Technical differences in the painted decoration of Anasazi and Hohokam pottery
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Authors Leavitt, Ernest Eastman, 1930-
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Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/551584 TECHNICAL DIFFERENCES IN THE PAINTED DECORATION OF ANASAZI AND HOHOKAM POTTERY
by Ernest E. Leavitt, Jr.
A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of the
DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS
In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
1962 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR
This thesis has been submitted in partial fulfillment of require ments for an advanced degree at The University of Arizona and is de posited in The University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgment of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Dean of the Graduate College when in their judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interests of scholar ship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.
SIGNED:
APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR
This thesis has been approved on the date shown below:
-3, / f '2—- EMIL W. HAURY Date Professor of Anthropology TECHNICAL DIFFERENCES IN THE PAINTED DECORATION OF ANASAZI AND HOHOKAM POTTERY
by Ernest E. Leavitt, Jr.
ABSTRACT
Pottery is one of the most useful tools in Southwestern archae ology. If fully used, it may be an indicator of cultural relationships, movements, contacts, and developments. Better utilization may be achieved if comparative studies are conducted within traditions through time, and cross-culturally, through space. The thesis proposes a sys tem for establishing comparable classes of data formulated on a study of total decoration, using whole or restorable vessels. Pottery types prior to A. D. 1300 found in the Mesa Verde Branch of the Anasazi cul ture and the River Branch of the Hohokam culture are analyzed and com pared to illustrate the operation of the method. Decorations are analyzed and recorded following the approach of the painter in decoration construc tion through an understanding of the internal mechanics of geometric de
sign. It is concluded that no direct relationship is exhibited in the pottery
ii decoration of the two areas. Qualities which are inherent to design and those which are culturally determined or selected are discussed. The basic tenet of the paper is that similarities between ceramic groups, not through individual traits but through like complexes of traits, will suggest relationships which should be followed up by further archae ological investigations.
iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I wish to express appreciation for the assistance received in gathering the material on which this study has been based. I am grate ful for the time and guidance of Dr. Emil W. Haury, who first encour aged the study, and of Prof. Clara Lee Tanner and Dr. Raymond H. Thompson, members of the thesis committee. My wife, Virginia, who has assisted through many long hours in the production of the manu script, acted as co-worker in the commercial enterprise which initially exposed the problem and as advisor in its formulation and solution. Dr. Haury, Director of the Arizona State Museum, and Jean
Pinkley of the Mesa Verde Museum, and the members of their respec tive staffs assisted me in many ways and made available the collections which form the basis of this study. Mrs. Earl H. Morris of Boulder, Colorado, permitted me to photograph the collection of her late husband.
Dr. Earl H. Morris. The staff at Aztec National Monument aided in the gathering of information at the monument. Dr. Edward B. Danson,
Director of the Museum of Northern Arizona, made it possible for me to study the collection at that institution. CONTENTS
Page
1. INTRODUCTION...... 1 2. METHOD OF ANALYSIS...... 4
Field of Decoration ...... 7 Layout...... 10
Primary Layout ...... •...... 11 Secondary Layout...... 17 Tertiary Layout ...... 19 Design...... 21 Elements ...... 22 U n its...... 24 M o tifs...... 24
Additional Qualities of Decoration ...... 37
Style ...... 38 Motor Habit...... 39 Size and Shape of the Vessel ...... 44 Filling of Space...... 45
Components...... 45 Space Other Than Components...... 47
S trictness...... 50 Complexity...... 51 C o n trast...... 52
Application of the M ethod...... 53
3. ANALYSIS OF THE MESA VERDE TRADITION ...... 56
v Page The Mesa Verde— Geography and Chronology...... 56 Mesa Verde Black-on-W hite...... 57 Mancos Black-on-W hite...... 80 Cortez Black-on-White...... 90 Piedra Black-on-White...... 97 Chapin Black-on-White...... 102 Summary of the Mesa Verde Tradition...... 103 4. ANALYSIS OF THE RIVER HOHOKAM TRADITION ...... 123 The River Hohokam—Geography and Chronology...... 123 Sacaton Red-on-Buff...... 125 Santa Cruz Red-on-Buff ...... 140 Gila Butte Red-on-Buff...... 147 Snaketown Red-on-Buff...... 149 Sweetwater Red-on-G ray...... •...... 155 Estrella Red-on-Gray...... 157 Summary of the River Hohokam Tradition ...... 157 Casa Grande Red-on-Buff ...... 174
5. COMPARISON OF THE MESA VERDE AND HOHOKAM TRADITIONS...... 179
6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS...... 184
A GLOSSARY OF TERMINOLOGY.USED IN THIS STUDY---- 189
REFERENCES...... 194
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
1. The stages of design construction ...... 6
2. Components of a typical Southwestern pottery design ...... 6
3. Some of the usual fields of decoration on Southwestern pottery vessels ...... 9
vi Figure Page 4. Characteristics of bands and bordering...... 12
5. Types of sectioned lay o u t...... 14 6. Types of centered layout...... 16
7. Types of lateral layout...... 16 8. Examples of problems encountered in distinguishing lay out types...... 18 9. Internal division of bands and sections . i ...... 18 10. Secondary layout or internal organization of sections .... 20 11. Some internal organizations of band panels ...... 20
12. The common elements of Southwestern geometric design . 23 13. Basic units in Southwestern geometric design ...... 25 14. Examples of design representing the nature of motif interaction...... 29
15. Examples of design representing the types of interaction. . 29
16. Common motifs in Southwestern geometric design ...... 32
17. Design units illustrating the relationship of symmetry and interaction •...... 36 18. Designs illustrating motifs with similar shapes using different design u n its...... 36
19. Examples of the varying characteristics of m otifs...... 36
20. The development and change of the scroll through motor habit change in Hohokam design ...... 42
21. The dependency of lines on one another in layout ...... 42
vii Figure Page
22. Vertical or cylinder-like fields on Mesa Verde Black- on-white vessels ...... 42 23. Examples of wide band filling techniques in Southwest ern design ...... 48 24. True negative design, pseudo-negative design, and techniques for filling space in decoration other than design components...... '...... 48 25. Designs on Mesa Verde Black-on-white ...... 66
26. Some Mesa Verde Black-on-white designs representing variations of the scroll and fret, secondarily attached • elements, and secondary interaction ...... 74
27. The difference between combined-form and multiple- repetition ...... 79 28. The use of combined solid and hatch in Mesa Verde Black-on-white...... 79
29. Framing lines used on Mesa Verde Black-on-white ...... 79
30. Designs on Mancos Black-on-white...... 86 31. A few designs found on Cortez Black-on-white, Piedra Black-on-white, and Chapin Black-on-white ...... 93 32. Designs on Cortez Black-on-white ...... 95
33. Designs on Chapin Black-on-white and Piedra Black- on-white ...... 100 34. Examples of designs used both as painted area and as background color ...... 127 35. Some uses of design motifs and design placement in Sacaton Bed-on-buff and Santa Cruz Red-on-buff decoration ...... 127
viii Figure Page
36. The range of common forms in Sacaton Red-on-buff...... 130 37. Designs on Sacaton Red-on-buff...... 134 38. Designs, on Santa Cruz Red-on-buff...... 145 39. Designs on Gila Butte Red-on-buff ...... 150 40. Designs on Snaketown Red-on-buff ...... 154 41. Designs on Sweetwater Red-on-gray ...... 156
42. Designs on Estrella Red-on-gray ...... 158 43. Hohokam designs showing variations of the scroll, tri angle-edged bar, early sectioning, and linear all- over design ...... 167 44. Designs on Casa Grande Red-on-buff...... 175
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Percentages of vessel forms in the Mesa Verde a r e a ...... 58
2. Layouts found in primary fields of decoration in Mesa Verde Black-on-white ...... 59
3. Layouts found on primary fields of decoration in Mancos Black-on-white ...... 83 4. Layouts found on primary fields of decoration in Cortez Black-on-white ...... 92 5. Sample count for fields of decoration on Mesa Verde pottery...... 104
6. Sample count for layouts on Mesa Verde pottery ...... 105
ix Table Page 7. Sample count for unit functions in Mesa Verde Black-on- white ...... 106
8. Sample count for unit functions in Mane os Black-on- white ...... 107 9« Sample count for unit functions in Cortez Black-on- white ...... 108 10. Sample count for unit functions in Piedra and Chapin Black-on-white...... 109
11. Sample count for combined-form and multiple-repeated motifs in Mesa Verde p o tte ry ...... 110 12. Popular unit percentages for Mesa Verde, Mancos, and Cortez Black-on-white...... I l l 13. Sample count for secondarily attached elements in Mesa Verde Black-on-white ...... 112 14. Layout percentages for Mesa Verde pottery ...... 117
15. Percentages of vessel forms in Sacaton Red-on-buff...... 129 16. Percentages of vessel forms in Santa Cruz Red-on-buff .. 142
17. Sample count for fields of decoration on Sacaton and Santa Cruz Red-on-buff ...... 160 18. Sample count for layouts on Sacaton and Santa Cruz Red-on-buff ...... 161
19. Sample count for unit functions on Sacaton Red-on-buff .. 162 20. Sample count for unit functions on.Santa Cruz Red-on- buff ...... 163
21. Sample count for combined-form and multiple-repeated motifs on Hohokam pottery ...... 164
x Table Page 22. Layout types found on Hohokam pottery...... 166
xi 1.
INTRODUCTION
Painted pottery has long been recognized as a useful tool in archaeological interpretation. In the Southwest much of this pottery has been fairly well placed in space and, generally speaking, in time as well. Form, color, and other features aid in locating ceramics in archaeological history, but decoration, above all, has the greatest cul tural significance since it is the most flexible aspect of this artifact and the most quickly recognized or identified. The purpose of this thesis is to increase the usefulness of pottery as a tool by presenting a method
for design analysis and interpretation. The method indicates a procedure for dissecting decorations,
classifying the components, and establishing comparable categories for comparative study both in time and space. A sample study comparing
the Mesa Verde and River Hohokam ceramic traditions follows the method presentation. Within this thesis the term tradition expresses
the broad definition of a socially transmitted cultural form which per
sists through time. This definition is adapted directly from the Semi
nars in Archaeology held in 1955 (Thompson, ed. 1956). Variations
and elaborations of the term used in the thesis follow the concepts pro posed in the above reference. 2 This method is to be considered flexible, not to be rigidly con formed to. It follows the decoration steps from the point of view of a pot painter, and not necessarily as a critic or an artist viewing it at a later time. The analysis does not require artistic training, but is an expression of simple rules which apply to Southwestern geometric de sign. Much of the method description is superfluous to the use of the method but is aimed at helping the reader understand what happens in design. An effort is made to point out how some features are inherent in geometric design itself and how other features are culturally deter mined or selected. The study has been based on whole vessels. A sample of over two thousand specific specimens was studied and many more pieces were also examined. This emphasis on the entire vessel makes it pos sible to better understand the parts of decoration on the fragments of pottery most often available in quantity to the archaeologist. In part, this study results from a number of years of experience in reproducing these designs for commercial purposes. This experience has given me a view of decorative characteristics normally unavailable to the archae ologist.
This paper is presented to expand our knowledge of pottery decoration; to bring together some of the useful concepts established in previous studies of a similar nature; to enlarge upon these concepts; and to make pottery decoration easier to understand. 3 The analytical method proposed in the study is explained and illustrated in detail in the initial part of the paper. The method has been organized to be applicable to Southwestern geometric design in general. In this paper the method is employed in a comparative exam ination of two distinct pottery groups, the Mesa Verde and the River Hohokam, to determine the similarities and differences which would aid in suggesting possible relationships between the two groups, or the lack of them. The desire was to have the study validate the method as a means for determining relationships between geographical or temporal cultural manifestations through a careful examination and comparison of the pottery decoration. 2. METHOD OF ANALYSIS
The method of studying pottery decoration proposed in this thesis entails a highly detailed examination of the nature of geometric design. More than a study of design structure, it is an effort to ana lyze the evolution of a specific decoration by following the same sequence of line application used by the decorator from the initial gross division of space to the minute details of design. Secondly, it is an attempt to trace a specific decoration back through time to its original form. Analysis is the process of separating something into its con stituent parts. Here we are concerned with pottery decoration which may be separated into organizational and design aspects. These two aspects of decoration may be further separated to clarify all the mean ingful steps necessary to compose the decoration from start to finish.
The first step for the decorator is to choose the area on the blank vessel surface to be decorated (Fig. 1). This is the field of dec oration. Boundary and dividing lines are then applied or visualized to contain the design components and organize them with respect to the vessel form and to themselves. This is layout. After layout lines are
applied, the design is fitted into the field of design, the space allotted 4 5 by these layout lines.
Design itself (Fig. 2) is a composition of fundamental shapes called elements. These forms are basic to all geometric design and may not be further subdivided without completely losing their charac ter. These elements are usually combined to form units. Units are the products of specific traditions of decoration. They are used in combination with like units, different units, or both to form motifs. Occasionally a single unit may form a motif. Motifs are the core of the complete design and are organized and often repeated within layout to form the basic decoration. To this core, additional decorative en richment may be added to complete the total decoration in any given field. Figure 1 and Figure 2 show the constructional stages of design application to the bare vessel, through choice of decorative field and
layout lines to the placement of elements in combination. Additional touches are added and the decoration is complete.
Decoration structure and design components are not necessarily simple. There are many fields, many types of layout, and many varia
tions in design components. These types and variations can be classed into categories having similar characteristics. This classification then helps in organizing any analysis and allows for easier understanding of the individual variations as opposed to group characteristics.
In order to understand the purpose and validity of the classes 6
JAR Blank Field of Primary Secondary Design Vessel Decoration Layout Layout Added
Fig. I. The stages of design construction.
E LEMENTS
U NITS
MOTIFS
COMPLETED PATT E R N
Fig.2. Components of a typical Southwestern pottery desi gn . 7 of structure and components, the stages of design construction will be discussed more fully.
Field of Decoration
The practical aspect of choosing the field of decoration is sim ple. A part of the vessel that would never be seen or a base that would be worn off through use would seldom be painted. Thus bottoms, in sides of jars, lower parts of jar bodies and inner surfaces of handles, for example, seldom carry design. The aesthetic placement of decora
tion on a vessel is usually considered also. Painting one side of the inner surface of a bowl would seem strange and unfinished in most cases, so balance, and often symmetry, as well as the best display of design are desirable.
Another aspect of the field of decoration lies in the vessel form itself, particularly if the pot in question has distinct or semi-distinct
breaks in the surface silhouette. Jar shoulders and the junction of necks to bodies are natural borders to fields of decoration, and often the field
runs between one such surface change and the next. The common, hem ispherical bowl lacks such a break, but there is an imaginary and fluc
tuating line that separates the bottom from the upper wall of the form. The rim itself acts almost universally as a limit to the decorative field,
and seldom does the decoration fall far enough short of the rim to pre vent one from considering it as the upper border of the field adjacent 8 to it.
There are three major generalized forms with a number of general subforms to consider with respect to the field of decoration and two secondary parts associated with them (Fig. 3). The generalized jar form can be thought of as a form which has only exterior decoration except for inside designs which are associated directly with the rim.
The generalized bowl form may have either interior or exterior decora tion or both, but the interior must be accessible enough to view that the designs could be applied easily and be readily seen. The plate is al most flat and decorated on the upper or interior surface. Bottom dec oration might occur on this form but it would be rare and unusual. Often design is directly associated with the rim of the vessel.
It is applied to the rim surface itself (Fig. 3 k), or it is design joined to the rim, either inside or outside or both (Fig. 3_1). Occasionally it is an overlap of design from an adjacent field (Fig. 3 m). Generally the rim and applied additions to the vessel, such as handles or legs, are secondary fields associated with the form and are almost always dec orated separately from the main part of the vessel.
The ease of design application influences the choice of the field of decoration. Some layouts adapt themselves to vertical surfaces such as necks of jars, both interior and exterior upper walls of bowls, and jar bodies. Other layouts require flat or more horizontal surfaces such as jar shoulders and the bottoms of the interiors of bowls. This aspect 9
globular p i Icher mug b c d JARS
© INTERIOR ^3?
^EXTERIOR
INTERIOR EXTERIOR 6 f g BOWL LADLE D IPPER
h
PLATE HANDLES
I m R I M
Fig. 3. Some of the usual fields of decoration on Southwestern pottery vessels. 10 is discussed more fully in the section on motor habit.
Layout
Layout is the primary attack on the field of decoration, and the lines involved are likely to be the longest continuous straight or curved lines used in the decoration. In many cases they separate the design from areas of no decoration, though some embellishing details such as framing lines may be added outside of them. The types of layouts are banded, sectioned, centered, lateral, irregular, and all-over. The all-over layout utilizes such devices as stippling, hatching, fine cross-hatching, or any other decorative device that obviously intends to give a uniform, definitely undivided pattern. Banded and sectioned layouts are divided layouts, where sectors or panels are separated from one another in the field. Centered, lateral, all-over, and irregular layouts are without division. The lines of the divided layout may exist in fact or they may be imaginary or organizational (Fig. 4e, f, j, k), or the rim of the
vessel, whether decorated or not, may act as a bordering line. An interesting point of observation is the fact that lineal division in divided
layout is applied before the design is added. Organizational division, on the other hand, is a mental process and the actual layout does not
materialize until after the design portion has been started.
The types of layout mentioned above are primary layouts. 11 Further subdivision of the divided layouts, the banded and sectioned types, create secondary and occasionally tertiary dissection of the initial plan.
Primary Layout.
A banded layout is a divided layout because it sets one or more strips of design apart from other areas of design or from areas of no de sign in a field. A band is an area which has a width shorter than its length (Fig. 4 a). It can be of any length. Occasionally a band segment or panel of delimited length may have internal characteristics like that of a full band and may be analyzed as such (see secondary layout) (Fig.
