8). And again, the end of the blessing note the repeated use of the roots he-lamed-kap, given to Boaz by the people at the city gate, “… “to go (away)”, and shin-waw-bet, “to return, to the LORD will give you seed by this young bring back”, in the conversation between Naomi woman” (4,12), resembles Eli’s blessing to and Ruth (vv. 7-19). Elkanah, “May the LORD bestow on you seed 2. The father-in-law delays his son-in-law in from this woman” (1 Sam 2,20). Bethlehem, but his final attempt fails, and the The reason that the intention to place the son-in-law and his concubine leave the city (19,4- Book of Ruth next to the Book of Judges failed 10); the mother-in-law Naomi tries to prevent can be attributed to the gradual process by which her daughter-in-law Ruth from accompanying the Bible was canonized. The section of the her to Bethlehem, but in the end must accept Prophets (or, at least, the First Prophets, i.e. the her own failure, and the two come together to historiographic books Joshua – Kings) was sealed the city. prior to Ruth’s acceptance into Hebrew Scrip- 3. The two stories deal with a crisis of lineage ture; the section of the Writings, however, was – a lack of offspring – and its unorthodox solu- still open and Ruth, a later text, consequently tion: Following the declaration that “Today one found its way there. tribe has been cut off from Israel” (Jdg 21,6), the Israelites look for a way to solve the dearth of D. Language. The language of Ruth is mostly brides for the Benjaminite men, in light of their classical biblical Hebrew characteristic of the his- having vowed not to give their daughters to them toriographical literature of the First Temple as wives (v. 7). Also in Ruth, the fates of Naomi period, a result of efforts made to give it an and Ruth seem desperate: there are no more men archaic character. Even so, we nonetheless find in their family who can father descendants. While words and expressions throughout the book that the solution in Judges is found through violence betray its much later origin. – brides are plucked from the vineyards –, in the Book of Ruth all is sorted out in the most agreeable and gracious way, with the solution * This paper is based on the Hubert and Aldegonde Brenninkmeijer-Werhahn Lecture the writer delivered emerging after a gentle and symbolic act on the in Rome, at the Cardinal Bea Centre of the Pontifical threshing floor (chapter 3). Gregorian University, on 24 October, 2012.

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1. nas’a ’ishah “marry a woman” (1,4) – instead soon see, but also to other biblical works, includ- of laqah ’ishah “take a woman”, the usual early ing those whose late dating is not questioned: form. 1. It is well known how the frame-story of the 2. sin-bet-resh (“to hope”; 1,13) – this late root is Book of Job (Job 1-2; 42,7-17), a late text, is found in the Aramaic Targum instead of the infused with an archaic atmosphere that gives it earlier Hebrew qop-waw-he. the quality of the patriarchal stories. The reversals 3. ‘ayin-gimel-nun (“ban, exclude”; 1,13) – a in Naomi’s fortunes are strongly reminiscent of hapax legomenon in the Bible but known from Job’s biography. When we are first introduced Rabbinic Hebrew. to Naomi – a female version of Job – she is like 4. tzade-bet-tet (“to hand [something to some- him: she owns property and has a family, but one]”; 2,14) – a hapax legomenon in the Bible; this all changes quickly. The disasters that befall Mishnaic Hebrew (Hagigah 3,1). her one after the other strip her of all her wealth. 5. tzevathim (“sheaf”; 2:16) – a hapax legomenon Structural similarities are evident from the in the Bible; Mishnaic Hebrew (Menahot moment that the disasters leave the two bereft 10,9; Erubim 10;1). of all: 6. margelot, with the meaning of “legs” (3,4ff.) (a) The two protagonists respond similarly to – see Daniel 10,6. their bitter fate: Job – “Naked I came out from An Aramaic root is apparent also in other my mother’s womb, and naked shall I return words and expressions: there. The Lord has given and the Lord has 1. halahen (“should”; 1,13) – see e.g. Daniel 2,6. taken…” (1,21); Naomi – “Call me Mara, for 2. leqayyem kol davar (“to validate any transac- Shaddai has made my lot very bitter. I went away tion”; 4,7) – particularly typical of Aramaic. full, and the Lord has brought me back empty. 3. shin-lamed-pe na’al (“to remove a sandal”; 4,7) How can you call me Naomi, when the Lord has – in the Targum, this is used in place of the dealt harshly with me, when Shaddai has brought Hebrew het-lamed-tzade na’al. misfortune upon me!” (1,20-21). In both Job’s 4. natan herayon (lit., “give pregnancy”; 4,13) – and Naomi’s words, we hear recognition of this appears in Targum Onqelos as the trans- God’s responsibility, and also a comparison made lation for “He opened her womb” (Gen 29,31; between the past and the present. In Naomi’s 30,22). words we hear a quotation from the Book of Job, Similarly, the orthography in the Book of when Job voiced the injustice done to him: “By Ruth testifies, too, to its late date. Examples God, Who denied me justice and by Shaddai include mar’a (1,20) with ’alep instead of he, Who embittered my life” (27,2). The designation under the influence of Aramaic: sin-dalet-yod “Shaddai” for the divinity appears more than (1,1ff.) instead of sin-dalet-he – the phonetic thirty times in the Book of Job, while in biblical orthography typical to what is found in the Dead prose, the form shaddai – and not ’el shaddai – Sea Scrolls. appears only in Ruth 1,20-21. An Aramaic influence is apparent also in the (b) Amazement is expressed by others: The past tense forms for the second person feminine Book of Job gives the reaction of the friends who singular: veyaradthi (“and go down”; 3,3); come from afar – “And they lifted up their eyes veshakhavti (“and lie down”; v. 4), all with final from afar and did not recognize him, and they yod. lifted up their voices and wept…and none spoke a word to him” (2,12-13). In Ruth, the women E. Literary Sources. Writers do not work in a of the city’s reaction is described when Naomi vacuum, and echoes from earlier writings can be returns from afar – “the whole city buzzed with heard in their work. In Ruth we find a profusion excitement over them. The women said, ‘Can of allusions to Pentateuchal literature, as we will this be Naomi?’” (1,19).

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(c) God restores what each was lacking: In Ruth. Spread your robe over your handmaid, for Job – “And the Lord restored Job’s fortunes you are a redeeming kinsman” (3,9). when he prayed for his companions, and the 3. The genealogical list with which the Book Lord increased twofold all that Job had…And of Ruth ends (4,18-22) echoes the genealogical the Lord blessed Job’s latter days more than his list of the tribe of Judah in 1 Chronicles 2,3-15, former days…And he had seven sons and three though the formula that opens the list, “This is daughters” (42,10-14). In Ruth, Naomi’s land is the line of Perez” is borrowed from the Penta- redeemed, and her bloodline is reestablished – teuch, primarily from Genesis (2,4; 5,1; 6,9; 10,1; God gives Ruth her pregnancy (4,13) and her 11,27; 25,12.19; 36,1.9; 37,2). newborn son is considered as Naomi’s son – “A 4. The poem “A Woman of Valor” (Proverbs son is born to Naomi” (4,17). 31,10-31) seems to be felt between the lines of the (d) Others respond to the protagonists’ Book of Ruth, whose main protagonist, Ruth, is improved fortunes: In Job – “And all his male even called “a woman of valor” (3,11). Among and female kinfolk and all who had known him the qualities of the ideal woman that are men- before came and broke bread with him in his tioned in the poem are several that fit Ruth: “the house and grieved with him and comforted him heart of her husband trusts her” (v. 11); “she for all the harm that the Lord had brought on repays him good and not evil” (v. 12); “her hus- him” (42,11); and in Ruth – “And the women band is famed in the gates when he sits with the said to Naomi, ‘Blessed be the Lord, who has land’s elders” (v. 23); “grace is a lie and beauty not withheld a redeemer from you today!…He mere breath – a LORD-fearing woman, it is she will renew your life and sustain your old age…” who is praised” (v. 30); “let her deeds praise her (4,14-15). in the gates” (v. 31). (e) The idyllic, folk-tale quality that we find in Job’s frame story justifies the ending, in which F. Underlying Theme. The Book of Ruth – along Job lives to see “his children and his children’s with all of the Bible’s narratives – does not pro- children, four generations” (42,16). In the less claim its theme, nor does it explicitly state any fantastic Book of Ruth, Naomi does not live to moral or specific message; these are conveyed by see her great-grandchildren (the fourth genera- way of the story. The absence of any explicit and tion), but we are told of David’s future birth, unequivocal statement of theme leaves room for “…A son is born to Naomi and they named him speculation. Obed; he was the father of Jesse, father of David” The Midrash offered its own opinion: “Rabbi (4,17). Again, the tone of Job requires that God, Zeira said, ‘This Scroll [Ruth] contains no impu- who returned Job’s fortunes, will bless him with rity or purity, neither prohibitions nor [state- many children: “seven sons” (42,13). Naomi, on ments of] permission, it was written in order to the other hand, must make due with one son; teach how well are rewarded those who do kind but at his birth, the women say to her that “he deeds” (Ruth Rabbah, 2,14). In his words, R. Zeira is born of your daughter-in-law, who loves you points to an important aspect in the book’s and is better to you than seven sons” (4,15). worldview, in that the Book of Ruth offers much 2. The prophet Ezekiel’s words about the mar- praise of graciousness. Naomi remarks on her riage covenant between God and Israel (16,8-10) daughter-in-laws’ graciousness and expects that left their mark on the shaping of Ruth’s symbolic God will adequately compensate them, “May the act on Boaz’s threshing floor. That act was meant Lord deal kindly with you, as you have dealt with to signal to Boaz that the time had come for him the dead and with me” (1,8). Boaz, too, receives to redeem Ruth and to marry her. The prophet’s similar praise from Naomi, “Blessed be he of the words, “I spread my robe over you” (v. 8) find a LORD, who has not failed in His kindness to the place in Ruth’s request: “I am your handmaid living or to the dead!” (2,20), and he, in turn,