4 b). A full band requires opposition of units (Fig. 4 £) or units lo cated between the borders of the band so that balance exists (Fig. 4 d).
If two banding lines are present on a full band, it is lineally bound (Fig. 4 e). If no banding lines are present on a full band, it is organization ally bound (Fig. 4_f). If a full band has only one banding line, it is simply incomplete (Fig. 4 g). Half bands occur in some decoration and may be defined as bands having only one banding line or its equivalent, and no opposition of units (Fig. 4 h). It is just half of one type of full band situation.
One or more bands may occur in a field, but if multiple, there is no interaction between them. If multiple bands have been applied. 12
Fig. 4 . Characteristics of bonds, a - i , and bordering , j, k . 13 they are generally of the same pattern. Sometimes alternating patterns are used and entirely different patterns may occur in each band. Sec ondary or filler bands also may occur in multiple-band situations (Fig.
4_i)- Another type of primary layout is sectioning. This layout, as well as centered and lateral layouts, normally have a circular field.
Sectioning seems to be used on a surface that is more or less horizontal to the vessel orientation. The area is broken up into fields of design of fairly equal proportions, but often with a blank or secondarily filled area left between them (Fig. 4 j). Occasionally segments or bands are es tablished which cross the circular field. This is called cross-banding.
Lineal or organizational division sets aside these sections in much the same way that a band is established (Fig. 4 k). There are many types of sectioned layouts, and a number of the more commonly used ones can be placed in recognizable classes (Fig. 5). Normally two, three, or four parts are distinguished. Layouts without division utilize the entire field of decoration and no portion of design is entirely separated from the rest in that field. If a figure is centrally located in the field and is the basis for the de sign, whether it is symmetrical or asymmetrical, this comprises the layout, even if nothing more to the design exists than a simple element or unit. The term "figure” is used to refer to any component of design in a general way. This central unit must, however, be the controlling 2-PART 3-PART 4 -PART
UNILINEAR ) © 63® SIMPLE SECTORED © 6Be* LUNATE ##
UNILINEAR T >© V(D ©t: ? OFFSET SECTORED © ^ ... © © ©
CROSS BANDING
Fig. 5. Types of sectioned layout . 15 factor upon which the rest of the design, if any, is built (Fig. 6). More over, it must have been applied first, before the rest of the design, and must be primary to the lateral additions. Lateral designs are much like centered ones, but more than one primary figure is involved and consequently they lie laterally with reference to the horizontal type field (Fig. 7). In both lateral and cen tered layouts, all lines are part of design with the exception of the border line encircling the field, if it exists. Lateral figures may be attached to the rim or separated from it. Most lateral layouts involve two figures, though three and some times four figures are found. Thus the types of primary layout have a definite relationship to the plane of the field of decoration. If the field is idealistically like the surface of a cylinder, it is usually banded.
If, however, it is more flat or horizontally oriented, as the surface of a plate, the sectioned, centered, and lateral layouts are most common ly chosen. Confusion may exist between half-banding and some uses of
sectioning. This may be clarified. If lines exist which are not part of
design components, but are distinctly division lines, the layout is sec tioning (Fig. 8 a). Half bands have only design motifs pendent from the
banding line (Fig. 8 ar); some of these banded situations also may ap
pear similar to sectioning. If the lower banding line is present (Fig.
8 b, c), it must be considered a band in the primary layout level of
analysis. 16 I 2 -PART 3-PART 4-PART
Fig. 6 . Types of centered loyou*.
FLOATING p
Fig.7. Types of lateral layout. 17 In sectioned, centered, and lateral layouts there seems to be a distinct attempt at two-, three-, and four-fold symmetry, which is often achieved with great success in later, more sophisticated pottery decora tion in the Southwest. Earlier wares are usually less successfully dec orated, and sometimes the symmetry is lost altogether, leaving only the feeling of the two-, three-, or four-fold character in the decoration (Fig. 8 d). Colton (1953) has suggested symmetry terminology to clas sify these layout subtypes. These terms are bilateral, trilateral, and quadrilateral. I consider these terms unsatisfactory because they make the relationship of symmetric and non-symmetric designs which have similar character in their two-, three-, and four-fold organization dif ficult to correlate. Therefore, I suggest that layouts or designs be described as two-part, three-part, or four-part.
Secondary Layout.
Secondary layout is the controlled utilization of the area de limited by the primary layout. This situation applies only to bands and sections. Divided secondary layouts also may have lineal or organiza
tional division.
The types of division utilized in the secondary layout are im portant to consider. Direct division requires that complete division is
carried out by the use of straight or curved, unbroken line segments
(Fig. 9 a). Indirect division uses two or more straight or curved. 18
Fig. 8. Examples of problems encountered in distinguishing layout types.
77 XAZ\
f 9
Fig. 9 Internal division of bandsand sections . 19 unbroken line segments (Fig. 9 b). In the banded layout the division orientation may be vertical (perpendicular to the banding lines), oblique (at an angle less than 90 degrees to the banding lines), and a variation of oblique called alternat ing oblique where the division lines are either equal or unequal and vary consistently in direction. They may cross, join at the ends, or be com pletely separated (Fig. 9 c, d, e). In a section the division lines are
either parallel or oblique to the sectioning lines (Fig. 9_f). The paneling of bands is direct division. Undivided bands have
oriented units without division. Half bands have no division, only ori entation. If paneling does exist, no interaction takes place between
them. Each is separated from the next by direct division but the divider
may be either spaced or single (Fig. 9_g). Undivided secondary layouts in sectioned design have much in common with the undivided primary layouts. The sectors are treated much like the total field (Fig. 10). Undivided bands contain continuous or repeated design components and all lines between the banding lines
are part of the design.
Tertiary Layout.
Tertiary layout is rare; it is accomplished by dividing secondary
layouts. The ways of subdividing or organizing panels are shown in
Figure 11. 20 1/2-CIRCLE 1/3-CIRCLE 1/4-CIRCLE
LINEAL H h i A i i
SINGLE FIGURE
PANELED I
IRREGULAR MULTIPLE • *> FIGURE
Fig. 10. Secondary layout or the internal organization of sections.
/ \ \ /
Fig. II. Some internal organizations of band panels. 21 The application of the concept of layout as presented here varies from its usage in reports presenting similar methods of analysis.
Amsden (1936), on whose work a large portion of this method was found ed, mentions subdivision of banded layouts but goes into little detail. Subdivision of the sectioned layout is only suggested in one of his charts (Amsden 1936: 8). Tertiary layout is not considered at all. I have found his subtypes are often ambiguous. His consideration of layout is sound, but it lacks detail and is somewhat incomplete. Shepard (1956) treats layout very superficially, illustrating a few subtypes, as I would consider them. She does not point out the differences between sectioned, centered, or lateral layouts, but does recognize the two- and four-fold nature of many designs (Shepard 1956: 296). Colton's system (Colton
1953) is extremely limited and, as indicated above, is based on sym metry terminology.
Design
Design and layout are completely separate entities. In a sense design is the decorative item. Layout is the organization of the decora tive item on the selected medium. In theory any design may appear in any layout and conversely, any layout may contain any design. The combinations which we come
to consider commonplace in the realm of pottery decoration are those
employed in particular traditions. 22 The type of design we are concerned with in this study is called abstract geometric design. The elements utilized in most cases are simple geometric figures with occasional simple zoomorphic forms added in certain cultural contexts.
Elements.
Elements, which are the simplest complete forms in design, are composed of three basic components: line, line segment, and dot.
The elements which appear in Figure 12 are created from these simple forms. These elements are the most common examples found on South western prehistoric pottery. In an attempt to simplify the definition of what may be considered an element, and what may not, I apply the rule that all the elements must be constructed without the intentional crossing of lines. Line junction is, of course, necessary, but in all situations where the lines cross in a design figure, the result is a combination of these simpler forms, and I prefer to call them units. Colton (1953) and Douglas and Raynolds (1941) seem to follow the definition given by the latter that an element is "the simplest complete design in any pattern. "
I suggest that it should read "in all patterns." The interpretation of this definition, which I make on the basis of both works mentioned above, is that an element is any component which can stand alone in a decora tion. The examples which they illustrate (Colton 1953: 47; Douglas and
Raynolds 1941) are anything from elements to motifs in complexity. 23
# DOT SEMICIRCLE
LINE SEGMENT A PARABOLA
SCROLL OR HOOK □ SQUARE
RECTANGLE pr FRET OR HOOK
TRIANGULAR FRET PARALLELOGRAM / / OR H O O K
RIGHT TRIANGLE f \ uu U-SHAPED FIGURE y \ ISOSCELES TRIANGLE V CHEVRON EQUILATERAL A TRIANGLE [X STEPPED TRIANGLE
SCALENE TRIANGLE
TERRACE 0 DIAMOND o CIRCLE LA TRAPEZOID
Fig. 12 T h e c o m m o n e l e m e n t s of Southwestern geometric design . 24 Elements are the fundamental geometric forms on which all geometric designs are based. An element in design should have an equivalent status to an element in chemistry.
Units.
When elements are put in combination in the decoration they form units. The unit has more cultural significance in that we recognize specific combinations which are used time and time again in specific group inventories. Those in common usage in Southwestern pottery are shown in Figure 13. Although Figure 12 does not necessarily list all the possible elements in geometric design, there is a greater assurance that Figure 13 is not a complete list of all possible units. The term ’’basic unit” refers to the essence or common denom inator of all design unit variations in a particular class. In Figure 13 I have used a symbol for the basic unit and illustrated beside it some of the possible variations which can exist.
Motifs.
Units still maintain a certain degree of simplicity in design. When they are utilized and put in combination to form motifs the com plexities of interaction, repetition, and balance come into play. The major aspect of cultural significance in design lies here, because the painter thinks largely in terms of motifs when organizing the design 25
BASIC VARIATIONS VARIATIONS BASIC VARIATIONS VARIATIONS UNIT OF BASIC SHAPE FOUND ON POTTERY UNIT OF BASIC SHAPE FOUND ON POTTERY /c/3'
tW- yW % X
/OC
I H E-3 H 1 ^ 1# E FIGURE 13
BASIC UNITS IN SOUTHWESTERN GEOMETRIC DESIGN
The units are grouped according to a relation
ship based on common function similarities in design plus some gross similarities in construc tion. The grouping is largely taxonomic but with the suggestion that it might logically follow
that members of any particular group are likely to be interchangeable within a tradition. Ele ments which commonly function as units are
included. 26 (Bunzel 1929). She draws upon the inventory of motifs available to her in her cultural experience and composes the structure around them in many cases to devise the decoration which suits her.
It is most important to understand that in simple design an ele ment can act as a unit or even as a motif and, in like manner, a unit may act as a motif. In this study an element is of no consequence until it is a part of a specific design and so becomes a part of a cultural con figuration, namely a unit of design. This unit may be composed of only one element, and similarly the motif may contain only one unit formed by one element. The definitions for unit and motif above indicate a com bination, thus illustrating the normal occurrence. Simple design estab lishes some exceptions to these rules.
To achieve the complete pattern, most motifs require an inter action of units. This is not always true, however, and simpler designs are created by using individual units and even elements as motifs with out interaction (Fig. 14 a, ar). When interaction does exist between units, the nature of this interaction may be expressed as follows:
1. Single row and multiple row interaction: If the secondary layout or internal organization of a band has more than one row of motifs running parallel to the banding or panel lines, or if a section has this and interaction occurs between rows, this is multiple row interaction
(Fig. 14_b). If, on the other hand, only one row of motifs exists, it is single row interaction (Fig. 14 c). 27
2. Simple interaction: Interaction occurring with only one other component (Fig. 14 c).
3, Complex interaction: Interaction occurring with two or more other components. a. Same action with each of the other components (Fig. 14 d). b. Different action with each component (Fig. 14 e). In order to classify motifs found in any group of decorations it is well to recognize the basic units comprising the core of the motif.
Secondly, an evaluation of the type of interaction taking place among
these units establishes a specific class of motif. The total number gleaned from the study is usually of such limited quantity as to make the handling of data relatively easy.
The types of interaction are:
1. Interlock and overlap: These two types may be considered the same in this kind of study. They differ mostly in a matter of degree.
To achieve interlock, the interrelation of the two parts is such that the two parts are completely engaged. Overlap does not require this degree of bondage, but as far as design is concerned I see no reason to sepa rate them at this time (Fig. 15 a).
2. Opposition: By the dictionary definition, this means across from and facing. It suggests that comparable sides of each unit face on
each other. With respect to the base line or lines of the design, the op
position may have vertical, oblique, or horizontal orientation (Fig. 15 b). 28 3. Shape conformity: So far as can be determined, shape con formity goes hand in hand with opposition, although the reverse of this is not necessarily so. Shape conformity simply means that when two elements or units face one another, all the variations in contour on the face of one have corresponding contours on the one facing it, and the entire surface of each line remains roughly equidistant from the one opposed. There need not be space between, in which case the two would share a common line or lines (Fig. 15 c).
4. Inter development: This means that two or more units of a motif are constructed on the same line segment or segments. However, this line segment must be continuous from one unit to the next (Fig. 15 d).
5. Junction: Two or more units are joined either by interde velopment, which is the sharing of the same line segment, or by an additional line or lines, or by meeting at a point (Fig. 15 e).
6. Running Continuity: Running continuity refers to continuity by a continuous flow of line (see section on motor habit) (Fig. 15 f^ _fT).
A further understanding of the character of motifs can be gained through a careful examination of the basic units involved. The shape of
individual elements and units in geometric design is a definite factor in controlling the organization and interaction among the components of
patterns. In Southwestern prehistoric design of the last 200 years prior
to A. D. 1300, there was a desire to achieve bilateral symmetry within 29
b
e
Fig. 14. Examples of design representing the nature of motif interaction .
Fig. 15. Examples of design representing the types of interaction . 30 the full band, and bilateral, trilateral, and quadrilateral symmetry in the sectioned, centered, and lateral designs. This desire created cer tain standards of position and interaction among design components which became inherent in the execution of geometric design, irrespec
tive of individual cultural preferences. For example, units having bi lateral symmetry within themselves on two coordinates, as in the S- scroll or fret (Fig. 17 a), lend themselves to interlock, overlap, shape- conformity, or spacing. Forms like the square, rectangle, diamond,
or circle have no features to allow for interlock or overlap and function best as spaced units (Fig. 17 b). Units without any bilateral symmetry on either the vertical or horizontal coordinate operate best in pairs to achieve bilateral symmetry on both coordinates (Fig. 17 d). The result
is the creation of a combined unit with a character equal to the unit with two-direction bilateral symmetry through the interaction between the
members of the pair. In these cases the interaction outside of the pair is different from that which joins the two. Some units have inherently
only one plane of bilateral symmetry, as for example, the terrace, semi-circle, or the equilateral or isosceles triangle. To create two
planes of symmetry an inverted image is matched with the unit. The resulting interaction, however, is the same on either side of the unit
(Fig. 17 c).
These observations pertain to the trend of design in the South
west prior to A. D. 1300. There are a few exceptions in the late 31 decoration and even more in the earlier development when it seems that the struggle in design evolution was toward this end. This widespread tendency thus excludes such simple arrangements and combinations of the basic units as criteria for cultural distinction. Instead, one must
look to the more specific qualities of the units, the percentages of occur rence, and the more complex combinations where more than one basic unit is involved, in order to obtain clues about cultural preferences. Figure 16, which illustrates the common Southwestern motifs, has been
organized with respect to this type of classification. It is interesting to note that the shape of the variations of dif ferent units creates an illusion of relationship which is quite assuredly of cultural significance in some instances. For instance the diamond- X motif (Fig. 18 a) is very like the motifs shown in Figure 18 b-d. Yet the basic units are not the same. The apparent similarity is only the fact that the units are made to fit the same area, thus giving them al most the same shape. On the other hand, motifs using the same units or elements, though in different ways, or motifs having units or ele ments very similar, like the isosceles triangle and the zigzag or the simple scroll and the 8-scroll, may not have significant cultural re
lationships (Fig. 16). Solution of this type of problem must be left to the investigator who controls the details of the specific situation.
Distinctions between "combined-form" units and variation
within a simple basic unit are based on the fact that "combined-form" 32
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Fig. 16 (cont.). Common motifs in Southwestern g e ometric design . 35 units almost always occur in the particular combination of elements il lustrated. Variations, however, are elements added to the basic form which are interchangeable. One example of the combined-form is the feathered scroll (Fig. 19 a) where feathering, barbs, or dots are con sidered equivalent, and the scroll may also be rectilinear, or a fret. The simple scroll or fret on the other hand may have a myriad of ele ments interchangeably attached to the end or may have a triangular corner filler added at the base (usually in an obliquely oriented inter lock situation, Fig. 19 b). As one might have gathered from the above definitions, more than one type of interaction and a complex nature of the interaction can occur in a single pattern. Also it is not uncommon in some pottery types to have more than one primary motif in a band or section (Fig. 19_c). These can be classified as multiple motifs, and the system of repetition of these motifs falls under the study of symmetry which will be discussed later. Care should be taken, however, to be sure that the motif is indeed primary and not a filler unit (Fig. 19 d).
In summary, geometric design exists without layout in its theoretical state, but is put into a layout for its organization with respect to the field. It is composed of basic elements which are combined to create patterns. These combinations are called units, and when placed in association and interplay with one another, they create motifs. These combinations are often standardized by specific cultures and so give 36
I c
d Fig. 17. Design units illustrating the relationship of symmetry and interaction. Units with two coordinate bilateral symmetry, a,b; one coordinate bilateral symmetry, c , c1; no bilateral symmetry , d .
Fig. 18. Designs illustrating motifs with similar shapes using different design units.
z e /<> /^ > if zf b
c d Fig.19. Examples of the varying characteristics of motifs. Variations of a combined- form motif, the "feathered scroll", a ; secondarily attached ele ments, b; the multiple motif, c; and primary and secondary motifs , d. 37 decoration a definite value as a tool in archaeological research.