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praises Ruth for her kindness: “Be blessed of the [1 Samuel 1,1] and Saul [ibid 9,1]), would have LORD, daughter! Your latest act of kindness is repeated and emphasized how Ruth, the matri- greater than the first, in that you have not turned arch of the royal line, was not only a foreigner to younger men, whether poor or rich” (3,10). but a Moabite (1,4.22; 2,2.6.10.21; 4,5). The book’s characters do exhibit many acts It seems, therefore, that multiple elements were of kindness: Ruth clings to Naomi despite the meant to convey the theme of the Book of Ruth: latter’s protestations and even though she has no the portrayal of the Moabite Ruth as a woman of obligation to her; she shows concern for her great generosity, the generous acts of Boaz, and mother-in-law’s material well-being; and even the fondness of both for following the Law, the with her redemption she performs an act of kind- ways of Providence that reward those who perform ness towards Naomi, since, through her, Naomi’s good deeds, as well as the tracing of David’s gene- line will not be cut off. Boaz, too, is revealed to alogy to Ruth the Moabite. In Second Temple be a man of gracious kindness: he goes out of Period literature (Ez 9-10; Neh 10,29-31; 13,23-27) his way to help Ruth, takes responsibility for the we find reflected a great debate over the prevalence two women’s well-being, and finally redeems of Israelite men’s marriages to foreign women (and Ruth. The characters are rewarded well: Ruth particularly Ammonite and Moabite women). This and Boaz marry and from their union will ulti- debate, which began with the arrival of Ezra to mately issue King David (4,17.22). the Land of Israel, was heated, and its peak can be Josephus Flavius was the first of many who found in the commitment in the Nehemiah Man- identified the main theme of the book as God’s date to forbid intermarriages (10,29-31). It seems way of rewarding those who do good. At the very that, at first, the anti-intermarriage point of view end of his paraphrase of the Book of Ruth, he of Ezra/Nehemiah prevailed, but with the return wrote: “This story of Ruth I have been constrained of Nehemiah for one year to Persia (c. 443 BCE), to relate, being desirous to show the power of God his influence weakened. When he returned to and how easy it is for Him to promote even ordi- Jerusalem, Nehemiah wanted to fix his ruling on nary folk to rank so illustrious as that to which a more permanent base. he raised David, sprung from such ancestors” The wide prevalence of intermarriage at the (Jewish Antiquities, V.9.4). Even so, though the time makes it clear that not everyone found such invisible workings of Providence certainly play a marriages to be illegitimate. The demand to expel considerable role in the shaping of the story, this all foreign women awakened substantial opposi- does not seem to be the purpose of the story but tion, a view that is expressed in the Book of Ruth: an important device in its shaping. the heroine of Ruth is the model of a foreign, Others saw David and his lineage as the Moabite woman (whose Moabite origins are book’s focus. The book’s conclusion with David, repeatedly emphasized) who pledges allegiance to and clear allusions to David and his house in the her mother-in-law with no expectation of reward, body of the story, engendered the widespread pledges allegiance to the God of Israel – even opinion that the entire purpose of the book was taking an oath in His name, and who is ulti- to speak of David’s ancestry, which is missing mately blessed by God, giving birth to the grand- from the Book of Samuel: “I wonder whether father of King David. this book was only created in order to delineate the ancestry of the House of David” (Zohar Hadash to Ruth, 1,4). While the presence of 2 David in the Book of Ruth – both explicitly and indirectly – is a firm fact, it would be difficult In order to show how a recognition of the legit- to believe that the writer who wished to “to cre- imacy of marriage with foreign women would ate” a genealogy for David (like that of Samuel not violate one of the Pentateuch’s principle

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doctrines, the writer of Ruth made certain to into the Lord’s assembly (Deut 23,4). The tenden- show how his world, and that of his characters, tious character of Genesis 19,30-38 was noted by was the world of the Torah. His many and var- the Sages: “And he said, ‘The LORD from Sinai ious allusions to the Torah testify, therefore, to came’ (Deut 33,2) – When the Holy One, blessed the book’s admiration for the Torah and its be He, was revealed [in order] to give the Torah acceptance of its authority, and in turn, helped to Israel, it was not to Israel alone that He was promote the acceptance of its views on foreign revealed but to all the nations…He went to the women. I will present a few of the more promi- Ammonites and Moabites and said to them, ‘Do nent of these allusions to the Pentateuchal nar- you accept the Torah?’ They said to him, ‘What ratives, specifically to texts from Genesis, and is written in it?’ He said to them, ‘Do not commit discuss their role in shaping the book’s message. adultery’. They said to him, ‘We are issued from adultery, as it is said, And the two daughters of A. The entire book is, in a way, an answer to Lot conceived by their father’ (Gen 19,36)” (Sifre Ruth’s question, “Why are you so kind as to sin- Deuteronomy, 343). gle me out, when I am a foreigner?” (2,10). The The story of Ruth the Moabite and Boaz on immediate answer is supplied by Boaz, “I have the threshing floor is very different from the story been told of all that you did for your mother-in- of Lot’s daughters. But let us first look at the law after the death of your husband, how you similarities between the two: left your father and mother and the land of your 1. There are three participants: two women and birthplace and came to a people you had not one man. known before” (v. 11). In this answer, we find an 2. The death of two men triggers the story: Lot’s echo of God’s commandment to Abraham, “Go son-in-laws, who remained in the destroyed forth from your land and your birthplace and city, and Naomi’s sons who died in Moab. your father’s house to the land I will show you” 3. A family’s dislocation is described: Lot wan- (Gen 12,1). A comparison between these two ders from Sodom and Naomi and her house verses reveals how Ruth the Moabite surpasses moves from Bethlehem in Judah to Moab, even the nation’s patriarch, Abraham: Abraham and back. obeys a divine command, and God even promises 4. Women wish to solve the lack of potential to make him a great nation if he meets the chal- fathers that threatens their family line. lenge (vv. 2-3). Ruth, on the other hand, obeys 5. The elder of the two women is the one who the command of her own conscience to remain initiates and plans a nocturnal tryst. with her mother-in-law, and she does so despite 6. The man drinks before the woman meets him Naomi telling her explicitly that she has no sons (Gen 19,32-33; Ru 3,7). waiting for her in Bethlehem (1,11-13). 7. In Genesis, the relations are between a man and his daughters; in Ruth the man calls the B. In his description of Ruth and Boaz’s meeting woman “my daughter” (3,10). on the threshing floor in chapter 3, the writer of Now that we have noted the similarities Ruth made use of the story of Lot’s daughters, between the two stories, let us notice the differ- who wished to bear children from their father ences, which are thereby highlighted: (Gen 19,30-38). The story of Lot’s daughters is a 1. In the Book of Ruth, the crisis of continu- tendentious, Israelite tale that ridicules the dis- ity is immediate: Naomi and her household have honorable origins of Ammon and Moab, two no hope of redemption except through Ruth’s neighboring nations that are often mentioned marriage. In Genesis 19, on the other hand, the together in the Bible. The birth of the two from crisis of continuity is false. Lot’s daughters incestuous relations was meant to explain the assume (incorrectly) that “there is no man on permanent prohibition against receiving them earth to come to bed with us like the way of all

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the earth” (v. 31). They trick their father and he, shin-kap-bet, “to lie (down or with)”. In Genesis who knows that the destruction of Sodom was it is said about the older daughter, “and the elder only a local catastrophe, is unable to correct their came and lay with her father, and he knew not mistake. when she lay down…” (v. 33); she, then, tells her 2. In Genesis, it is the elder daughter who younger sister, “last night I lay with my father” initiates the action: she is the one who suggests (v. 34), and tells her to do the same, “come, lie that they use their father in order to become with him” (ibid.) The younger does what her pregnant, she is the first to have intercourse with sister did, “and the younger arose and lay with him, and the next night she encourages her sister him, and he knew not when she lay down” (v. 35). to do the same. When the boys are born, the Six times the biblical text specifies that the eldest is again the more audacious and gives her daughters lie with their father, while in the Book son a name that proclaims his incestuous origins: of Ruth, we find no appearance of lie with – Boaz Moab, me-‘ab, “from my father”. lies down alone: “When he lies down, note the Until the beginning of Ruth 3, however, it is place where he lies down” (v. 4); Ruth must only Ruth, the younger woman, who is the more carry out a symbolic act and lie next to him: “and dominant and assertive. It is at the beginning of go over and uncover his feet and lie down. He chapter that Naomi takes the initiative as she will tell you what you are to do”; Ruth does as persuades Ruth to follow her plan. The writer has Naomi instructs her: “she uncovered his feet and Naomi initiating the action – “Daughter, I must lay down” (v. 7), and when Boaz awakes he finds seek a home for you” (3,1) – in order to emphasize her “lying at his feet” (v. 8). Boaz asks Ruth to Ruth’s modesty and lack of selfishness. Naomi stay on the threshing floor until morning, again even mentions how Ruth had been staying in the using the root shin-kap-bet, “Lie down until company of Boaz’s maidservants (3,2), a point the morning” (v. 13), which restates the previous author returns to numerous times (vv. 8, 21-22) “stay the night,” and makes clear his intention. in order to emphasize Ruth’s humility. Also this request Ruth obeys, and she lies at his Moreover, when Ruth goes to the threshing feet (v. 14). With these multiple repetitions of floor, she carries out the wish of her mother-in- the root shin-kap-bet, the Bible highlights the law (3,5-6). While the intention of Lot’s daugh- difference in the women’s behavior between ters was self-serving – to extend their own family Genesis and Ruth. lines – Ruth’s is to continue Naomi’s family. The similarity between the scene on the 3. In the Torah, Lot’s daughters get their father threshing floor in Ruth and the scene of Lot’s drunk with wine so that they can carry out their daughters removes any doubt we might have had plan. In Ruth, Naomi commands her daughter- of Ruth the Moabite’s superior morality over the in-law to wait “until he has finished eating and Moabite matriarch and her sister. What Moab’s drinking” (v. 3), and then Ruth watches as “Boaz mother achieves by deceiving her father in an act ate and drank and was cheered” (v. 7). Neither antithetical to the laws of nature, Ruth accom- Naomi nor Ruth, therefore, are responsible for plishes within the normal and acceptable rules, Boaz’s drinking, which was not the goal in itself by carrying out her mother-in-law’s commands but simply accompanied his meal. Whereas with humility and restraint, all in order to fulfill Moab’s mother and her sister take advantage of the laws of Israel. their father’s slumber in order to have intercourse with him, Ruth performs a symbolic act only – she C. If the comparison between Ruth the Moabite uncovers her feet – and waits for Boaz to awake. – the foremother of the House of David –and 4. Both stories feature an expression that, sig- the mother of Moab leaves the former more nificantly, has clear sexual connotations. In both brightly illuminated, she shines even more bril- stories we find many appearances of the root liantly when we compare Ruth and Boaz’s act