Additional Qualities of Decoration
Thus far layout and design have been presented primarily in their skeletal form. To see them as they really exist on the ceramic medium, an understanding of the origins and transitional stages of cer tain features is helpful. In any tradition which has outside contact, borrowed ideas are to be expected. Many innovations also develop within the tradition such as new techniques in applying paint, improved equipment, experimentation, and accidents which lead to new discoveries. Changes in vessel form seem to have bearing on this subject also. Crea tions in design or later changes in these creations which result directly from the abilities or limitations of the manual dexterity of the decorator, or from her variations in manipulating her brush, are products of the action of motor habit. In addition to motor habit there are qualities not previously mentioned in design which assist in making up the style followed by the
tradition at any particular period. Variations in shape of units has been briefly discussed. A tradition may tend to be selective and direct its
preferences toward curvilinear rather than rectilinear design. A tradi tion may also prefer bold-line to fine-line decoration, the contrast of
dark to light design. Some traditions follow simple structure and de
sign; others use complex ones. Some decorations are free flowing; 38 others are strict. These subjective qualities of contrast, complexity, and strictness are difficult to quantify but have their place in the anal ysis and description of pottery groups, traditions, or styles.
A more objective characteristic of a tradition is the observa tion of the handling of space, particularly within the field of design.
Specifically this refers to ways in which space is handled by the place ment of design components, and also the methods of filling design com ponents and areas between components. The choices of these treatments affect style also and aid in making traditions distinct.
Style.
Style is perhaps the most subjective character to abstract from a ceramic tradition. The Merriam-Webster dictionary (second edition) defines style as a ”distinctive or characteristic mode of presentation, construction, or execution in any art... " Colton (1953: 46) refers more specifically to Mstyles of design” created by the frequency of the repetition of specific combinations of design components on different pieces of pottery. Through these repetitions he recognizes design
styles for northern Arizona. The individual styles he presents, how ever, do include additional qualities of treatment. Essentially, style
involves many qualities and characteristics, from the more tangible such as vessel form, color, size, layouts, and design components, to
the more abstract features representing draftsmanship, contrast, 39 boldness, and strictness. A style is a specific recurring combination of a particular relationship of these qualities and characteristics which gives each individual vessel on which they occur a membership in the
group. A stylistic group may be extremely limited or quite broad de pending on the purpose of selection. Wasley (1959) has utilized Colton's
system of styles of design, but has gone into far more detail in ex pressing and defining the concept, and has enlarged the list of specific styles advanced by Colton to include the many represented in the ceram ic complex found in the western part of central New Mexico. He has emphasized the importance of utilizing the styles of design as correla
tion criteria among ceramic groups both temporally and areally. His
styles encompass the subjective and objective qualities expressed in
this study, and the method proposed for the analysis of design and lay out in this paper can be thought of as an extension of his work. It is a
more detailed way of extracting comparable data from a decorative tradition for the establishment of specific styles of design.
Motor Habit.
Motor habit gives some explanation as to why certain parts of decoration, and consequently styles, develop and change. There seems
to be little doubt that "systems” used in design build-up were often de
veloped by the potters individually in order to accomplish the design in
a regular, easy manner. These "systems" were taught to the following 40 generations until someone tried a new approach, a slightly different technique for forming the design, thereby altering the design slightly and effecting a change. There is some evidence that the Hohokam running S-scroll (Gifford 1953) was created by the discovery of the use of a continuous flowing line (Fig. 20 a). The earlier scrolls were made individually (Fig. 20 b). Later, as the style of the running S-scroll be came more rectilinear, line segments were found easier to use (Fig.
20 c). This new technique resulted in an elaboration of the original motif. The running S-scroll has many variations and in Hohokam pot tery it is a very common device. Another important aspect of motor habit and manual dexterity is the fact that almost every line put into banded design is dependent on the rim, or if cross banded, on an imaginary or real line of bisection, in other words, a line across the greatest diameter of the field (Fig.
21 a). This is true of most sectioned and lateral designs as well. Cen tral designs are based on the center and the rim. Each element is applied consistently with respect to the place ment of the previous element, not necessarily touching it but approxi mately at a constant distance from it. Frequently the position of the first line of layout is flexible but once applied the lines completing the layout are rigidly controlled. Take, for instance, the offset quartered layout. The first line runs from the rim, or a line parallel to the rim, to an undetermined point off center (Fig. 21 b). From there the second 41 line starts on the first line and runs perpendicular from that line to the rim (Fig. 21 c). Naturally all lines of layout and design are not fully predetermined by the previous lines, but in most cases restriction is placed on each line by those that precede it. The contour of the field influences motor habit. A band is easily placed on a vertical surface, as for instance a cylindrical form. To draw a banding line on a plate form requires a constant curve of the line conforming to the rim, which is difficult to execute. On the cylin drical form, the vessel can be held and rotated so that the line is ap plied more like putting a pencil line on a revolving drum. Naturally both pot and brush move, but the control is far greater than it would be on the plate. It follows then, that the more vertical a surface tends to be, the more apt it is to be banded and the flatter it is, the less apt it is to be banded. The areas on Mesa Verde forms which most closely approximate the cylinder would be the side of a mug or pitcher, the area encircling the greatest diameter of jar forms (jars lack a pro nounced shoulder), and the upper portion of a bowl wall, both inside and out (Fig. 22). Thus, if a band is used, it would be expected in these areas. The band is composed of constantly repeated motifs, therefore only part of a band need be seen to get a complete picture of the whole. Bunzel (1929: 3) recognized this relationship between lay out and field orientation in Zuni pottery.
If a flat area, or an area approximating a plate surface, is XiyQyQ 42 Q
Fig. 20. The development and change of the scroll through motor habit change in HohoKam design .
Fig. 21. The dependency of lines on one another in layout .
BOWL
Fig. 22. Vertical or cylinder -like fields on Mesa Verde Black-on-white vessels . 43 under consideration, contour banding is impractical from the point of view of dexterity. It is far easier to use lines that cross the area or
to use free forms. Thus areas of vessels like the bottom interior of a bowl, a plate, the upper body of a wide jar with narrow apperture, or
similar forms are usually sectioned. Sometimes they are undivided, with random placement of figures, or they have free or geometric fig
ures centered or placed laterally in the area. To understand such de
signs they must be viewed as a whole.
In may own experience in copying these design layouts, it was found that some were easier to construct than others, and it is interest ing to note that the easier layouts are more common in my sample. Bi section and quartering, and layouts closely related to them, are easier because the sectioning lines cross the field in a straight, or at least continuous, line. Three-part layouts are manually more difficult to construct and still obtain good balance. Perhaps this is the reason that they are comparatively rare. The study of motor habit can help explain the history and nature of geometric and other abstract design. It usually does not explain dif
ferences in culture as, for instance, why the Mimbres potters were
such excellent draftsmen. It does help us to understand many of the
difficulties and limits of pottery design and to recognize advances in design execution which show the overcoming of some of these limiting
aspects of motor habit. 44 Size and Shape of the Vessel.
It was stated earlier that vessel sizes and forms had a bearing on style. This influence stems from their effect on the field of decora tion. It would seem logical to assume that there might be some rela tionship between the size of the field of decoration and the choice of de signs or layouts. If the field of decoration is large, the easiest choice is the sectioned, centered, or lateral layouts. In sectioning the area is easily handled because the field is broken up into smaller fields. In the case of the centered or lateral layouts the remaining field is not too important to the fundamental character of the design and can be handled in a number of ways such as leaving it blank, hatching it, filling it with concentric lines, or sectioning it, to mention a few. If, on the other hand, a banded layout is desired, another approach is required. First,
in the band, the technique of subdividing can be used as it can be in sectioning. This can be done by vertical or oblique panels, which may then be treated as bands in themselves (Fig. 23 a), or by multiple hor izontal banding (Fig. 23 b). These devices are especially useful when the band is very wide. An example of the use of these techniques in wide bands is often found on the mug and occasionally too, on the pitcher form.
Another technique used with the wide band is the application of single figures which do not interact with each other (Fig. 23 c). The 45 space between is then filled by much the same means as was indicated for the centered type above. Actually there is considerable similarity of character between these two types.
Still another important technique used with large bands is that of multiple-row interaction, where each row of motifs interacts with the one above and below it (see section on motifs). These rows can be piled up indefinitely to fill the space (Fig. 23 d). It is difficult to adjust most figures to fit a band which is ex ceptionally wide in proportion to its length and at the same time have enough figures to retain a pleasing effect. Therefore, a wide band area is often subdivided into narrower bands of panels; in lieu of this, multiple-row interaction is often utilized. There are a few figures that can be used successfully in large size. Such units or motifs are com posed of concentric, spiraling, or parallel stacked lines such as con centric squares, scrolls, or chevrons (Fig. 23 e).
Filling of Space.
Components. The filling of design components is a problem separate from filling the field of decoration. Some mention has been made of the use of solids and hatching as fillers of space which is sec ondary to the main design. They should also be considered as a filler of space primary to the main design, in other words, the filling of the elements which comprise the primary units and motifs. Some pottery 46 types use solids predominantly, as for example, Sosi Black-on-white
(Colton 1955), while others, like Snaketown Red-on-buff (Gladwin, Haury,
Sayles, and Gladwin 1937), use hatching. Some types use them sepa rately, while others make use of them together. An example of the former might be Mancos Black-on-white (Abel 1955), and of the latter, Tulerosa Black- on - white (Martin, Rinaldo, Bluhm, Cutler, and Grange 1952: 55). There are many types too, where the use of solids or hatch ing is not definitive at all. In a design study one should consider the use of solids and hatching as possibly being a definitive characteristic al though it would not always apply.
There are a few traditions that make use of a technique that could be called negative design. In this I refer to those units that are outlined and then the surrounding area is filled, rather than the unit itself (Fig. 24 a). Such a technique was used on the Snaketown Red-on- buff particularly. This technique of creating a negative design should not be confused with another technique where the blank area left by the applied design also forms an integral part of the total design. In late
Hohokam decoration of the Sedentary Period (Fig. 24 b) and in late Pueblo HI pottery of the Kayenta Branch of northeastern Arizona (Fig. 24 c) the control in applying the paint and the choice of motifs produced blank areas that formed interesting and precise designs in themselves and created a desired balance of dark and light. No doubt this was in tentional on the part of the decorators, but it was essentially a result 47
of the applied pattern in its fundamental state. On the other hand, in the first case of negative design described here the negative design was the original intent when that particular pattern was first developed. Al though I have found this a matter of much controversy when discussing
it with colleagues, I think that the two types of negative design are dis
tinguishable.
Space Other Than Components. Additional methods for filling or utilizing space both in the primary design and in secondary areas are varied and create differing effects which aid in establishing or altering the styles of decoration. Enrichment may be used as a spacing device, as between panels or bands (Fig. 24 d). Other typical examples are
framing lines (Fig. 24 e), pendant units from bands (Fig. 24 f), small units placed in blank areas or otherwise disassociated from the main design (Fig. 24 g), and a number of line embellishing details such as dotting, feathering, barbs, and stippling (Fig. 24 h, _i). Contour and corner filling or "cove" (Chapman 1936: 18) are two other devices employed in the handling of space. Contour filling is used in the waste space left when a unit is placed in an area whose shape does not conform to it (Fig. 24 j, k). When the Hohokam used the inter locking curvilinear scroll in a triangular area, the space between the triangle and the curve of the outside sweep of the scroll was handled
with a combination of contour and corner filling. 48
d
Fig. 23. Examples of wide band filling in South western design .
j k
Fig. 24. True negative design, a; pseudo-nega tive design, b, c . Techniques for filling space in decoration other than design c am pone nts, d - k . 49
Shepard (1957: 298, Fig. 57) has described the techniques for filling and using space on Mesa Verde Black-on-white and thus has pro vided an excellent example of this type of description in the study of a particular ceramic group. All design has characteristics which cannot be quantified easily and about which only impressions can be stated. These impressions quite normally vary with each person who experiences them, but some value can be gleaned from these elusive characteristics which could help in relating or comparing pottery traditions and perhaps even pottery types. Thompson (1958: 8) expresses this need for the subjective ex amination and the inferences derived from this source. The individual performing the study has, through his reasonably extensive association with the material, accumulated subconscious opinions or feelings about it. He knows the material presumably better than anyone else, and should be able to give sound judgment of subjective qualities expressed in his material because of his professional training and his familiarity with the problem.
In her description of the style of Mesa Verde Black-on-white, Shepard (1956: 300-04) has applied her subjective judgment to certain
aspects of design, as, for example, line and area and dark to light.
Her terminology varies from that used in this study, but her concepts
are much the same. Another concept which she has employed in a most 50 detailed way (Shepard 1948, 1956) is symmetry. The extreme degree to which she has applied this concept is of little use in the type of method proposed in this paper.
Each of the three subjective characteristics of pottery decora tion considered here is actually bi-polar with a sort of continuum be tween the extremes. No definite characters express either extreme nor any intermediate position. Therefore the comparison of one tradi tion with another may be extremely difficult unless there is a great deal of difference between each tradition. Thus these characteristics are only useful in definitely contrasting situations or perhaps in situations where they are very much the same.
Strictness.
The first characteristic, strictness versus freedom of design, typifies the subjective nature of this method of comparison. No one can set down a series of requirements for either extreme which would cover its complete scope, but if one could, it would be difficult to judge the cases falling between the two poles. There are a few things that would be satisfactory as indicators of strict design, whereas the opposite of each requirement would be freedom. These are:
1. design components are bound by layout lines or division lines,
2. the units are small, and tightly placed. 51
3. painting strokes are short, straight, and direct, or have definite control points governing their placement, 4. the use of asymmetry and non-geometric form is rare, 5. there is a predominance of rectilinear design, and if zoomorphic or anthropomorphic units are used they too are rectilinear and geometric. It would not be expected that any pottery type would fulfill all of these requirements or any of them, for that matter, in their extreme form. The types would all fall somewhere on the continuum between the extremes. Considering the requirements mentioned above, it would be possible to place one tradition of design into the continuum and another relative to the first in approximately the same position.
Complexity.
Another characteristic pair is that of complexity versus sim plicity. The same problems apply as in the strict or free case. Some of the things to look for in a complex design are as follows:
1. there is a wide choice of fundamental layouts, motifs, and units,
2. there are many variations on the items in the first case, 3. there is a strong use of elaboration both within the funda mental units and in embellishments and secondary items of other sorts,
4. many fields of decoration exist both on all vessel forms in 52 the tradition as a group and on each vessel individually. Complexity is especially present when complex designs are used on each of the multi ple fields.
Contrast.
Contrast is another characteristic that is bi-polar in that it means dark versus light. There are various ways to achieve boldness in design and also lightness or delicacy. Contrast can be achieved by thickness of linework as opposed to the delicacy effected by hatching.
Solid elements and size can be manipulated to produce contrast. A decoration on a vessel may be bold in size but delicate in line to effect contrast. Proportion of decorative motifs to vessel size is also sig
nificant in relation to this problem. Another approach is the quantita tive look at dark and light. In other words, do the designs seem to use more dark area than light in the field of design or vice versa, or are they about the same. This quantitative approach is easier to compare
between traditions. Contrast also involves the openness of the units, the tightness of their spacing, the amount of hatching, the presence of
negative units, and the size of negative units relative to their back grounds. Some consideration might also be given to the amount of dec
orated area in contrast to the undecorated portion. The foregoing ma
terial makes it quite obvious that these characteristics of pottery design
must be used on a very generalized level. 53
A point of extreme importance in a method of analysis and classification of design is its foundation on qualities that relate to cul ture and people. A system derived purely for the sake of taxonomy is certainly less valid than one which chooses human causes and effects in relation to decoration as its criteria. The ultimate objective is to understand differences in the way people do things so that their products, which are left behind to represent them, help us to distinguish groups of people. Synthesizing the data leads us to an inventory of the charac teristics of decoration for any group under study, and an evaluation of this inventory allows for a description of the styles which flourished in a group or an area at particular time periods. Most important, how ever, is the utilization of the synthesis of analyzed and classified data, which is the inventory of specific traits and trait complexes, as the raw material for conclusions and interpretations when it is compared with other like information from similar studies. Ceramics have yet to be used to full advantage in archaeological research.
Application of the Method
The following sections include detailed and separate analyses of the Mesa Verde and Hohokam pottery traditions. In spite of the fairly large sample of vessels, there are factors which may somewhat skew the results. The desire is, of course, to derive generalizations with respect to the cultural inventories under study which are useful in 54 comparative work and which represent the tendencies of the groups in volved. The samples give a fairly complete range of the usual charac teristics with a number of deviant variations, but unintended selection due to available sources may have warped the percentages of occurrence a small amount.
Most of the unusual forms, such as effigy and eccentric vessels, have been selected out intentionally in this study since design is the pri mary concern of the study and these forms generally display decoration which has been twisted, altered, or reduced to fit the unusual nature of their shapes.
In order to keep the organization of the analysis in a consistent and understandable form, the decoration will be discussed first through vessel shapes, their influence on the field of decoration, layout and the field, and, finally, design and its relationship to layout. Each tradition will be handled separately and compared when the internal analysis of each is complete. Within the tradition each type or time period will be examined, then these types will be compared to achieve an historical view.
Since the latest types represent the furthest advance in decora tive sophistication for the tradition, they will be examined first with the intent of obtaining the rules of organization strived for by the tradition.
Working in reverse in relation to time, a better understanding of de velopment may be more apparent. 55
In situations where the nature of the design of a pottery type or tradition warrants a change of emphasis or a somewhat different ap proach in documentation from others under study, such a change will
be utilized. The cause for such an alteration of approach may have significance in contrasting the importance of certain features of a
comparable level between types or traditions. 3.