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with that of Judah and Tamar – the parents of seed to his brother” (v. 9) – so, too, does the Perez, David’s forefather (Gen 38). closest redeeming kinsman to Ruth refuse to The author of the Book of Ruth explicitly marry Ruth. Here, too, we find the root shin- heralds his story’s relationship with Genesis 38: het-tap: “Then I cannot redeem it for myself, lest when the city’s inhabitants bless Boaz, they call I impair (’ashhit) my own estate” (4,6). out, “ And may your house be like the house of 6. The root yod-bet-mem appears nowhere in Perez whom Tamar bore to Judah – through the the Bible except in the law regarding levirate mar- offspring which the Lord will give you by this riage (Deut 25) and in our two stories: Gen 28,8; young woman” (4,12), and the genealogical list Ru 1,15. with which the Book of Ruth ends counts ten 7. Judah sends Tamar to her father’s house: generations from Perez to David (4,18-22). “Stay a widow in your father’s house until Shelah The covert resemblances between the two sto- my son is grown up” (38,11); Naomi tries to send ries are many: Ruth to her mother’s house (1,8-17). In Naomi’s 1. As Judah’s sons marry Tamar (who is not plea, we hear language similar to that used by an Israelite), so do Elimelech’s sons marry Ruth Judah: “should you wait for them to grow up?” and Orpah, non-Israelites. (1,13). 2. Two of Judah’s sons – Er and Onan – die 8. Like Tamar, who wished to be redeemed after their marriages, as do Elimelech’s two sons, according to the custom of the levirate marriage, leaving unsolved the legal obligation to continue so does Ruth (following Naomi’s wish), desire the deceased’s name (by providing him with to be redeemed (3,9). progeny). 9. In both stories, the women are the active 3. The names of Naomi’s sons, Mahlon and ones while the men are passive: Tamar acts with Chilion, express illness (mahalah) and ruin/destruc- deception, removing her widow’s clothing and tion (kilayon). We hear similar meanings in the dresses as a prostitute so that Judah will have names of Judah’s sons: the name Er reminds us of relations with her (38,14). Also Ruth changes her ‘ariri, “childless” (see Targum Pseudo-Jonathan to clothes before she descends to the threshing floor, Genesis 38,3: “And she became pregnant and gave where Boaz will be making his bed. birth to a son and called his name Er because he 10. In both cases, the woman’s plan proves was going to die childless”), and Onan, from the successful. Tamar becomes pregnant by Judah, Hebrew ’on, “grief, sorrow” (see e.g. Gen 35,18; and Ruth marries Boaz and even becomes preg- Deut 26,14; and see Pseudo Jonathan to v. 4, nant by him. “because for him, his father would mourn”. 11. In both stories, the woman is redeemed by 4. After Er’s death, Judah expects Onan to an unexpected partner: Judah takes Shela’s place “raise up” his brother’s seed – to fulfill the legal and has relations with Tamar, while Boaz marries obligation of levirate marriage (yibum) with his Ruth instead of her nearest kinsman. deceased brother’s wife: “Come to bed with your The many resemblances between the two sto- brother’s wife and do your duty as brother-in-law ries raises our awareness to the difference between for her and raise up seed for your brother” (38,8). them and makes apparent the writer of Ruth’s This is the intent also of Boaz’s marriage to motives in creating these allusions: Ruth: “so as to perpetuate the name of the – If Judah sent Tamar to her father’s house out deceased upon his estate” (4,5.10). of worry for his own son, Naomi sends Ruth 5. Like Onan, who refuses to continue his (and Orpah) to their mothers’ houses out of brother’s seed – “And Onan knew that the seed concern for her daughters-in-law. would not be his and so when he would come – Tamar wanted to be redeemed out of self- to bed with his brother’s wife, he would waste interest. Ruth seeks to be redeemed in order his seed (veshihet) on the ground, so to give no to fulfill the wish of her mother-in-law.

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– While Tamar shows initiative and acts 2. Acts of kindness play a large role in both shrewdly, Ruth only follows the directions of stories: In Genesis – “pray, grant me good speed her mother-in-law and does not act with this day and do kindness with my master, Abra- deceit. She does not have sexual relations with ham” (v. 12); “…by this I shall know that You Boaz and does not conceal her identity from have done kindness with my master” (v. 14); him. “And so, if you are going to act with steadfast – While Tamar becomes pregnant from Judah kindness toward my master” (v. 49). In Ruth we as a result of her disguise as a prostitute, Ruth find – “May the Lord deal kindly with you…” becomes pregnant only after she is married to (1,8); “Your latest deed of loyalty is greater than Boaz. the first, in that you have not turned to younger – While Judah has sexual relations with Tamar men…” (3,10). without knowing her identity, after he had 3. Moreover, the expression “who has not left prevented her marriage to Shelah, Boaz mar- off” appears only in these two stories: “And he ries Ruth and has sexual relations with her said, ‘Blessed be the Lord, God of my master only after he follows the custom and seeks out Abraham, Who has not left off His steadfast her closest kinsman to offer him to redeem kindness toward my master…’” (24,27); “Blessed her. be he of the Lord, who has not left off His kind- The story in Genesis does not condemn ness to the living or to the dead” (2,20). Tamar for her actions; on the contrary, the sto- 4. The woman is blessed before her marriage ryteller places into Judah’s mouth the words “She (Gen 24,60; Ru 4,11). is more right than I” (38,26). If Tamar is pre- 5. In both stories, the man leaves it to the sented in a positive light, Ruth is portrayed even family to decide the fate of the marriage – despite more favorably. Even Boaz is shown to be mor- the fact that God has already signaled approval: ally superior to Judah, who acts unfairly when “And so, if you are going to act with steadfast he denies his obligation towards Tamar. kindness toward my master, tell me, and if not, The Book of Ruth thus makes use of two tell me, that I may turn elsewhere” (24,49); “If similar stories, Genesis 19 and Genesis 38, which you are willing to redeem it, redeem! but if you tell of the beginnings of Moab and the House of will not redeem, tell me, that I may know” (4,4). Perez. The dynasty that was established out of 6. Similar language marks the marriage of the union between these two families – the both couples: “And he took Rebekah and she House of David – rods us to compare between became his wife” (24,67); “And Boaz took Ruth Ruth and Boaz, on the one hand, and Lot’s and she became his wife” (4,13). daughters and their father and Judah and Tamar, 7. One more common expression that is on the other; when we do so, the protagonists exclusive to these two stories is “until they have from the Book of Ruth come out ahead. finished [‘ad ’im kilu]” (24,19; 2,21). Further lines of similarity between the stories D. The plotline of the Book of Ruth reveals serve to accentuate the divide between the two: resemblances to the story of the marriage of Isaac • While in Genesis, Abraham seeks a wife for and Rebekah (Gen 24): his son, in Ruth Naomi looks for a husband 1. In both stories the man (Abraham’s servant; for her Moabite daughter-in-law. Boaz) wonders about the identity of the young • Abraham’s servant, who looks to find a wife woman who has crossed his path: “And he said, for the son of his master, inquires of God ‘Whose daughter are you?’” (Gen 24,23); “Boaz “pray, let it occur this day” (24,12), in an evi- said…‘Whose girl is that?” (Ru 2,5); and see also dent attempt to test God and compel him to his question when she appears on the threshing find a wife for Isaac. This is not the case in floor, “Who are you?” (3,9). Ruth where Providence acts quietly behind the

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scenes, despite the similar diction with what The writer of Ruth was not satisfied with only we found in Genesis: “and it occurred [for] it establishing a connection between his story and was the piece of land belonging to Boaz” (2,3). the Pentateuch’s stories; in fact the opposite is • Rebekah feels a particular kinship with her true, since his purpose was a halakhic (legal) one mother’s family: “And the young woman ran – to authorize marital unions with foreign and told her mother’s household about these women. In order to do this, he had first to dem- things” (v. 28); In Ruth, on the other hand, onstrate his and his characters’ devotion to the Naomi is unable to persuade Ruth to return laws of the Torah. to her mother’s house: “Turn back, each of you, to her mother’s house” (1,8). A. The gathering of the harvest is a main topic • In Genesis 24, the young woman is asked of Chapter 2. In creating the scene of Ruth glean- whether she is willing to leave her land and go ing in Boaz’s field, the writer staked his argument with Abraham’s servant in order to marry Abra- in the Torah’s law concerning the harvest: “And ham’s son: “Will you go…”, and she answers, when you reap your land’s harvest, you shall not “I will go” (v. 58). In Ruth, the young heroine finish off the edge of your field, nor pick up the is silent in response to Naomi’s command not gleanings of your harvest…For the poor and for to go with her, and finally she replies with her the sojourner you shall leave them. I am the Lord own declaration that “wherever you go, I will your God” (Lev 19,9). Ruth is both poor and a go” (v. 16). In contrast to Rebekah, who sets off foreigner, and is therefore permitted by the law in order to marry, Ruth sets off for her mother- to glean in the field. in-law’s home despite the fact that – apparently The writer of Ruth knew also the law in Deu- – no hope of marriage awaits her there. teronomy 24 that deals with forgetting sheaves The point of the story of Isaac and Rebekah’s in the field: “When you reap your harvest in your marriage is to emphasize the importance of ped- field and forget a sheaf in the field, you shall not igree and the prohibition against intermarriage go back to take it. For the sojourner and for the with the peoples of Canaan. The story in Ruth, orphan and for the widow it shall be, so that the on the other hand, shows how there is no reason Lord your God may bless you in all the work of to reject Ruth the Moabite, who proves herself your hands” (v. 19). The sheaf that the law refers pleasing to both God and human. What’s more, to is mentioned in Ruth (2,[7]15). Moreover, Ruth, who selflessly follows her mother-in-law, Boaz’s words, “you must also pull some [stalks] shows how unselfish and generous she is. It is out of the heaps and leave them for her to glean, only a love for benevolence and the Torah’s com- and not to scold her” (2,16), instruct his men to mandments that guide her story’s protagonists, act as though they had forgotten the sheaves, who are aided by a Divine Providence that acts thereby enabling Ruth to take what is permitted quietly and unobtrusively, without denying them her – as a foreign woman and widow – by law. the freedom to act as they choose. The Book of Ruth therefore presents a combina- tion of the two laws and demonstrates how it is E. Ruth the Moabite becomes a matriarch in not the precise and limited meaning of the laws Israel. The blessing that the people at the city that is important, but the spirit behind them. gates give Boaz explicitly likens her to Israel’s Boaz gives Ruth significantly more than what the founding matriarchs: “May the Lord make the law specifically instructs. woman who is coming into your house like Rachel and Leah, both of whom built up the B. The writer of Ruth is aware of the biblical House of Israel!” (4:11). sources that address the law of levirate marriage – hok hayibum, literally, the “law of the brother- * * * in-law”: Genesis 38 and Deuteronomy 25,5-10.