ANALYSIS OF THE MESA VERDE TRADITION
The Mesa Verde—Geography and Chronology
The Mesa Verde Branch of the prehistoric Pueblo or Anasazi culture was named for the impressive tableland which covers more than 120 square miles of the southwest corner of Colorado and is called the
Mesa Verde. The cultural characteristics which define this branch range over most of southwestern Colorado, northwestern New Mexico, southeastern Utah, and a small portion of northeastern Arizona. The earliest evidence of this culture is termed Basketmaker and extends back a few centuries before the Christian Era. In late Basketmaker times pottery was introduced. Its produc tion in the area continued to about A. D. 1300 when the area was aban doned by Puebloan people, the descendants of the Basketmakers.
The developmental phases, with their associated painted Black- on-white pottery types which have been established by Southwestern archaeologists, are listed below. Current references to these pottery types are found in Abel (1955).
56 57
A.D. 500-700 Basketmaker HI - Chapin Black-on-white
700-900 Pueblo I - Piedra Black-on-white
900-1100 Pueblo H early - Cortez Black-on-white
late - Mancos Black-on-white
1100-1300 Pueblo HI - Mesa Verde Black-on- white Me Elmo Black-on-white is considered a transitional type and examples have been analyzed under Mane os Black- on- white or Mesa Verde Black-on-white. Morefield Black-on-white, Twin Trees Black- on-white, and Mesa Verde Polychrome (Abel 1955) have not been used because their distinctions from other types are of no consequence to this study. Piedra Black-on-white (Roberts 1930) has not been applied to the Mesa Verde area in published reports. The description presented by Roberts is in accordance with the pottery of that time period illustrat ed by Morris (1929), and a study of Chapin Mesa, Mesa Verde National
Park, in preparation by Mr. Arthur Rohn, will use and describe this material in detail.
Mesa Verde Black-on-White
Mesa Verde Black-on-white is represented by an exceptionally large sample. Because of this, the percentages throughout the analysis
are probably relatively free of error. As shown in Table 1, about 65.0%
of the decorated vessels are bowls. Next in popularity are mugs, 19.0%, TABLE l 58 Percentages of Vessel Forms in the Mesa Verde Area
POTTERY TYPES VESSEL TOTAL
FORMS SAMPLE y * y " o=/ > y
BOWLS 64.8 52.0 56.2 40.8 92.4
JARS 10.0 12.8 9.4 42.2 4.6
MUGS 19.1 2.0
PITCHERS 1.8 20.0 18.7 10.9
LADLES 3.9 11.2 9.4 1.5
DIPPERS 6.3 6. 1 1.5
MISC. .4 2.0
SAMPLE 716 148 64 6 4 6 6 1058 SIZE TABLE 2 59 Layouts Found on Primary Fields of Decoration in Mesa Verde Black-on-white
LAYOUTS PRIMARY FIELDS sectioned BANDED CENTERED LATERAL
- BOWLS AND LADLES UPPER WALL INTERIOR 3 6 1 TOTAL INTERIOR 24 5 1 1 4 UPPER WALL EXTERIOR PRESENT PRESENT UPPER WALL AND BOTTOM INTERIOR USED TOC1ET H E R
JARS
UPPER BODY EXTERIOR PRESENT PRESENT PRESENT
UPPER-CENTRAL PRESENT PRESENT BODY EXTERIOR PRESENT
PITCHERS
NECK 9
UPPER BODY 7 C
CENTER BODY 3
NECK-UPPER BODY 3
- MUGS
TOTAL BODY 1 3 6
UPPER BODY 1 60 and jars, 10. 0%. Other decorated forms comprise only about 5. 0% of the inventory. A detailed discussion of vessel shapes in the Mesa Verde area is not necessary here since an exceptionally fine study of this has been made by Morris (1929: 214). A few characteristics of shape which strongly influence decoration might be pointed out, however. Bowls of this period are hemispherical, with relatively steep sides allowing for a vertical type of field, both interior and exterior. This type of field often slips down onto the more horizontal surface of the interior bowl bottom since no break in the contour of the vessel demarks the junction of the bottom and the wall. Some bowls utilize the entire interior field, either as an upper wall decoration combined with a figure in the center of the bottom, or as a horizontal type of lay out. Almost all decoration in bowl interiors starts at or just below the rim. Exterior designs generally start about an inch below the rim.
Rims are commonly flattened so that they may be used for simple dec oration (for examples see Morris 1929, Fig. 58).
Within the 73 Mesa Verde Black-on-white jars represented by the percentages given above are five major types: the large water jar
(25), the seed jar (7), the kiva jar (20), the canteen (2), and a wide mouthed jar possibly used for non-liquid storage (6). Three others are globular mugs with jar type bodies.
Except for two with semi-distinct shoulders, jars are essentially 61 globular in body shape. The degree of angularity at the point of greatest diameter varies from round to slightly pronounced, and in general it seems to have some influence on establishing a border to a field of dec oration. The range of angularity, and the fact that no instances approach the distinct Sacaton shoulder of Hohokam jars, has resulted in the clas sifying of all specimens in the globular category. The water jars have two strap handles placed horizontally at the point of greatest diameter, or slightly below it, and a relatively narrow neck rising from the top of the body. One field of decoration lies bordered between the neck junction and the line around the vessel where the handles are located. The neck provides an additional field. Seed jars have no neck and have decoration between the rim or orifice and the point of greatest diameter, or slightly above it. Kiva jars are essentially seed jars with an additional ridge surrounding the rim, leaving a small lip within the ridge to hold a cover. Except for two instances where decoration continues below the greatest diameter, the body fields are like those of seed jars. The exterior surface of the ridge is left undecorated. The top surface is treated like bowl and other rims, and the lip occasionally has simple decoration which may continue up the interior surface of the ridge.
Canteens of the type included in the globular jar category have narrow vertical necks and a pair of loop-type handles attached on opposite
sides of the neck. The body field starts, however, at the neck and 62 extends approximately to the point of greatest diameter although it may vary to just above or below it. The neck is small and rarely decorated though the rim is often simply painted. Wide-mouth jars have flaring lips and the neck, if present at all, is vaguely defined and inconsistent in height. Body decoration starts at the often indistinct break between neck and body and extends to approximately the point of greatest diameter. In the sample only one neck area is decorated, and this appears to be an extension of the body design. The rims are often simply painted. The definite slope of the upper body of globular jars allows for the area to be treated either as a vertical or horizontal field; examples of both are prevalent on water jars and particularly on canteens. Pitchers maintain fairly vertical necks which are often sharply separated from a narrow but well defined upper body field. Globular and shouldered pitchers are of about equal proportion in the inventory; either the shoulder or the point of greatest diameter forms the lower limit of the upper body decoration. Occasionally, if the lower body does not slope away too abruptly, a lower body decoration is utilized. Rims and handles are additional fields for decoration. Four pitchers of the group have the neck field extended to include the upper body, and one example has only one field extending from the rim downward to in clude the lower body area. Pitchers are all treated as vertical type fields. 63
Mugs have, as a rule, only one major field, plus the rim and handle. The shapes vary from barrel-like affairs to cylinders to trun cated cones, but basically they have a cylindrical shape and are treated as vertical fields. All examples have decoration extending from the rim to the base of the wall, though occasionally the slight rounding of the junction between the wall and bottom causes the decoration to end above the curvature. Ladles are fundamentally bowl forms with a handle extended from one side; they maintain the same shape and fields as do regular bowls, with the additional handle area available for simple decoration.
The handle is normally long and cylindrical with decoration on the upper half and end, if looped. Some portions of vessels contain what may be called major or primary fields. Other parts bear secondary fields. With the exception of pitchers, the body walls of vessels offer the primary fields. Bowls, however, often include the bottom. Primary pitcher decoration is on the neck though the body may be equally important. In Mesa Verde Black-on-white primary decoration is on the interior of bowls and the
exterior of jars, pitchers, and mugs. Normally rims, necks, and handles are small areas and are treated simply, often only to embellish
or enhance the total vessel appeal. The preferences for certain fields
on the range of vessel forms is indicated in Table 5.
Mention has been made of the adaptability of specific fields to 64 vertical or horizontal orientation. This refers to the viewpoint taken when planning the area for design application. This orientation influ ences the selection of the layout which delimits and organizes the area to be painted.
Table 2 illustrates the types of layouts found in the primary fields of the basic forms in Mesa Verde Black-on-white. Generally, then, it may be said in reference to the primary fields, that sectioned and centered layouts are found only on bowl in teriors and the upper portion of jar bodies. Lateral layouts occur only on bowl interiors and exteriors, and band decoration occurs on all pri mary fields except total bowl interiors. Table 6 summarizes the occurrence of specific primary lay outs in the sample. The use of secondary layout is rather limited in Mesa Verde Black-on-white. It occurs mostly as panels in banded layouts. In bowl bands 7.1% are paneled, jars 20.4%, mugs 10. 7%, and pitchers 20.0%. One sectioned bowl and one sectioned jar were paneled. One bowl band was secondarily treated as a lateral design. One of two jar bands was sectioned in secondary layout and the other was treated in the manner
of a centered layout. One bowl which was initially sectioned, was subsequently di
vided into secondary and then tertiary layout.
In a complex geometric style such as is found in Mesa Verde 65 Black-on-white, a quantification of design elements is of little value.
The specific elements used become evident in a listing of the units which are far more significant to the study. The basic units and their occurrence are shown in Table 7.
Figure 25 points out the range of variation in the shape of these units. Table 7 also indicates the function of these units within the respective layouts. The preference for specific units which inherently require specific types of interaction strongly influences the percentage of oc currence of interaction types in the inventory. The function of the unit within layout governs the types of interaction involved, or vice versa, as Figure 16 illustrates for the more common units in Southwestern de sign. Table 12 indicates the percentage of occurrence of the basic units relative to the total occurrence of all basic units in bands and the per centage of the way they function relative to the count for each basic unit. Eleven units make up 87.0% of the basic units used on the pri mary banded fields in Mesa Verde Black-on-white. This leaves 13.0% to be divided among the other units in the inventory. These eleven units also exhibit an interesting relationship to each other. Three may be classed together because they are derived from the rectilinear fret.
They are the fret or hook, the S-fret, and the meander. The second group is based on the triangle and under usual conditions, its members all function in a similar way within the band, through opposition and 66 DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR CLASS FIELD
K o g g a
w m m
MM
Fig.25. Designs on Mesa Verde Black-on-white. 67 DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR CLASS FIELD a £
/N/X/
/CsCAL,
mm m m m m j & m m m
BBB! 1BSHSHS Y WN Cl
Fig. 25 (cont.). Designs on Mesa Verde Black -on-white- 68 DESIGN BANDED CLASS
S i 1 n i l 0 X ii* ii X<>X tnzJfr LiiraJPi
xox W # #
is s s r h iisi
XoX
Fig.25 (cont.). Designs on Mesa Verde Black-on-white. 69 DESIGN banded CLASS fELTcL -%_r2_r2_rz IS H
xxm
MMM
% ■ r a f f \
s .
" <
< v \
Fig. 25 (cont.). Designs on Mesa Verde Black-on-white. 70 DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR CLASS FIELD i>r
iHWMIff
i i i i ■ ■
IIIIXIII1X1III
Fig.25 (cont.). Designs on Mesa Verde Black-on-white. 71 shape conformity. They are the isosceles or equilateral triangle, the right triangle, and the stepped triangle. The latter two are not bisym- metrical and thus operate in pairs. The former triangle is bisymmetric and therefore its interaction with the opposing triangles is the same in both directions. The hourglass and interdeveloped stepped triangles form another group since both are formed as interdeveloped triangles and also function alike in normal design. The diamond relates to the triangle group since it is the form of the space left by two sets of directly opposed isosceles triangles and is often used to fill that space. Also, in the same manner, it fills space between consecutive hourglasses and so relates to that group. Checkering and parallel horizontal lines are grouped together because of the similarity of their function in design and because both are created with parallel lines. The horizontal fine-line type often uses alternately filled blocks. The logical conclusion here is that the inventory of basic units in Mesa Verde Black-on-white is fairly limited in simple bands. These units are of the type which may effectively use interlock and shape con formity in interaction with one another. There is, however, a strong usage of uninterrupted design with a tightly knit organization of design units leaving a limited amount of ground color within the field of de sign.
The units frequently used in non-banded decoration are different 72 from those of the band. Eighty-five per cent of all non-banded units are limited to seven. Six of these are based on the scroll or fret and of these six, three are scrolls and two are angular but have sides which curve to the contour of the circular field (Fig. 26 a). The other, a crossed S- fret or swastika (Fig. 26 b), or off-set crossed S-fret or swastika (Fig.
26 c), occasionally has curvilinear or scroll arms (Fig. 26 d). The one additional unit is the nested chevron, used mostly in simple four-part sectioned layouts. Interlock or overlap is again popular within the basic motifs. What may be of greater importance in the comparative study is the number and type of secondary interactions occurring between units of the motifs. This is illustrated by the variations of the basic units (Fig. 25) created by the addition of secondary elements or units to the basic form. These often interact with one another in addition to, and differently from, the primary interaction of the basic form. In Mesa Verde Black-on-white, frets and S-frets are almost the only units in this sample which involve secondary interaction through the addition of secondary units or elements. Other than these, one simple scroll has a triangle at its free end (Fig. 26 e), and one stepped line has triangles attached to the angles, but these do not interact with another unit (Fig. 26 f). A number of obliquely oriented frets utilize triangles at their bases to fill extra space (Fig. 26 g). Many of the frets and S-frets also have secondary units or elements at the free end, 73 but since they themselves do not interact, neither do the secondary units.
The most popular secondary unit is the stepped triangle (Fig. 26 h). Next is the right triangle which is occasionally dotted along its opposing surface (Fig. 26^). The secondary interaction through these forms is shape conformity. Junction is occasionally achieved by using either an hourglass, an interdeveloped stepped triangle form, an inter- developed stepped terrace form, or a parallelogram, which is attached to both of the interacting primary units (Fig. 26_j). A few frets and an occasional 8-fret have junction as a primary interaction (Fig. 26k). As mentioned earlier, elements secondarily attached to the basic units differ from combined-forms in that the attached elements are readily interchangeable and seem to have less standardization in structure than the combined form types. Some designs put two or more different basic units together to form a motif. These combined-forms are shown in Table 11. Also in this table are examples of multiple-repetition, where interdevelopment through a real or imaginary horizontal divider line creates two identical bands joined by multiple-row interaction or another closely related proc ess. In combined-form motifs, the most popular units involve tri angles of various types and units resembling or easily used with tri angles. Of the thirteen combined-forms listed for Mesa Verde Black- on-white, ten involve simple triangles, the other three use frets. Frets 74
Fig. 26. Some Mesa Verde Black-on-white designs representing variations of the scroll and fret, a - d ; secondarily attached elements, e-g; and secondary interaction, h-k. 75 and triangles are also used together in this group. Other units associ ated with triangles are chevrons, zigzags, diamonds, and parallelo grams. Except for the interlock of fret forms, combined-forms result essentially from the use of shape conformity. Some of the multiple-repeated examples may also be considered combined-forms in that the central units are actually new or different units resulting from a joining through interdevelopment of two of the basic units found along the border. These again are either triangles or frets, as are the rest of the multiple-repeated motifs.
Where multiple-row interaction takes place, combined-for ms or multiple-repeated motifs are found, but not all multiple-repetitions or combined-forms require multiple-row interaction. This situation presented a particular problem in the analysis of Mesa Verde Black- on-white. The problem has been included here to illustrate the need for flexibility in any classificatory system in order to establish func tional categories and yet not exclude things that actually should belong. In this case it was difficult to decide which situations were multiple-row in terms of the definition presented earlier. For example, the two motifs, one with two directly opposed triangles and individual diamonds between each set, the other the same except that the diamonds met at their lateral points, were difficult to differentiate in terms of
multiple-row interaction.
The original definition of multiple-row interaction did not 76 satisfy this need. Thus the definition had to be altered. It became evi dent in the above case, and in other examples, that when any function ing pair of units or any single unit crossed the field of design from one banding line to the other, no multiple-row existed (Fig. 27 a). In the situation mentioned above, the junction of the diamonds separated the opposed triangles and so the triangles functioned with the diamonds in oblique opposition, rather than with the opposing triangles, thus creat ing multiple-row interaction (Fig. 27 b). The discussion of combined-form and multiple-repeated situa tions explains the basic units usually involved in multiple-row inter action, and Table 11 indicates the rate of occurrence of those found. The treatment of Mesa Verde Black-on-white to this point has been concerned with the primary fields which are the best indicators of normal decoration. Secondary fields have been slighted since the sample has been largely studied through photographs so that most secondary fields cannot be seen. This situation might skew the ratio quantifica tion and limit the range. Rim and handle decoration and bowl exterior design are well illustrated by Morris (1929, Fig. 59, 57, 60). Exterior bowl designs are generally banded, often without banding lines. Occasionally the motifs of the free bands are limited to two, three, or four in number and might readily be classified as lateral design.
Jar neck decoration is usually very simple and relatively 77 insignificant as far as this study is concerned.