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These two sources, along with the Book of Ruth shall be, the firstborn whom she bears shall be in which the feminine form of the same noun established in the name of his dead brother, that – “sister-in-law” – appears (1,15), are the only his name be not wiped out from Israel…My biblical texts in which the root yod-bet-mem brother-in-law has refused to establish a name occur. for his brother, a name in Israel” (Deut 25,6-7) Genesis 38 deals directly with the law of levi- – “I am also acquiring Ruth the Moabite, the rate marriage – Judah directs Onan, the brother wife of Mahlon, as my wife, so as to perpetuate of the deceased Er, to marry his brother’s widow: the name of the deceased upon his estate, that “Come to bed with your brother’s wife and do the name of the deceased may not disappear from your duty as brother-in-law [veyabem] for her and among his kinsmen and from the gate of his raise up seed for your brother” (v. 8). Because home town” (4,10). neither Onan (who dies after he prevents his seed The purpose of the law of levirate marriage is from impregnating his brother’s widow) nor the to establish a house, a house for the deceased: younger brother Shelah do their duty by Tamar, “So shall be done to the man who will not build she creates her own solution to the problem in his brother’s house” (Deut 25,9); in Ruth, Ruth an unconventional way that has no basis in bib- is compared with Rachel and Leah, “both of lical law. whom built up the House of Israel” (4,11). Our writer’s knowledge of the law of levirate In the context of the story’s connection with marriage is apparent already in Naomi’s speech the law of levirate marriage, it is worth paying in chapter 1,11-13, where she tries to convince her special attention to the issue of the removing- daughters-in-law of the hopelessness of their stay- throwing of the sandal. In the law of levirate mar- ing with her, explaining that she has no more riage, the sister-in-law removes the sandal of her sons who might marry them. And even if she husband’s brother who refuses to carry out his were now to remarry and bear more sons, “should duty by her, and spits in his face, an act of humil- you wait for them to grow up?” (v. 13) – a ques- iation: “His sister-in-law shall approach him tion that reminds us of Genesis 38,11: “Stay a before the eyes of the elders and slip his sandal widow in your father’s house until Shelah my from his foot and spit in his face and speak out son grows up”. and say, ‘So shall be done to the man who will A strong resemblance to the law of levirate not build his brother’s house’; And his name shall marriage is felt in Boaz’s words about redemption be called in Israel: the House of the Slipped-off (and see below about the relation between levi- Sandal” (Deut 25,9-10). But in Ruth it is explained rate marriage and redemption in the Book of that removing the sandal was done in every case Ruth): “if he will act as a redeemer, good! let of redemption or exchange, and the matter of him redeem. But if he does not want to act as spitting is not mentioned at all: “Now this was redeemer for you…” (3,13), to which we compare formerly done in Israel in cases of redemption or Deuteronomy 25,7: “And if the man does not exchange: to validate any transaction, one man want to wed his sister-in-law…” (in our story, would take off his sandal and hand it to the other. the closest kinsman-redeemer fills the role of the Such was the practice in Israel” (4,7). The next brother-in-law who refuses to take his sister-in- verse, “So when the redeemer said to Boaz, law). ‘Acquire for yourself,’ and he slipped off his san- The ascent to the city gates and using the dal” (v. 8), presents a difficulty: whose sandal is elders there as witnesses is also a common ele- being referred to, that of the closest kinsman or ment to both the law of levirate marriage and Boaz’s? Notwithstanding the conclusion of the the Book of Ruth (cf. Deut 25,7-9 and Ru 4,1-2, Rabbis, the Aramaic Targum and others, it seems 9, 11). Both texts concern themselves with con- that it was the sandal of the seller – this creating tinuing the name of the dead brother: “And it a parallel with the law of levirate marriage: in

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both cases, the one who owns the rights is the that property remain within a family. The Book one with the shoe, and the transfer of the shoe of Ruth speaks about the redemption of Ruth symbolizes the transfer of rights. In the Torah, (3,9.12-13) and also the redemption of the land the ceremonial transfer of rights includes also an (4,3-4), and binds them both together (4,5ff.; see act of humiliation, while in Ruth the transfer is particularly vv. 9-10). According to the law of made in an honorable fashion. the redemption (Lev 5,25-28), a redeemer – i.e. It is impossible to know whether the writer a relative – of a person selling a field, can redeem of Ruth portrayed a common custom or whether (= buy) it (v. 25), and he has priority over other he took the liberty of making a generalization potential buyers. From the law of redemption it out of Deuteronomy 25. In Jeremiah 32,9-10, in becomes clear that close relations get precedence, any event, the ceremony of the redemption of “his redeemer who is closest to him shall come land includes purchase by money and a deed, and redeem what his brother sold” (v. 25). Cor- and not through the transfer of a shoe. roboration of this detail can be found by compar- Despite the striking similarity with the law of ing the rule regarding the redemption of slaves levirate marriage, which indicates an awareness (ibid., vv. 47-50). and conscious use of the law, the legal circum- The procedure for redeeming land is described stances in Ruth do not coincide with that law: in Jeremiah 32, about the redemption of a field 1. The law of levirate marriage speaks of broth- belonging to Hanamel by his cousin Jeremiah. ers only, while the Book of Ruth deals with The resemblances between the circumstances redemption by a close kinsman. described in Jeremiah 32 and those in Ruth is 2. While the law of levirate marriage is an obli- striking: in both texts a field is offered for sale gation, Ruth is not obligated to marry a close to the redeemer (Jer 32,6-8; Ru 4,3-4); in both, kinsman of Naomi’s. Naomi looks out for her the root qop-nun-he “to buy” is used (32,7-9; and her well being (3,1), and Boaz interprets 4,5.8.9), and also the command “buy it” (32,8; Ruth’s behavior – her willingness to be 4,8). redeemed – as an act of steadfast kindness There is nothing whatsoever in the laws of (3,10). the Torah that pertain to the redemption of 3. According to the law of levirate marriage, the widows. The single possible hint that might be woman is free if she has not been redeemed construed as referring to the redemption of a by her husband’s brother. In Ruth, on the woman is found in the late prophecies of Deu- other hand, she passes from redeemer to tero-Isaiah (Is 54,5.8; and see also 41,14; 49,26; redeemer. 60,16), though there is no evidence that these These differences between the obligations verses refer to widows. What’s more, even the involved in the levirate marriage and the specific closest redeeming kinsman in Ruth is unaware legal circumstances presented in the Book of of his obligation to marry Ruth along with his Ruth testify how, were that book’s protagonists acquisition of her husband’s field. It seems, purists with regard to the Law, it would have therefore, that the redemption of a widow is the been impossible to solve Naomi and Ruth’s pre- singular contribution of the author of the Book dicament. Only an interpretation that was sensi- of Ruth to biblical law. tive to the spirit of the law and that gave primary As already mentioned, the law of levirate mar- importance to humans and their needs could riage that is in Deuteronomy 25 does not entirely facilitate such a solution. For that, the writer of match the circumstances in Ruth. Also the law the Book of Ruth needed also the law regarding of redemption that is in Leviticus 25 – the the redemption of the field. redemption of a piece of land or even the redemp- Like the law of levirate marriage, so does the tion of a relative from slavery – does not solve law of redemption (Lev 25) deal with one issue: the problem in the Book of Ruth. Accordingly,