Often the motifs occurring on secondary fields are zoomorphic and of a semi-geometric nature. They are found commonly on strap handles of pitchers and mugs, exteriors of bowls, bottoms of bowls in conjunction with other layouts, and occasionally on necks of jars. There are specific qualities in a tradition which are strongly influenced by selection and which are superficial to the choice and func tion of motifs in layout. For example, the Mesa Verde Black-on-white sample produced only four examples of organizationally bound bands; however, there were twenty-four bands with floating motifs. A floating motif is one which floats between banding lines without touching either one. Following the trend mentioned earlier in connection with the use of uninterrupted design which leaves little background area exposed within the field of design and maintains a tightly knit organization, space filling methods continue this characteristic. Areas left through incongruity between the design units and the banding or bordering lines of the field of design are either filled with secondary units, or the area left is outlined and almost always hatched within. Twenty-five examples of triangles used with oblique frets were counted (Fig. 26 g). The method of hatched filling, when used in bands, normally replaces a motif as a panel, replaces a unit in combined form
designs, or fills space left unusually wide between units. When used in
sectioning, alternate quadrants of four-part layouts are hatched. 78 Centered designs either use a solid central figure surrounded with hatch, or a hatched central figure with bold lines outlining this, and then more hatch. Lateral designs are treated in the same manner as centered. Figure 28 illustrates this method of filling. The frequency of layout types is as follows: Band Sectioned Centered Lateral
Bowls 34 10 28 6 Jars 10 7 2 Mugs 11 The internal filling of units is by hatching, heavy stripes, solid color, or with other elements or units. Solid filling predominates.
Figure 25, illustrating variations of the basic units, indicates the vari eties of filling techniques. True negative design is non-existent, but
the hatched filling mentioned above, and one example of solid filling around a circle with a solid circle within, is somewhat similar. The
type of pseudo-negative design in which the ground color plays an al most equal part with the painted is common. Enriching or embellishing the main design occurs in Mesa Verde Black-on-white through units placed in the bottom of banded bowls
(20 examples), and units pendent to the banding or framing lines such as
dots, barbs, and small triangles. Framing lines are extremely common
on bands and appear occasionally on non-bands.
The percentages for the presence of framing lines are: 79
Fig. 27. The difference between combined- form, a, and multiple -repeti Non, b.
e f 9
Fig. 2 8. The use of combined solid and hatch in Mesa Verde Black- on- white .
T i m
t o x x xxrn:
Fig . 29. Framing lines used on Mesa Verde Black-on - white . 80 bowls, 59. 5%; jars, 54. 9%; mugs, 83. 2%; pitchers, 61. 5%; and ladles, 18. 7%. Framing lines (single or multiple) are composed of bold lines, fine lines, or a combination of bold and fine lines. These lines are generally plain but may be embellished with barbs or dots, or a group of lines may be converted to simple checkering or bricking (Fig. 29). The number of motifs used in specific layouts seems to have significance only in non-band situations or in bands secondarily treated as non-bands. Here the usual two, three, and four parts are exhibited. Sectioning stresses four parts (28 examples). There are also four ex amples of two parts. Centered designs have 21 with four parts, five with three parts, and 18 with two parts. Lateral designs have two with four figures, one with three figures, and 11 with two figures.
Multiple motifs occur only where the second motif is a hatched filler around, between, or opposing the solid one.
The number of bands in multiple banding varies only with the width of the field. Multiple banding occurs most commonly on mugs and pitchers: bowls, 11. 8%; mugs, 51. 7%; jars, 11. 3%; and pitchers 36.3%.
Mancos Black-on-White
Mancos Black-on-white precedes Mesa Verde Black-on-white in the Mesa Verde area. There has been named a controversial type called McElmo Black-on-white which by definition (Abel 1955) is 81 transitional between the two, yet has not been substantially proven and has been ignored in this study. It seems likely that if the type exists, the examples have fallen into the Mesa Verde or Mancos in selection.
The total sample for Mancos is 148, far less than for Mesa Verde. By form, 52.0% are bowls, 20.0% pitchers, 12. 8% jars, and
11.2% ladles. Mugs are noticeably lacking in quantity though this may be partially a result of sampling. Morris (1929) also goes into some detail concerning shape and decoration of this and other Mesa Verde area types; therefore that sub ject will be slighted here. Bowls are hemispherical in general but there are some which are shallower and some steeper than in Mesa Verde Black-on-white. There appears to be no definite relationship between the steepness of the walls and the preference for vertical or horizontal design. Interiors utilize upper wall, total, and also upper wall and bottom fields. No ex amples of exterior decoration by painting exist in the sample. From the point of view of decoration, jars of this type are es sentially the same as in Mesa Verde Black-on-white. The 19 pieces are globular but represent only three major forms. Eleven are water jars, three are seed jars, and three are small unhandled jars with medium sized necks. The other two are indistinct but appear to be odd forms. The water jars and seed jars follow the Mesa Verde description and the small necked jars utilize the upper body between the neck and 82 greatest diameter as the primary field. One has neck decoration. The four mugs have total wall, vertical type fields with sec ondary decoration on the handles of three. Two of the mugs have ex treme curvature at the junction of the wall and bottom and decoration ends at the top of the curvature. Pitchers vary considerably in shape. The bodies range from globular to sharply shouldered. The necks run from tall to short and vary from quite vertical to steeply sloped. The necks either break sharply with the upper body or flow evenly down to the shoulder or point of greatest diameter. Most necks which break at the body form a distinct field, and those without the break utilize the neck and upper body as one field. There are three exceptions. Two carry the field across the break, and one without a break has two bands, one at the center of the neck area and the other around the greatest diameter. Two pitchers have a distinct field below this point and two have a field which includes the upper body and the area below the greatest diameter. Twelve pitchers have upper body fields. Handles and rim s may act as
secondary fields. There are 17 ladles which have bowl type fields. One has ex
terior decoration on the upper wall. In this type, primary fields are equivalent to those of correspond
ing forms in Mesa Verde Black-on-white. Specific counts of fields may be seen in Table 3. TABLE 3 83 Layouts Found on Primary Fields of Decoration in Mancos Black-on-white LAYOUTS PRIMARY FIELDS SECTIONED BANDED CENTERED LATERAL
BOWLS
UPPER WALL INTERIOR
TOTAL INTERIOR
UPPER WALL AND BOTTOM INTERIOR 3 USED TOGETHER
JARS
UPPER BODY E X TERIOR
UPPER - CENTRAL BODY EXTERIOR
PITCHERS
NECK
UPPER BODY
CENTER BODY
NECK-UPPER BODY
UPPER-CENTER BODY
MUGS
TOTAL BODY EXTERIOR 84 From this table it may be seen that bands occur on all primary fields, although the one example of a banded total bowl interior is of simple lines running from the rim almost to the center. Sectioned, centered, and lateral layouts are found only on bowl interiors. Secondary layout occurs almost entirely as paneling in bands. Only one use of paneling in a sectioned layout was found. Paneling per centages are as follows: bowls, 23. 3%; jars, 18.2%; pitchers, 13.7%; mugs, 25.0% (total sample, 4).
Basic units and their function in design are shown in Table 8. Seventy-five per cent of the total 125 occurrences of units in bands is made up of eleven specific units. The two most popular are the checkered unit and the isosceles or equilateral triangle. By grouping into related classes, 16.0% are related to the fret which includes the S-fret and meander. Opposed triangles, the stepped triangle, and nested chevrons amount to 17. 6%; the hourglass may also add another 7.2%, making this class 24. 8% since it is very similar to opposed tri angles. The last group involves simple continuous banding design making up 30.4%. This group includes horizontal parallel lines, checkering, and hatched bands. Sixty-six per cent of non-band designs also uses the checker, the parallel lines, plus the triangular fret which is not found at all in banding.
Uninterrupted design is strongly preferred for bands. Interlock 85 and overlap are extremely scarce in the scale of preferences. Only two examples of secondarily attached elements were found which created secondary interaction between units. One stepped trian gle was used with an 8-fret, and barbs were used with an interlocking pair of frets. Generally the units in Mancos Black-on-white are sim ply formed.
Of 124 uses of the band in Mancos Black-on-white, only six combined-forms occur and seven cases of multiple-repetition (Table 11). In combined-form motifs, five of the six are zigzags used with either isosceles triangles or nested triangles. The other is the use of the interlocking fret with the right triangle (Fig. 30). Six of the seven multiple-repeated motifs use the isosceles triangle, the right triangle, or the stepped triangle. The other case involves S-frets (Fig. 30). As a result of the relatively few combined-form and multiple-repeated sit uations, multiple-row interaction is not too prevalent.
Little can be said for secondary fields since very few may be seen on the samples. One point may be of value, that no zoomorphic units are seen in the sample.
Eight examples of organizational banding occur but no floating motifs. In addition, there are three examples of organizational sec tioning, two quartering, and one cross banding, and one case of this in a lateral organization.
In filling secondary areas, secondary motifs or units are 86 DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR CLASS FIELD [ g ig IB z z LI
m u HI z> ^ a m :
c? A & x y
X'—-
IEJ5 - _r
W w
-& ^4 W iW V A ^ MAAAl :7T^ WWWT
Fig.30. Designs on Mancos Black-on-white. 87 DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR CLASS FIELD
I
ViW SSK
” h _: rrffffi aaaaaA
’////////////////H , u i m t m u i V///////, llllllllllllllllllllllllllllll
# # # » • <•••• •• •• • • • » * * * * » • • • « # # » • • • » * * # * * * • • •
Fig.30 (cont.). Designs on Moncos Black-on-whi te. 88 DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR CLASS FIELD
MMH
1 1
r>-T~rV V tt n __ h ~ rrn _ I
T J 7 7 7
Fig.30 (cont.), Designs on Mancos Black-on-white. 89 relatively rare and the hatching method of Mesa Verde Black-on-white is non-existent. The filling of design components tends toward a min imum use of heavy solids. Hatching is popular, and design units tend to be comprised of lines rather than solid or filled elements. Design itself is not as tightly knit as in Mesa Verde Black-on-white. Figure 30 illustrates filling techniques in the variations of design units. There is one example of negative design using a hatched band with negative circles left unpainted. Otherwise the play of background color in design is much less important than in Mesa Verde Black-on- white. There are five examples of secondary units used in secondary space as design enrichment and of these, four are in the bottom of bowls or ladles. Units pendent to the main design are almost non-ex istent. Framing lines are equally rare. Where anything resembling a true framing line appears, it is usually a single line above or below the band and occasionally enriched with barbs or dots. There are six ex amples of this. One mug has the classic period type of framing lines and may possibly belong in a later time horizon. It has been called
Mancos mostly because of its association with other vessels. All examples of non-banded design, other than cross-banding, are four-part designs, except for one two-part lateral design.
Of 124 banded fields, 102 contained single bands and 22, mul tiple bands. Bowls exhibited 13.9% multiple banding; mugs, 50.0%; 90 jars, 27.7%; and pitchers, 16. 6%.
Cortez Black-on-White
Cortez Black-on-white (Abel 1955) is the representative black- on-white type in the Mesa Verde area in early Pueblo H. The percent age ratio of vessel forms maintains an approximate equivalency with
Mancos Black-on-white: bowli% 56.2%; jars, 9. 4%; pitchers, 18. 7%; ladles, 9. 4%; and dippers, a form fairly well discarded in the later wares, 6. 25%. Mugs are not represented at all in the sample of 64 pots. Bowls tend to be somewhat more sloping on the walls than in later forms. There seems also to be a larger number of horizontal type fields than vertical ones, which may or may not be related to the greater openness of the bowl interiors. There is one example of a central figure used in the bottom with a banded upper wall. No exterior fields are utilized. Only five jars are complete enough to classify. Four are water jars with horizontal handles located at, or just below, the greatest di ameter. Two of these are globular with short, narrow, vertical necks, and two have a rounded shoulder above the handles, leaving a rather flatly sloping upper body which continues into a tall neck. The globular jars have fields running from the neck to the handles (Fig. 31 a). The
shoulder forms a field border on the other jars, with the field starting 91 at the shoulder and running below the handles (Fig. 31 b). The upper body forms a separate field on one example. The necks are undeco rated on all examples. One additional jar is a seed jar with upper body decoration.
Pitchers having a slight shoulder and a sloping neck, which in cludes the upper body, predominate. These forms either have a band of decoration at the lower margin of the neck field and one at the top near the rim, or one large band. One example, however, uses a band on the shoulder and secondary decoration between the shoulder band and the rim. Three pitchers form another group which exhibits a break between the neck and upper body. One is shouldered and is the only example to have a decorated field below the shoulder. Two have globu lar bodies with a field around the greatest diameter or slightly above it.
Ladles utilize the same fields as bowls. There is also one example of an upper wall band with a central figure in the bottom.
Handles use the upper surface as a field. Dippers either have the handle as part of the bowl area and use both vertical and horizontal fields, or the handle forms a separate field from the bowl.
The relationship of primary layouts to fields is shown in Table 4.
The number of layout occurrences is in Table 6. It is evident TABLE 4 92 Layouts Found on Primary Fields of Decoration in Cortez B lack - on - whi te LAYOUTS PRIMARY FIELDS SECTIONED BANDED CENTERED LATERAL
BOWLS UPPER WALL INTERIOR 2 2
TOTAL INTERIOR I 3 I
UPPER WALL AND 2 USED TOGETHER BOTTOM INTERIOR
JARS
UPPER BODY EXTERIOR
CENTER BODY EXTERIOR
PITCHERS
NECK 5
UPPER BODY 2
CENTER BODY 4
NECK - UPPER.BODY 6
DIPPERS
UPPER WALL 2 INTERIOR
TOTAL INTERIOR 2
HANDLE SEPARATE 93
Fig. 31. A few designs found on Cortez Block on-white, o-h; Piedro Block-on-white, (,j, r; ond Chopin Block -on -white , k - q . 94 here that only bowl forms utilize the sectioned and centered decoration and that lateral design is absent.
Secondary layout is more common in Cortez than in Mancos, especially in section decoration. Secondary layout is present in 17. 7% of the bowl bands; 33.3% of the pitcher bands; and 66. 6% of the sec tioned bowls.
There is one example of primary banding with the secondary layout treated as a lateral design (Fig. 31 c), and one sectioned bowl with secondary treatment done in the manner of primary multiple band ing (Fig. 31 d).
Table 9 indicates the occurrences and functions of the basic units found in Cortez Black-on-white. Figure 32 illustrates the varia tions of the basic units. Of the 51 occurrences of units in bands, the scroll, the fret, the right triangle, and the stepped triangle make up 75.0%. They form two obvious functional groups, the scroll and fret being one, and the right and stepped triangles the other. They usually function in pairs and many of the frets are essentially inverted stepped triangles. Added enrichment on these units also makes the right triangle similar to the stepped triangle. Frets have secondarily attached steps, triangles, or dotted right triangles. The only combined-form motif joins the scroll with the right triangle or stepped triangle. There are ten examples of this motif. DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR CLASS FIELD
X T E T B B IO
W l J
\ 7 ## K S i H
N l
i g r w
V / A r
iv n O , b m b TFT
g g g HB 1 M I r w
Fig.32. Designs on Cortez Block-on-white. 96 In non-band primary layouts, the fret and scroll appear as 90.0% of the total design units involved. For the most part, they occur within panels in the secondary layout. Secondarily attached elements creating secondary interaction are mentioned above. Triangles added to the bases of frets also occur. The popular primary interactions are interlock, overlap, and shape conformity.
There are three examples of organizational banding. However, these are half-bands and actually use the rim as a banding line. There is one example of a floating motif in which a multiple motif half-band has one motif pendent and one free (Fig. 31 e).
The filling of secondary space is rare and irregular. Two ex amples of a centered figure used with an upper wall band have been men tioned. There seems to be little concern about open space and design is not especially tight. Units utilize both lines and solids but much of the area within the field of design is composed of bands of parallel lines or filled with concentric lineal units (Fig. 31J). In both total and banded decoration, design does not take up all or nearly all of the available space. Background color seems to play a small part in the finished
decoration. Enrichment of design is limited to barbing and ticking. Framing
occurs twice as a single line on either side of the band, and six times
fine lines are used to frame the design units within the field of design 97 (Fig. 31 g, h).
One example of three-part design occurs in non-band decora tion. Other non-bands have two and four parts. There are only six examples of multiple banding and they are distributed fairly evenly among the forms.
Piedra Black-on-White
Piedra Black-on-white of the Pueblo I period in the Mesa Verde is extremely difficult to classify under the system proposed here. The reason is that it is a period of great experimentation in decorative concepts and lacks traditional methods to govern design structure. The earlier period of Basketmaker HI saw the advent of fired pottery in the area but decoration followed the regulations which governed basketry design and was therefore more regular than in Pueb lo I. For this reason, details about Piedra design will be held until they can be discussed in the light of comparisons with earlier and later types and its place in the historical development can be shown.
Form percentages for Piedra Black-on-white are seen in Table 1. Piedra bowls are basically hemispherical and both total and upper wall decoration exist, yet the clear cut distinction of layouts and their relationship to field, which is exhibited in the later ceramics, is in a formative stage and is far less obvious in Pueblo I. Decoration is limited to bowl interiors. 98 There are no ladles in the sample of this type. Dippers how ever have fields and layouts similar to bowls. Jars form four distinct types. Water jars are globular but with long necks sloping gradually into the body. Handles are placed at the greatest diameter, which is high on the body, and decoration occurs on the upper neck and on the upper body. The upper body field has no shape-defined limits, but usually ends below the greatest diameter. Seed jars are of typical form, but decoration, which starts at or near the rim, flows down some distance below the greatest diameter.
This field is treated as a vertical type. There are three examples of a wide mouth, squat jar with a shoulder fairly rounded and a short vertical neck. The primary field follows around the greatest diameter as a central body decoration. One example has a neck field, another a design attached to the central body decoration except on the neck, and a third a simple line around the base of the neck. One globular jar, with a medium neck and no handles, has central body decoration. The most popular jar form, which may also be considered a pitcher, is the gourd shape. The body is globular; the neck, which is often indistinct from the upper body, tapers sharply to a narrow aper ture and sometimes continues over to one side to form a handle. Fields are varied in almost every possible way. The primary portion of the 99 decoration seems to center around the upper or central body areas.
Pitchers have globular bodies with a tapering neck about equal in proportion to the body. The break between the neck and body is dis tinct to semi-distinct. Of the seven examples, the neck is a distinct field on four and unpainted on three. The bodies have either upper or central decoration. The details of primary layout will be discussed more fully in the comparative summary of the Mesa Verde pottery tradition. It can be pointed out, however, that the concepts of banding, sectioning, and central and lateral placement of design were understood in this period, although refinement, which presented clear cut situations, was achieved in the Pueblo II period of Cortez Black-on-white. Secondary layout, for all practical purposes, is non-existent in this type. Rudiments of secondary layout are seen here in the use of certain design units which resemble paneling lines in banded and sec tioned situations. At this time period this technique is not used as sub division to set aside space for further design filling (Fig. 31 _i). Design units are extremely difficult to classify and quantify in
Basketmaker m and Pueblo I pottery in the Mesa Verde. The reason is partially a lack of standardization of unit shapes. Figure 33 illus trates these variations.
One popular unit is a line or more commonly two or more parallel lines with barbs, hooks, enriched barbs or enriched hooks 100 DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR CLASS FIELD
CHAPIN B/W
PIE OR A B/W
UNITS USED LATERALLY
Fig.33. Designs on Chopin and Piedro Black-on-white. 101 attached to either the inside or outside of the outer lines (Fig. 31 j). This unit then assumes a variety of shapes and positions or functions in the design. In addition, zigzags, concentric triangles, and chevrons are popular.
The decoration of Piedra Black-on-white may best be char acterized by an open, often irregular organization, a popular use of line as opposed to solid, much line enrichment, and a noticeable lack of the hatching and interaction which become so popular in later deco ration. It has been mentioned in the previous description that early Basketmaker pottery design very likely stemmed from basketry, a tradition of decoration long standing in the area. The designs were limited by technique and since the basic structure of the basket delimit ed in many ways the organization of design units, the unit itself became the primary concern. Layout lines were unnecessary since the rows of stitching controlled the placement of the units. When pottery adopted these designs, they were placed on similarly shaped fields by eye, without benefit of structure lines; for the most part, they were a copy of the placement on baskets. In the Mesa Verde, Chapin Black-on- white is the local ejqpression of this style of decoration. 102 Chapin Black-on-White
Although jars are not uncommon in Chapin Black-on-white, bowls (64 in the sample) were generally chosen for decoration. They were usually hemispherical but often quite deep. In spite of the high exposed exterior, no outside decoration is noted.
Two water jars and one seed jar are included in the sample. The water jars are incomplete, but decoration does exist on the cen tral body around the greatest diameter, and the handles are centered in that field. The seed jar decoration is on the upper body.
Two ladles and one dipper complete the inventory, and they are treated as the other pottery types.
In basketry the vessel and its design are built up from the bottom center. This seems to be true also in this early decoration on pottery bowls. Uninterrupted bands, both with and without banding lines, are placed low on the vessel wall as if encircling the center rather than being controlled by tiie rim. Those without banding lines are based on the zigzag. Those with banding lines are opposed trian gles or barbs, or a variation on the stepped triangle (Fig. 31 k).
One multiple banded bowl has such a complex pattern, which also includes combined-form (Fig. 31_1), that it seems out of place in this sample and may belong in a later time period (Morris 1929, PI. 206 f). 103 Sectioned bowls have simple quartering, using enriched lines only; by true definition of layout they should be considered radiating centered design, since all lines are part of design. Two examples of what might be the predecessor of cross-banding are pictured in Figure 31 m and n.
Centered designs are of three basic types. The first has a small centered circle with radiating zigzag-shaped, parallel line units (Fig. 31 o). The second is a centered unit with lateral units surround ing it on the upper wall (Fig. 31 p). The third is a centered unit with banding surrounding it on the upper wall (Fig. 31 q). Lateral decora tion is of the usual type.
The description of these layout organizations indicates that the center of the field is of primary importance even in banding. Secondary layout is completely unknown and interaction is extremely rare. The popular units of this type are the same as for Piedra Black on-white. Most units used in lateral design are varied and difficult to classify, but their relationship to basketry design is readily noticeable.
Except for a few advances in layout, Piedra is essentially a continuation of Chapin Black-on-white.
Summary of the Mesa Verde Tradition
The hypothetical situation suggested by the historical view of ceramic evolution, particularly in decoration, in the Mesa Verde area TABLE 5 104 Sample Count for Fields of Decoration on Mesa Verde Pottery ___
POTTERY TYPES FIELD S OF M E S A MANGOS CORTEZ PIEDRA CHAPIN DECORATION VE ROE B/W B/W B/W B/W B/W
BOWL UPPER WALL EXTERIOR 6 4 INTERIOR-UPPER WALL 3 3 8 5 3 2 2 1 1 2 5 UPPER WALL/BOTTOM 1 6 3 1 3 1 4 BOTTOM 2
TOTAL 9 2 1 6 1 1 1 1 1 1
JAR - SHOULDERED
U P P E R BODY 2
JA R - ®LOB U LAR
NECK 1 3 7 e
U P P E R BODY 6 2 1 6 7 9 2
CENTER BODY 2 3 9 1
U P P E R - C E N T E R BODY 7 3 6
T O T A L BODY 2 $
* MUG
U P P E R B O D Y 1 2
T O T A L BODY 1 3 6 2
PITCHER
NECK 9 1 6 5 1
U P P E R B O D Y 7 1 2 2
NECK- UPPER BODY 3 1 2 6 2
UPPER-CENTER BODY 2
CENTER BODY 3 2 4 6
LADLE UPPER WALL EX TER IO R 1
INTERIOR - UPPER WALL 8 1 3 4
UPPER WALL/BOTTOM 2 1 1
TOTAL 1 6 3 1 1
DIPPER IN T E R IO R - TOTAL 2 1
UPPER WALL 2 4 1 i/ TABLE 6 105 Primary Layout s on Mesa Verde Pottery
POTTERY TYPES
LAYOUTS MESA MANGOS CORTEZ PIEDRA CHAPIN VERDE B/W B /W B/WB/W B/W
BANDED s i n g l e 4 5 6 9 2 3 9 2 9 1 8 MULTIPLE 9 2 2 1 8 3 1 HALF 5 1 1 S
SECTIONED SIMPLE UNILINEAR - 2 PART l 1 3 PART 1 4 PART 1 3 2 2 4
SECTORED - 2 PART 6 5 5 l 4 PART 6 8 1 1 OFFSET
UNILINEAR- 2 PART 1
4 PART 5 1
S E C T O R E D - 2 PART l
LUNATE - 3 PART 1
C R O SS BAND S 2 3 1 2 1RREGULAR 1 8
CENTERED RADIAL SIMPLE - 2 PART l 7 2 3 3 PART 1 4 PART 3 1
OFFSET - 2 PART 1
3 PART 5
4 PART 1 8 1
MISC. 9
SPIRAL
SIMPLE 3 INTERLOCK 2 1
FREE FIGURE 1 1 4
L A T E R A L RIM TIED 2 PART 8 2 4 3 PART 1 2 4 PART 2 1 2
FLOATING
2 PART 3 5 1 3 3 PART 3
4 PART 2 2
ALL-OVER 2 2 TABLE 7 106 Sample Count for Unit Functions in Mesa Verde Black-on - white
UNIT BANDED SECTIONED LATERAL SPACED UNINTERRUPTED CENTERED PAIRED lMTERRUPTED 13 2 1 5 9 1 2 5 CO 2 1 4 1 /> r 6 32 13 1 1 V 2 2 6 2 14 1 # TABLE 8 107 Sample Count for Unit Functions in Moncos Black-on-white
UNIT BANDED SECTIONED LATERAL SPACED UNINTERRUPTED CENTERED PAIRED INTERRUPTED
4 1
XA 1
A 4 2 1
V 1 1 2
< ? 2
FEJE. 6 2
3
V 3 II
P" 3 Cb 2 2
lii i, 1 2
Y 2 7
O 2
m 16 6 2
= 2 6 2 I 3 2
w 2 2
33 1
iiiiii/ 4 4 1
/
1 1 1
2 1 r 1
a 3
see 1 1
XL 1
■ • * * ' 4
% 1 TABLE 9 108 Sample Count for Unit Functions in Cortez Block - on-white
UNIT BANDED SECTIONED LATERAL SPACED UNINTERRUPTED CENTERED PAIRED INTERRUPTED
1
GO 1
yO 2 4
AA 4
2 V '
17 6 1
4 3 b
2 lliii,
O 2
2 ##
i 1 TABLE 10 109 Sample Count for Unit Functions in Piedra and Chapin Black -on-white
UNIT BANDED SECTIONED LATERAL SPACED UNINTERRUPTED PAIRED INTERRUPTED CENTERED B B B 8
I 9 4 2
I 4
I I 3 2 1
I 2 I 4
2 1 » !
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2
A « PIEDRA 8 * CHAPIN TABLE II HO Sample Count for Combined -form and Multiple - repeated Motifs in Mesa Verde Pottery
MESAMANGOSCORTEZRIEDRACHAPIN VERDE B/W B/W B/WB/W B/W
COMBINED - FORM
YW 15
3 3 2
3
7 3 1
1 1
4
2
%%% 6
1
2
3
1
1
C ^ , j f F 8
a s f ^ 2
MULTIPLE REPETITION
S S S 2 F J 2
7 1
^ h r h r 1
3
1
1 3
2 2
- 1
1 Ill TABLE 12 Popular Unit Percentages for Mesa Verde, Mancos, and Cortez Black on white
V17 Cb X 0 # = (D ±T t'y/ m
MESA VERDE B/W
BAND
SPACED 22.5 9.3 3 0 0 11.8 4.2 II.1 16.3 64.3 2.4 2.2
PAIRED 2.5 708 100.0 3.9 70S BBS
UNINTERRUPTED 1.5 20.0 70.0 84.3 25.0 729 6.3 358 97.6 97.8
INTERRUPTED 73.5 10.8 93.8
TO TOTAL-465 17.2 11.0 3.0 2.2 11.0 6.2 3.9 8.0 3.4 3.0 8.8 10.5
NON-BAND
SECTIONED IOOO 80.0 16.6
CENTERED 93.3 60.0 IOO O 75.0
LATERAL 6.7 20.0 20.0 2&0 63.4
TO TOTAL - 81 18.5 9.9 6.2 32.1 6.2 5.0 7.4
M ANCOS B/W
BAND
SPACED •0 .0 ®6.6 21.4 50.0 22.4 25.0 60.0 50.0
p a i r e d 33.3 50.0 4 0 .0 50.0
UNINTERRUPTED 75.0 78.6 77.6 72.7 75.0 50.0
INTERRUPTED 20.0 2 5.0 27.3 5 0 .0
TO TOTAL -1 2 5 4.8 4.8 6.4 11.2 3.2 7.2 17.6 8 .4 4.0 3.2 6.4
NON-BAND
SECTIONED IOOO 100.0 25.0
CENTERED 25.0
LATERAL 50.0 TO T O T A L - 12 16.7 16.7 33.3
C O RT EZ B/W
BAND SPACED 2 8 .8 57.2 6.3
PAIRED 71.4 65.7 42.6 93.8
UNINTERRUPTED 14.3
INTERRUPTED
TO T O T A L - 51 13.7 13.7 13.7 31.9
NON - BAND
SECTIONED 100.0 83.3
CENTERED 16.7
TO TO TA L-1 0 3 0 .0 6 0 .0 TABLE 13 Sample Count for Secondarily Attached Elements in Mesa Verde Black-on-white
SECONDARY PRIMARY UNITS UNITS
^ # A v / n
28 29 2 4 3 1
7 2 M
% 1
1 %
2 9 27 1 9
9 5
i 1 1 1
n 5 1
1 F
▻ r~7. / i 113 is summarized in the following sentences. Somehwere near the end of Basketmaker II or early Basketmaker HI, the concept of fired clay ves sels was introduced into the Anasazi culture. Early vessels seem to indicate a period of becoming accustomed to the new medium and sim ple experimentation with form. It seems likely that painting appeared with, or shortly after, the advent of pottery itself. Following the only design tradition known to them, potters added decoration to their pots which, in most every way, could be found duplicated on the basketry of the period (Morris and Burgh 1941). Rules of organization, layout, and unit combinations seem to be the same, but of course the motor habit and technique in applying the paint were quite different from basket weaving. This apparent relationship between pottery and basketry dec oration, however, strongly suggests that in bowls, as in bowl baskets, the decoration was controlled from the center and worked outward from there.
The fact that the design tradition of Basketmaker pottery is of local origin, suggests that the concept of pottery arrived in the area by an indirect method known as stimulus diffusion, perhaps with no direct contact to the south where there had been knowledge of pottery for about
500 years before. This too, may ejqplain why Basketmaker pottery is crude and varied, indicating experimentation and learning by experience, whereas the pottery at the beginning of the tradition in the south among the Hohokam and Mogollon was fairly sophisticated and followed fairly 114 rigid regulations. It appears that the Hohokam contact with the Mexican source of pottery was stronger and perhaps more face to face than the Hohokam contact with the Basketmakers through the Mogollon, if this is the way pottery arrived in the north. In early Basketmaker pottery the design unit seems to be of first concern. Interaction more complex than simple shape conformity seems almost non-existent between units. It was essentially a matter of placing units in pleasing relationship on the field, sometimes with out regard for balance or repetition. Layouts were simple, and of these, the band was perhaps the most controlled and restricted. When it was realized that there was more freedom in paint than in woven design, layout experimentation began to flower. Design units remained much the same in Pueblo I but many new arrangements were tried, sometimes without any understandable direction or organization. It is in the Pueblo I period then, that we actually find the trials and variations on the old themes of Basketmaker IH and the beginnings of standardization in layout which govern later period decoration. In
Cortez Black-on-white the experimentation and standardization continue, but new design units enter the picture, quite likely introduced from the south since the design is in the widespread Kiatuthlana-Red Mesa style
(Gladwin 1945) which introduces ideas heretofore unknown in the Mesa Verde.
In order to trace the changes quantitatively of the Mesa Verde 115 area throughout the development of the black-on-white pottery decora tion, each portion of the decoration will be considered separately in the
same general sequence used for every type. The changes in the major vessel forms do not greatly affect design layout. The forms develop in a significant continuum from Basketmaker m to Pueblo HI. Morris expresses this continuum in chart form (Morris 1929, Fig. 79). From this chart there is no evi dence for any form represented to have been introduced from outside sources. Eccentric vessels and other less common forms are not con sidered in this study. Jennings has suggested the introduction of some of these forms from areas outside of the Southwest during Pueblo HI (Jennings 1956). Other forms may also have been introduced through out the Mesa Verde sequence but they apparently have not affected the usual design characteristics of the tradition. Layout practices used in late bowls evolve from early characteristics, as has been suggested above. Exterior decoration in Mesa Verde Black-on-white could result from the more vertical nature of the bowl walls in this period. The more elaborate rim decoration seems to be related to the broad flat rim surface. These two features are possible examples when looking for in troduced ideas; however, they are not necessarily so. Jars maintain a globular form throughout their history. Where necks have a pronounced break with the body they are generally treated
as a separate field. Without the break they may be arbitrarily separated. 116 Decoration on jar necks is not a common practice, and where it occurs it is simple. Primary decoration on jars tends to extend its lower border farther down on the vessel with respect to the point of greatest diameter in early forms. There is a high percentage of upper-center and center-body decoration in Piedra and Cortez Black-on-white which becomes all but non-existent in the late forms. This trend in body dec oration is also true in pitchers. In this form, however, the trend is also in a reduction of the body area with respect to the neck, and in late decoration the neck becomes the primary field. In the Pueblo HI stage, pitchers give way to the mug form, and, taxonomically speaking, the mug is identical to a pitcher neck when the pitcher body has been completely reduced to non-existence. Dippers and ladles have consistently been decorated like bowls.
The exterior of the circular field into a more or less oval form in dippers does not normally alter the layout or treatment. Almost all forms of layout encountered in the late pottery have their beginnings in Chapin Black-on-white. In comparing banded to non- banded layout, the increased preference for banding is expressed in Table 14. It is suggested that the rather rapid decrease in centered and lateral type decoration and the corresponding proportionate rise in banding, are the result of the shift away from basketry design units and layout which contain many lateral and central designs. The TABLE 14 H7 Layout Percentages for Mesa Verde Pottery
BANDED SECTIONED CENTERED 8 LATERAL
CHAPIN B/W 2 2.7 10.7 6 6 . 6
PIEDR A B/W 58.2 1 4.5 27.3
CORTEZ B/W 7 8 .2 2 0 .3 1.5
MANGOS B/W 8 9 .8 7.3 2 .9
MESA VERDE B/W 8 3 .7 5 . 6 l 0 .7
SAMPLE SIZE
CHAPIN B/W 7 5
PIEDRA B/W 5 5
CORTEZ B/W 6 4
MANGOS B/W l 3 8
MESA VERDE B/W 6 8 0 118 integration of new design units from outside sources may have been a partial cause for this change at the end of Pueblo I. The figures in Table 14 may not be an accurate proportion due to sampling, but they probably illustrate the trend through time. One feature which seems worth recognizing because of its con sistent reoccurrence in each type, is the use of a centered unit with a lateral field around it in bowls. In Chapin Black-on-white it is quite common, with both lateral units and a band. It seems to be of less importance in later types and occurs only with the band. But it doesn't die out and, interestingly, it is also found in Gallisteo Black-on-white (Stubbs and Stallings 1953), the Rio Grande Pueblo IV derivative of Mesa Verde Black-on-white (Abel 1955). Subdivision in the layout process, to the point of secondary layout, may possibly have its beginnings in Pueblo I where the barb-en riched parallel line unit (Fig. 31 r) is used perpendicular to the borders of a vertical type field in much the same way as paneling divider lines occur on bands in later types. The true panel, however, makes its debut in Cortez Black-on-white, both in bands and in sectioned layout. Whether the above hypothesis of its origin is correct or whether it is an introduced trait, is a subject for study of other types not included in this paper.