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the writer of the Book of Ruth, who knew both The writer of Ruth’s devotion to the Torah, laws, combined them in a unique way that bound to its stories and laws, granted legitimacy to his them together. The law of a woman’s redemption new interpretation of the law, and opened the may be a logical expansion of the levirate marriage possibility for marriages with Ammonite and law, following the techniques of halakhic mid- Moabite women. rash, by which laws are combined and their differences smoothed over in a harmonistic way, and it offers a humane solution to human needs. 3

C. Here we reach the essence of the Book of Ruth is the ultimate positive role model – supe- Ruth: it’s the author’s challenge to the law that rior even to Abraham – and she stands abreast is in Deuteronomy 23,4-5, which prohibits mar- with the nation’s other matriarchs, Rachel and riages with Moabites: “No Ammonite nor Leah. She is superior to Tamar and Judah, and Moabite shall come into the Lord’s assembly. even to Rebekah and Abraham’s servant, heroes Even his tenth generation shall not come into of a story that argued for the purity of the fore- the Lord’s assembly ever…” (and see a quote of fathers’ family and of the nation. Indeed, Ruth this verse in Nehemiah 13,1, which expresses is admired by human beings and God alike: opposition to taking foreign wives). The writer Providence gives its blessing over Boaz’s marriage of Ruth does not share the view of the inadmis- with the Moabite woman – “The Lord let her sibility of marriages to foreign women. His book conceive” (4,13). The only one who does not speaks praise of a foreign woman, in praise of share this view of the desirability of marriages her loyalty to Israel and its God, and in praise with foreign women is the closer redeeming kins- of her marriage to an Israelite. He presents both man, who avoids taking Ruth the Moabite as Ruth and Boaz as devoted to the law, so that it wife with the vague excuse “lest I impair my own would be impossible to imagine that they were estate” (4,6). Yet Ruth won a place in history as ignorant of the verse in Deuteronomy 23. It the mother of a royal house and the close kins- seems apparent, therefore, that the writer of Ruth man deprived even his name from being remem- wanted to interpret the verse in Deuteronomy bered: the Book of Ruth refers to him merely as in a narrow fashion, as relating to men only “so-and-so” (4,1). The writer of Ruth thus gave (something that is technically possible due to the David a Moabite great-grandmother in order to nature of gender-specific suffixes in Hebrew), teach his readers that no ancestry – not even a and that is how the verse came to be interpreted Moabite one – is illegitimate. by the halakah as a result of his labors: “An In this way, the Torah, its stories and laws, Ammonite or a Moabite is forbidden and forbid- helped the writer of the Book of Ruth to shape den for all time [to marry an Israelite], but their his polemic against the opposition to marriages women are permitted forthwith…” (Mishnah with foreign women, to overcome his opponents Yebamoth, 8,3). and to leave his mark on Jewish law.

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• Summary Intermarriage and Halakhic Creativity: The Book of Ruth

It is not a coincidence that the and even to Rebekah and Abra- Yair Zakovitch (born in 1945; Book of Ruth, a book written in ham’s servant, heroes of a story PhD 1978 from Hebrew the middle of the fifth century that argued for the purity of the University of Jerusalem) is BCE, shows profound connec- forefathers’ family and of the the Emeritus Father Takeji tions with the Torah (the Hebrew nation. Indeed, Ruth is admired Otsuki Professor of Bible at term for the Pentateuch), its sto- by human beings and God alike: the Hebrew University of ries, and laws. Other biblical Providence gives its blessing over Jerusalem, and a professor books that were written in the Boaz’s marriage with the Moabite of Jewish Peoplehood at early Second Temple period woman – “The Lord let her con- the Interdisciplinary Center reveal a determined campaign ceive” (4,13). The writer of Ruth in Hertzliya (IDC). At the against marriage to foreign gives David a Moabite great- Hebrew University, he served women (particularly Ammonite grandmother in order to teach his as the Chairman of the Bible and Moabite; see Ez 9-10; Neh readers that no ancestry – not Department, the Head of the 10.29-31; 13.24-27). The web of even a Moabite one – is illegiti- Institute for Jewish Studies, connections that runs between mate. – In the end, the Book of and the Dean of Humanities. Ruth and the Torah had a single Ruth triumphed. Nehemiah 13,1 His research revolves around and clear purpose: to help the cites Deuteronomy 23,4 as the the Bible as literature, biblical writer of Ruth shape his polemic basis for its demand to exclude all thought, and the early history against the opposition to mar- foreigners from Israel. The rab- of Jewish and Christian inter- riages with foreign women, to binic sages’ ruling, which based pretation of the Bible. overcome his opponents, and to itself on Ruth, however, inter- Of his many books in Hebrew, leave his mark on Jewish law. – preted Deuteronomy’s law as a few have been translated into In the Book of Ruth, the writer applying only to males, so that other languages, Das Buch presents us with the ultimate marriage with Moabite and Rut: Ein jüdischer Kommentar, positive role model by making Ammonite women was permit- Stuttgart: Kath. Bibelwerk, implicit comparisons with past ted: “(The) Ammonite (man) and 1999; Das Hohelied, Freiburg: heroes – Ruth is superior even to Moabite (man) are forbidden; it Herder, 2004 (Herders The- Abraham, and she stands abreast is an eternal prohibition. But ologischer Kommentar zum with the nation’s other matri- their females are allowed imme- Alten Testament); Jacob. archs, Rachel and Leah. She is diately” (Mishnah Yebamoth, 8,3). Unexpected Patriarch, New superior to Tamar and Judah, Haven: Yale University Press, 2012; and From Gods to God: How the Bible Debunked, Sup- pressed, or Changed Ancient Myths and Legends (co- authored with A. Shinan), Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2012.

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