Once paneling was established in Mesa Verde pottery design,
it began to decrease. In Cortez Black-on-white sectioned bowls, 66.0% 119 were paneled. In both Mancos and Mesa Verde Black-on-white only one example each was found. In bands, the following ratio was exhibited: Cortez Black-on-white, 19.1%; Mancos, 20.3%; Mesa Verde, 8.6%. The slight increase in paneled bands in Mancos Black-on-white is off set by the high percentage of paneled sections in Cortez Black-on-white, which has far fewer banded layouts than does Mancos Black-on-white. Throughout the history of Mesa Verde pottery decoration, the triangle in its many variations and related forms is the most popular element represented. Next in popularity is the fret, in varied forms. Prior to Cortez Black-on-white, however, it did not seem to exist. In pre-Pueblo II design, the triangle either appears as line enrichment, or combines to form units which vanish in later design, or it appears in variations of the zigzag. After Pueblo I the zigzag continues, but units involving the triangles become standardized into basic forms which are represented through the remainder of the tradition.
Although units appear in isolated placement in both Basketmaker basketry and pottery, the concept of placing units in combination through interaction in bands seems not to have been well understood prior to Pueblo II. It would seem logical to suppose that the two or three ex
amples in Piedra are late pieces of that type. Banding occurs through the use of uninterrupted units like the zigzag or hatching, or by the
spacing of units along the banded area. After Pueblo I the formation
of units is such that interaction through interlock or shape conformity 120 is allowed with regularity and balance. This marked difference between units of the pre-Pueblo n group and those of later types may be seen in Figures 32 and 33.
The concept of complicating the motif through the process of combining two or more different units makes an appearance in only one form in Cortez Black-on-white and is not popular in Mancos Black-on- white. Its real florescence is in Mesa Verde Black-on-white. Multiple- repeated motifs seem to have their start in Mancos Black-on-white and again are most popular in Mesa Verde Black-on-white. Multiple-row interaction comes in with the multiple-repeated and combined-form motifs of Mancos Black-on-white and logically flowers in the Classic or Pueblo HI period. The presence or absence of bordering lines in layout has no apparent significance within the Mesa Verde tradition. Early designs, utilizing a high percentage of non-divisional decoration, would naturally reduce the possible percentage of organizational division, and those bands or sectioned layouts found do not use the concept. The first con ceivable occurrence is in Cortez Black-on-white in half band situations using the rim as a controlling line. The first true examples start in
Mancos Black-on-white and continue in Mesa Verde Black-on-white, but they are few in number. Floating motifs occur in only one example
in Cortez Black-on-white and are none too popular in later types.
The trend in the Mesa Verde pottery tradition is toward an 121 increase in the use of available space, not only with respect to the field of decoration, but internally within layout as well. Early design is open, with a large quantity of background color. In Cortez Black-on- white, the number of units in designs are still sparse, but extra de vices such as framing lines within the field of design are common. By Pueblo in, framing devices lie outside the field of design because the basic units of the late period are developing, and units are placed closer together, filling the field of design. Interaction increases and, in some design of Mesa Verde Black-on-white, the area between the primary decorative units is filled with hatching. Multiple-row interaction leads to the ejqpansion of the transverse dimension of banded areas. The in crease in multiple banding extends the decorated space over more of the field of decoration in a slightly different way. Secondary field dec oration also becomes more abundant. Where early design is mostly lineal, with solids occurring in small units, late design makes extreme use of solid components, and where hatching is a common filler alone in Mancos Black-on-white, it is commonly used in conjunction with solids in Mesa Verde Black-on- white, thus increasing the amount of painted area. In brief, paint or
decoration apparently grew more and more important to the ceramic tradition.
One final point characterizes the trend in Mesa Verde design.
As the interrelationship of design units, and also filler devices, 122
becomes more important, the relationship of background color to painted area also becomes apparent. Through better craftsmanship and the in
teraction process of shape-conformity, the unpainted portion within design becomes regular and thus becomes an integral part of the final product. In Pueblo HI design, the regularity is so controlled and rec ognized that the normally negative portion is sometimes copied in solid or hatched forms so that reverse images of solid to negative are sometimes achieved (Fig. 34). There is a noticeable difference, how ever, between this situation and the negative decoration found particu larly in Hohokam design of the Snaketown phase.
This analysis and synthesis of the Mesa Verde tradition of black-on-white pottery decoration suggests that there is a continuity of decoration development within the area. A number of discrepancies come to light in design before and after the end of Pueblo I, which quite conceivably could result from an introduction of new ideas, most likely from the south, at that time. The tradition continues after the great abandonment of Mesa Verde proper in pottery types found along the Rio Grande in New Mexico. For convenience, this study ends at A. D. 1300 and generally ignores these later continuities outside the Mesa Verde region. 4.
ANALYSIS OF THE RIVER HOHOKAM TRADITION
The River Hohokam—Geography and Chronology
The portion of the River Branch of the Hohokam culture in volved in this study centers along the Gila and Salt Rivers in southern Arizona, from the vicinity of Winkleman, Arizona, in the east to and possibly beyond Gila Bend, Arizona, to the west. Material from the area near Tucson, Arizona, and the Santa Cruz Valley to the south forms a somewhat different complex and is not included. Archaeolog ical evidence suggests that the Hohokam people lived in the desert area of southern Arizona from the beginning of the Christian Era and were an outgrowth of the earlier Chochise culture of the same general re gion. Pottery existed throughout the duration of the manifestation known as Hohokam. The study limits itself to the Red-on-buff pottery prior to the influx of the Salado complex at about A. D. 1300. The primary reference for the chronology of the River Hohokam is found in the Snaketown report (Gladwin, Haury, Sayles, and Gladwin
1937). The periods, phases, and associated painted pottery types found in that report are as follows:
123 124 Pioneer Period 300-100 B.C. Vahki No painted pottery
100 B.C.-A. D. 100 Estrella Estrella Red-on-gray A. D. 100-300 Sweetwater Sweetwater Red-on-gray
A. D. 300-500 Snaketown Snaketown Red-on-buff Colonial Period
A. D. 500-700 Gila Butte Gila Butte Red-on-buff A. D. 700-900 Santa Cruz Santa Cruz Red-on-buff Sedentary Period
A. D. 900-1100 Sacaton Sacaton Red-on-buff Classic Period
A. D. 1100-1250 Soho Casa Grande Red-on-buff
Colton's revision of the dates for some of the intrusive types found in the Sacaton phase (Colton 1946: 253), such as Sosi Black-on- white, have caused some archaeologists to move the terminal date for
Sacaton Red-on-buff up to A. D. 1150. The most generally accepted date for pottery introduction in the Southwest is about the time of Christ, which revises the 300 B. C. date for the beginning of the Vahki phase.
This revision is expressed in the Ventana Cave report (Haury 1950: 335).
In the Mesa Verde analysis, the final period, preceding A. D.
1300, produced the most elaborated decorative style. The style 125 expressed the most complex and best organized modes of geometric de sign in the tradition up to the time of areal abandonment. In the River Hohokam area, however,, the Soho, or final phase included in this study, although indigenous, was not the period of greatest complexity and va riety in the ceramic tradition. Instead, the Sacaton phase best repre sents the height of development in decorative innovation. For this rea son, Sacaton Red-on-buff will be described first to illustrate the diverse expressions of Hohokam design, followed in order by the preceding phases. Casa Grande Red-on-buff will be discussed later in the light of the trends of development exhibited by the earlier history of decora tion in the River Hohokam area.
Sacaton Red-on-Buff
In the initial report on the excavations at Snaketown (Gladwin,
Haury, Sayles, and Gladwin 1937), Haury outlines a wide variety of vessel forms for Sacaton Red-on-buff. For the purpose of design anal ysis, however, only three fundamental forms distinguish themselves. One is the open bowl with interior decoration as the primary field. This type includes plates, flare-rimmed bowls or ’’pie-crust” type, and simple out-curved bowls (Haury 1937: 172, 173, Fig. 66). The other two are jars and the steep walled bowl, the latter with exterior wall
decoration as the primary field. These types refer to the vessel’s
basic form irrespective of secondary features such as handles or legs. 126 It is interesting to note that a careful examination of the various forms illustrated in Haury's report portrays a continuum of forms from the flat plate through the bowl forms to the ever ted-lipped, shouldered jar
(Fig. 36). This illustration has been included to express the continuity of form within one time period. Later discussion will emphasize the continuity of form and design in the River Hohokam tradition. The relative preferences for the most popular forms in the type are expressed in Table 15. Plates and bowl forms, with interior decoration only, present an open circular field to the decorator. The conditions are ideal for horizontal field organization, and centered, lateral, and sectioned de signs predominate. A few banded layouts do occur on the bowls. In spite of the semi-distinct break between the flaring lip and the bowl wall of many of these banded bowls, both parts are included in one field and design extends almost always to the center (Fig. 35 a).
Bowls with steep and incurved walls and jars utilize the band.
Units are altered to fit the distorted band on the inslope of jars and re curved bowls. The sloping walls of many jars would easily take hori zontal type layouts but no example exists in the sample. Jars of this period are essentially without necks, and thus the body between the flaring rim, when it is present, and the sharp shoulder acts as the pri mary field. Design ends at the break between the body and the flare of the rim or band of the shoulder except that an embellishing scolloped 127 r J rJ jaigT
Fig. 34. Examples of designs found both as pointed area and as background color .
^ c O . H e
C C t c C f C h
Fi g . 3 5« Some uses of design motifs and design placement in Saco ton Red-on-buff, a - i, and in Santa Cruz Red on buff, j-n, decoration. 128 line added to, or acting as, the banding line occasionally overruns the break.
On steep-walled bowls, the break between wall and bottom is less distinct since the shoulder is usually lacking, but decoration does not extend far under the curve. Secondary decoration appears on the interior flaring lips of steep-walled bowls and also on jars. It appears also on rims of thick- walled vessels and on handles. Dippers are the equivalent of simple open bowls where deco ration is concerned. They are oval, but this is the only distinction in form from ordinary bowls. Two outstanding characteristics of the period which are worth special notice are the lack of multiple primary fields of decoration on individual forms and the consistency with which they are laid out. As previously mentioned, jars and steep-walled bowls use only the band.
Vessels with interior decoration use all types of layout, but variation within these types is extremely limited. These variations are as follows: 1. bands are multiple-row with or without multiple-row
interaction,
2. sectioning is four-fold, either by simple sectioning
or unilinear offset, or it is cross-banded,
3. centered designs are zoomorphic or use small TABLE 15 129 Percentages of Vessel Forms in S oca t on Red - on- buff
PLATES 15.5
FLARE - RIMMED BOWLS 24.5
SIMPLE BOWLS I I .8
STEEP WALLED BOWLS 15.0
SHOULDERED JARS 22.7
DIPPERS 10.5 130
F ig .36. The ronge of common forms in Socoton Red on buff . 131 elements in a simple radial fashion,
4. lateral units occur with an equivalent unit in the center, 5. a few miscellaneous examples occur with definite affinities for the layouts mentioned above. Table 18 ennumerates the occurrence count of the various primary lay outs. Secondary division of divided layouts was not commonly prac ticed by Hohokam potters. In addition, this secondary division was not clear cut except in a very few instances. In banded layouts, four large jars and one shouldered bowl utilize vertical paneling with motifs changing in alternate panels. Four small steep-walled bowls utilize the panel with repeated motifs in each panel. Two vessels exhibit bands with divider units set between the primary motifs (Fig. 35 b), establishing questionable secondary division. One combined-form situation is that of the bar and scroll which results historically from the interaction situation between feath ered scrolls. Haury (1937: 183) has pointed out the technique of sub dividing the quadrant, utilizing this motif. The necessary feature to be brought out here is that a complete separation of the scroll and the feathered area occurs in Sacaton, producing a panel. A similar product occurs in the band, with equivalent results. Whether this should be considered as secondary layout is a problem in taxonomy. It is my 132 feeling that it should not be considered as secondary layout, but as a portion of a combined-form motif, unless there is a distinct divider line separating the bar or panel from the scroll or its equivalent (Fig. 35 c).
Six of the ten examples of this motif in a quadrant have a divider line and three banded examples do also. Subdivision of the quadrant in the manner mentioned above occurs with other motifs in six examples. Table 19 inventories the design units in basic form which are popular in Sacaton Red-on-buff. There are a number of small elements or units which are used without interaction in this type and they are well illustrated in Haury (1937, Fig. 70) and are listed only as "small elements" in Figure 30.
Preferences for a limited number of design units is strongly suggested by the charting of their occurrence. Percentage calculation indicates a distinct preference for units composed of parallel lines which make up over 35.0% of the 241 occurrences, with variations on the scroll forming 24.0%. Dominant units other than these are small elements, .10.0%; and chevrons, diamonds, circles, frets, and trian gles. Triangles appear to have more function as filler agents in design than as primary units. This is enlarged upon later.
Of the 241 occurrences of design units in the sample, only a little over 50.0% occur by themselves in simple form within a field of design. 133 There is a high percentage of the use of these units in combina tion or in multiple-repeated situations and consequently multiple-row design. Thus, multiple-row interaction is prevalent. Because of the similarity in basic form of many units, inter changeability in certain layout situations is allowed. Linear units such as those illustrated in Figure 37 a may replace each other, and small elements and hatched bands may also be used in lieu of the linear ones (Fig. 37 b, k). There are also many motifs which create an illusion of similarity through the use of common units, internal enrichments, or placement within the field (Fig. 37 h, _i)* Often these motifs are used in different types of layout (Fig. 37 v). It is also true,, however, that specific motifs are often limited to certain layout situations. Interaction itself, as might be expected from the shapes of popular units, is predominantly shape-conformity resulting from a high percentage of barbed, zigzag, feathered, fringed, and stepped units, and interlock in the case of scrolls. Additional shape-conform ity situations occur also but they are less numerous. Organizational boundary control of units within layout is com mon. The use of free hatching and small units creates a number of these circumstances. Many of these float between banding lines be cause they are organizationally banded in multiple rows between the banding lines.
In order to better illustrate the variations in design motifs 134 DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR FIELD CLASS
Fig. 3 7. Designs on Saco ton Red-on-buff. 135 DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR FIELD CLASS
SMALL ELEMENTS ™l" Z z z Z* © © j }} } / / / ( / { / /f''///////////f S/s/Sf/?///??//?//?/) £ t £ Z l £ £ i y^'vzxz'vxyw ////////////// 0 0 *0 00 i i ( i £ i £ U ...... //////////// W/////////" n n s z /is z / i f ({(££*■ SWAVSttSiS ///////WW k
X/X/V
J IJ
m § n
0 IfffJ ■ > A A A A p S a #
Fig. 37 (cont.). Designs on Sacaton Red-on-buff. 136 DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR FIELD CLASS
r
# 0 1 ^ EH t I ^
p $ 6 l l # u
i F P E J B # _ p i t
V
0 A w w m 1
f 3
X
< y O — y
Fig. 37 (cont.). Designs on Saco ton Red-on-buff. 137 DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR FIELD CLASS
y W m g
00 ! bb A M tSi O U O P j O i cc A M
A dd ee 1 # #
□ i [ s i d ft $ gg
Fig. 37 (cont.). Designs on S oca ton Red-on-buff. 138 from their basic forms, some of these commonly present in Sacaton are presented in Figure 37.
The filling of space, both within design units and outside of them, follows fairly rigid regulation. Normally, design units tend to be large, with heavy lines used in their formation. In spite of this, a relatively large amount of background shows through. Tight formation is rarely used. Large bold solid areas occur in a number of examples, but there is an impression of openness about Sacaton design in spite of this. Very little area is left undecorated on surfaces of the vessel normally viewed. In other words, the fields of design fill the fields of decoration to the maximum. This is particularly noticeable on bowls and plates with interior decoration. Sectioned, lateral, and centered design naturally utilize the entire field, but in circumstances such as in offset sectioning, where the center is open in the layout, the area is secondarily filled. In the centered and lateral combination, or in centered design alone, the area near the rim is contour filled in order to cover unused space (Fig. 37 gg). Banded design inside bowls and plates comes either from the rim to the center, or the space left open by banding is filled with another design unit.
The excessive width of bands common in this pottery type is handled by multiple-row banding or extremely large design units.
Within the fields of design, particularly in sectioning where circles 139 and scrolls are used in the triangular space, the area outside of the scroll is contour filled with paint (Fig. 35 c). In banding, either in primary or secondary layout, where units which do not conform in shape to the banding lines due to their orientation within the band are used, triangular filler units are often added pendent to the banding lines
(Fig. 28 d). Because of the function of triangles here, and as fillers in centered and lateral design, and because of the apparent irregularity in size, form, and position of these units, it seems likely that they are more often than not primary units in the design. This, however, is not always true. The filling of design units themselves presents three distinct techniques in this pottery type. Hatching is extremely rare, except in bands. The first and most usual method in smaller units is solid fill ing, although most smaller units are made with lines which do not close to leave space inside (Fig. 35 e). Larger units are generally filled with either smaller units, or linear units (Fig. 35_f). The third method is negative design, which includes Hauryrs ’'bulls-eyes" (1937, PI. 163, illustrated for Santa Cruz Red-on-buff) because of the negative circle with a small element contained inside. Also included in negative design are other units such as diamonds and
crescents (Fig. 35 g, h) which are used as the primary units, not as unit fillers.
Design enrichment does not include space fillers or units like 140 the ’’feathered” scroll with its added barbing or fringing. It is limited mostly to forms of the squiggled line used as a banding line (Fig. 35_i); the use of "bulls-eyes” in the middle of design units (Fig. 35_j); and the use of rows of small units, continuous units, or hatching between fringed borders of the bar in the "bar-and-scroll” motif (Fig. 35 c). Framing lines, lateral to the primary design, are non-existent.
Multiple banding does not occur, although multiple-row bands are common. Multiple motifs within a band apply only to the alterna tion between rows of some patterns and a very few instances within single-row bands. Section design often uses alternate motifs in alter nate sections. The number of parts in sectioned design is always four. In lateral design, four, five, and six parts are common, but the style is almost indistinguishable from the banding of free units and is therefore questionable. Centered units are not controlled by symmetry.
Santa Cruz Red-on-Buff
Vessel forms in Santa Cruz Red-on-buff maintain the three basic classes established for Sacaton forms with the addition of some unusual and rare shapes. The major differences affecting decoration are found in jar forms which had not reached the extreme eversion and reduction of the neck area and had not developed the sharp-angled shoulder of the later period. In spite of the presence of the neck area 141 on many of the Santa Cruz jars, however, there is only one example of the use of the neck as a field independent of the vessel body and the ex treme nature of the neck decoration of this specimen is congruous with this one divergence from the norm (Fig. 35 k). Otherwise, jar fields begin at the commencement of the flare lip and end at, or just below, the shoulder on those jars with rudementary shoulders (Fig. 35_1). A few vessels have relatively high points of greatest diameter (Fig. 35 m) and decoration extends well below this point. Bowls with steep walls and exterior decoration only, vary in size from small to large and range from flare-lipped forms to strongly recurved lips of a type more pronounced than in Sacaton. These latter specimens are actually jar forms, but classify better in the range of exteriorly decorated bowls. Flare-rim bowls and simple bowls with interior primary fields are present in this pottery type, and plate forms are generally less flat than in Sacaton. One flare-rim bowl is exceptionally deep and decora tion is applied to the exterior rather than the interior. Specific Santa Cruz vessel forms are illustrated by Haury
(Gladwin, Haury, Sayles, and Gladwin 1937, Figs. 71-75). The per
centages in the study sample are as indicated in Table 16. Jars and bowls with steep sides and exterior decoration utilize banded layouts. Plates and bowls with interior decoration have banded
and sectioned layouts primarily, with some use of centered design. TABLE 16 142 Percentages of Vessel Forms in Santa Cruz Red - on- buff
PLATES 4.2
FLARE - RIMMED BOWLS 22.6
SIMPLE BOWLS 7.0
STEEP - WALLED BOWLS 33.8
SHOULDERED JARS 11.3
GLOBULAR JARS 18.3
DIPPERS 2 .8 143 Jar and exterior bowl bands are either single, multiple, or multiple- row with or without multiple-row interaction.
The treatment of interior type layouts is much like that of Sacaton.
1. Bands are multiple-row, with or without multiple- row interaction. 2. Sectioning is four-fold sectoring or unilinear offset. 3. Centered designs are simple radial forms but the motifs and the method of handling the design sug
gest close affinities with the band (Fig. 38 e). One composite zoomorphic design exhibits a two-fold
symmetry in the decoration. 4. All-over decoration utilizes small elements with
one example of checkering. Secondary layout exists in only one sectioned example (Fig.
35 n). Haury (Gladwin, Haury, Sayles, and Gladwin 1937) illustrates many of the small design elements which occur in many patterns of Santa Cruz Red-on-buff. Elements which combine to form units in this type are even more limited than in Sacaton. Greatest popularity falls to the scroll which combines into feathered scrolls, scrolls with attached frets, S-scrolls, and running S-scrolls. Zoomorphic and anthropomorphic figures are also common. A variety of the stepped 144 triangle, used in combination, occurs frequently. The count for other elements is extremely low (Table 20). The judgment made of design units and motifs in this section is based heavily on sherd material illustrated in Haury (Gladwin, Haury, Sayles, and Gladwin 1937). Since it is possible that there was a some what biased selection of sherds to illustrate specific design examples, the proportions of occurrences will be handled subjectively. As in Sacaton, just under 50.0% of the occurrences of design units are used by themselves in simple motifs. Combined-form motifs and multiple-repeated situations are common. Table 21 expressed the presence of these in the sample and Figure 38 illustrates the variation of these and other motifs in the type. Examination of the sherd mate rial suggests that the count in the chart for small elements and zoomorphs used in all-over, banded, and occasionally centered and sectioned layouts should be increased. This is true also of patterns using the alternately squiggled-and-straight zigzag lines. With the exception of the reduced inventory of motifs and varia tions in Santa Cruz Red-on-buff, the description of the nature of motifs is the same as for Sacaton Red-on-buff. This is also true of the methods for space filling, with the additional comment that Santa Cruz is some what more tightly compact. The use of contour-filling is like that of
Sacaton Red-on-buff with a reduced quantity of solid filling along the rim or around zoomorphic figures. Santa Cruz Red-on-buff also lacks 145 DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR FIELD CLASS
F % ^ in ^ i i ( J B M L a ----- IF b c n
I!* * d
SMALL
ELEMENTS e © # t/Zt/r/ftf/M /Tf s«s»yr>?zyz&? /////'/////////
/////////////' 4 & f t //////s///////y ///////////* ////////////// S/Ss/S/S/S///// /////// jO / / Z / A ///S/Z/SSSM f g
M i
M&M j Fig.38. Designs on Santa Cruz Red-on-buff. 146 DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR FIELD CLASS 0 k M M H 1 ■ n m w m m s&s&r n W SS S6$. a r # @ P q # s
□ li; t m # r
Fig. 38. (cont.). Designs on Santa Cruz Red -on-buff. 147 the very large design units which require internal design as a filling agent. Negative design appears to be fairly limited, with the exception of ’’bulls-eyes" filled with a solid unit.
Design enrichment is equivalent to that in Sacaton Red-on-buff. Multiple banding occurs on three vessels and multiple-row bands are very common. Multiple motifs are not present either in banding or in sectioning. Few whole vessels exist in the sample for Hohokam pottery styles pre-dating Santa Cruz Red-on-buff. Design description will therefore be limited to notation and commentary on the sherds and the whole vessels present.
Gila Butte Red-on-Buff
Gila Butte Red-on-buff vessel forms (Gladwin, Haury, Sayles, and Gladwin 1937, Fig. 78) are only slightly varied from later forms as far as the influence on design is involved. Jars are generally more globular than the later types but maintain a neck area about equal to those of Santa Cruz Red-on-buff. Forms are less varied than in Santa Cruz Red-on-buff, but the basic forms described for the later types are also fundamental to Gila Butte Red-on-buff. My impression is that the quantity of bowls and plates with interior decoration far exceeds the jars and steep-walled bowl forms with exterior fields.
As on Sacaton and Santa Cruz Red-on-buff specimens, the 148 single primary field of decoration is normal and the field of design en compasses almost all of the decorative field. Banded layouts are found on both interior and exterior fields.
Simple four-part sectored sectioning is suggested by the design on some flare-rimmed bowl sherds and cross-banding is quite common. Band ing in both horizontal and cross-band situations is most commonly multiple-row. Radially centered designs, using small elements, are present in a few examples and all-over decoration, in both organized and random application, is popular. No definite examples of secondary layout or paneling were de termined, although it may exist in a few of the sectored patterns.
Small elements used without interaction in spaced organization are again highly popular. Zoomorphic and anthropomorphic units are included. Varieties of the fret and stepped triangle are noticeably pres ent, and the scroll variations are highly popular, as in later times. Interaction through interlock and shape-conformity provides a number of motifs. Multiple-repetition is common. Combined-form motifs are present as varieties of the "feathered scroll" and the keyed or feathered fret.
The filling of space approximates the methods of Santa Cruz
Red-on-buff. In addition, hatching or cross-hatching exist in approxi mately 32 of 126 situations, or 25.0%. Negative painting seems to have 149 about the same popularity as it has in Santa Cruz Red-on-buff. Contour filling is commonly used with the scroll but is not found otherwise. Other characteristics of design are indistinct.
An observation worth mentioning on the formation of scrolls shows that late period scrolls of the Santa Cruz and Sacaton types have many convolutions in a majority of cases. This also tends to create a scroll of one line thickness (Fig. 43 a). In Gila Butte Red-on-buff a number of the scrolls are short and are formed by two lines and filled to the tip (Fig. 43 b).
Snaketown Red-on-Buff
Snaketown Red-on-buff pottery forms can be described in the same way as those of Gila Butte Red-on-buff (Gladwin,, Haury, Sayles, and Gladwin 1937, Fig. 80). The plate form seems to be absent, though shallow bowls are numerous. Jars are extremely globular and steep- walled bowls are more globular than in later types. Decoration extends from the flare of the lip, if present, or from the rim, well down toward the bottom. Again there is a single primary field per vessel and it covers a maximum of body surface.
Banded layouts are found in interior and exterior decoration with indications of multiple and half banding; the banding layouts were not found to any extent in later types. The presence of sectioning (as established in this paper) is indeterminable, though one lateral design 150 DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR FIELD CLASS
a
b © # # A
c //////< ##//&
d A S M
e
f t M f
f | SMALL f l |( F )f f t n n m ELEMENTS f f M M f
5 : S # g
Fig.39. Designs on Gila Butte Red-on-buff. 151 DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR FIELD CLASS
S////M// Trmmmi m m m u ///////////// h ~777777777777777/ \r////z////Jr///s
//////////////////// i WIUIHMIMIMMM
x z v / m m r n j k m
0 mm / S \ i 4T\
m
A n
a?
0
Fig.39 (cont.) Designs on Gilo Butte Red-on-buff. 152 DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR FIELD CLASS
P
r a q nu r
u P f a m i H s
t 1W u □ V <#& w o
X
Fig.39 (cont.). Designs on Gilo Butte Red-on-buff. 153 is obviously a forerunner of later four-part sectored design which uses the interlocking feathered scroll motif in each quadrant (Fig. 40 £and Gladwin, Haury, Sayles, and Gladwin 1937, Fig. 83 d). Cross-banded sectioning is present, as are both organized and random all-over pat terns.
The popular units of design are scrolls and frets, with some stepped triangles. A very few small element and zoomorphic units are included. There is no sure, or even suggested, evidence for multiple- repetition. Combined-form motifs involve the feathered scroll, now created by barbing rather than fringing or feathering, and the keyed fret. Motifs and their variations are shown in Figure 40. Space is thoroughly used in the tradition of the later types though units appear larger with respect to vessel size than in later types and more area of the design is filled. Fine hatching fills the units or areas surrounding negative design. Scrolls are almost en tirely formed by two lines with a filler between and the curve is short.
Frets too, are formed with two lines rather than a single line as in Gila Butte Red-on-buff. They are hatch filled even along the stem. In most examples, all lines are part of design (Fig. 40 d-g) except in a few banded situations. 154 DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR FIELD CLASS
/////////////////////////////// AMAA XAAAAAVVVVVNAA /vWVVWVVVVVvVV VVVVA/VNAAVWVVl i
SMALL ELEMENTS
Is 5
X\\\\\\XX>XV»^VCVv
f i ' ^ ® T n JJ-m u-uj. COMPLETE m m # MOTIF t , UNKNOWN
Fig.40. Designs on Snaketown Red-on-buff. 155 Sweetwater Red-on-Gray
In Sweetwater Red-on-gray times, vessel forms had developed the character expressed in the later types. The fields are similar to later types, but a greater openness in the pattern exists due to a smaller employment of interaction between units and a looseness of de sign is felt. Steep-walled vessels contain banded layout. Shallow ves sels utilize the band, single or multiple, and half-banding, and section ing by simple sectoring and unilinear division into two- and four-part design. All-over patterns exist but other layout types are indeterminate. The dominant design units are the isosceles triangle, the scroll, the band or bar edged with isosceles triangles (Fig. 43 c), the chevron, and the stepped triangle.
The isosceles triangles, either separate or on the bar, are used in opposition or around the rim in a half band. Chevrons are nested in the quartered design. Scrolls form half bands, bands of in terlocking scrolls, and all-over patterns, or are randomly spaced. The Mfeathered scroll" is present in primitive form. Multiple-repeti tion is not present. Units are formed largely by outlining and are filled with hatching. The result is a massive unit. There are, however, linear design units, particularly in scrolls and chevrons. All lines ap pear to be part of design, even though a few may have been applied first to establish layout. 156 DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR FIELD CLASS
a
i iihiiiir mi H i in uiiiii ii ii u n / // Z//i b
~ w w ~ p p p #
w c O 'TT> 0. d U W l \ 4
CD 0 M
"§) to
f
/W g h P
y///////////////////M i W/////M///MM.
Fig.41. Designs on Sweetwater Red -on- gray. 157 Estrella Red-on-Gray
Estrella Red-on-gray forms are again in the typical tradition of globular jars, steep-walled bowls and shallow open bowls. Fields appear to be filled with design on bowl interiors. From the material illustrated in Haury (Gladwin, Haury, Sayles, and Gladwin 1937: 200- 01) no exterior bowl or jar decoration is noted. One banded design is clearly shown with the use of multiple-row interaction. Three others may be bands of parallel horizontal lines. The prominent use of nested chevrons suggests a high percentage of four-part sectioned lay outs. Both unilinear and sectored sectioning is present. Essentially,
design is all broad line, linear motifs. Design units are chevrons and some simple scrolls. No interlocking is present. Design motifs in
this period are presented in Figure 42. The sample of this type is
small and derived almost entirely from sherds.
Summary of the River Hohokam Tradition
The information available at the present time suggests that Estrella Red-on-gray is one of the earliest painted pottery types in the Southwest. In spite of the fact that an unpainted type precedes this pot tery by a number of decades, if not centuries, it is my belief that the
decorative style of Estrella was not totally indigenous. Its moderate
sophistication appears to have had earlier origins, though these origins 158 DESIGN BANDED CIRCULAR FIELD CLASS V a
A \ n& g B U 7 W b
l (e) G> 1%
Fig. 42. Designs on Estrella Red-on-gray. 159 are unknown. This suggestion of outside sources for Hohokam pottery is corroborated by the relatively advanced forms and finish of the pot tery in the earliest phases. Once the basic vessel forms were established in the Vahki
Phase of the River Hohokam, little significant change occurred in the shape inventory until the Classic period as far as the influence of form on decoration is concerned. The major forms all fall consistently into three groups, the jar, the steep-walled bowl, and the shallower open vessel. As in the case of Mesa Verde, exotic forms, such as the legged vessels, ladles, effigy and thick-walled vessels of the Late and Sedentary
Hohokam, are not included in these statements. Jars begin as globular containers with a flaring lip. With only slight modification, this form progresses through to the Santa Cruz phase when the beginnings of the low shoulder start to appear. In Santa
Cruz, also, the upper body tends to elongate but with no particular af fect on design; presumably body change is a result of the lowering of the point of greatest diameter, which later forms the shoulder, while still retaining the vessel height. In Sacaton Red-on-buff this elongation vanishes and a gradual slope from the flare of the lip to the shoulder is established. Steep-walled bowls take on the shoulder effect in some examples in the Santa Cruz to Sacaton period and some start a flaring of the lip in the Snaketown phase. TABLE 17 160 Sample Count for Fields of Decoration on Sacoton and Santa Cruz Red-on-buff
POTTERYTYPES eieir\er 1 EL L U O Urc DECORATION SACATON SANTA CRUZ R/B R/B
PLATE TOTAL INTERIOR 3 4 3
BOWL - FLARE LIP
TOTAL INTERIOR 5 4 # 4
BOWL - SIMPLE
TOTAL INTERIOR 2 3 5 UPPER WALL AND BOTTOM 2
UPPER WALL EXTERIOR 1
BOWL - STEEP WALLED
UPPER WALL EXTERIOR 3 3 1 8
JAR - SHOULDERED
UPPER BODY 4 9 3 UPPER AND CENTER , 3 BODY
JAR - GLOBULAR
NECK 1 UPPER AND CENTER 1 3 BODY
DIPPE R
TOTAL INTERIOR 2 3 2 TABLE 18 161 Sample Count for Layouts on So ca ton and Santa Cruz Red-on-buff
POTTERY TYPES LAYOUTS SACATON R/B SANTA CRUZ R/B
BANDED SINGLE 7 4 2 7 M ULTIPLE 2 3 2 0 MULTIPLE HALF 1
SECT 1 ON ED
SIMPLE
UNILINEAR - 4 PART 2 SECTORED - 4 PART 6 7 7 OFFSET UNILINEAR-4 PART 5 2
CROSS BAND 7
CENTERED RADIAL SIMPLE -4 PART 2
M ISC. 2
SPIRAL
SIMPLE 3
FREE FIGURE
ZOOMORPHIC 6 I
BAND AND CENTERED 3
CENTERED AND LATERAL 6
CENTERED AND SECTIONED 1
ALL OVER
EVEN 1 5 1 RANDOM 1 2 TABLE 19 162 Sample Count for Unit Functions on Saco ton Red - on-buff
UNIT BANDED NON -BANDED o
# < ?
< C ^ / /
1
< ? 1 4 2 f B I Z J Z 4
V 7 2 .
1 C h
n 1
o 1 5
m 4
...... — 3 3
w 9 v O C 2
1 2
☆ 1
7
= = z 1 7
4 3 1 9
5 1 9
sirtn 1 4
8 1 6 7
I 1 I
S i l l s ' 1 1 TABLE 20 163 Sample Count for Unit Functions on Santa Cruz Red-on-buff
UNIT BANDED NON-BANDED TABLE 21 164 Sample Count for Combined form and Multiple repeated Motifs on Hohokam Pottery
COMBINED- FORM MULTIPLE-REPETITION
i & £ ? 165 The shallow open form begins in the earliest period as simple and flaring-lipped bowls. These continue into Sacaton times with minor changes. The true flat plate, however, made its debut in Gila Butte
Red-on-buff. The minor forms that appear through time are of little consequence to this study. Following the consistency of the forms through the tradition*s history, the primary fields of decoration are normally limited, one to a vessel. The fields of design fill the maximum available space on the field of decoration. Secondary painted decorative fields begin in Sweet water Red-on-buff as hatched or nested-chevron filled triangles, pendent to the rim on shallow bowl exteriors. Details of this progression of secondary fields is well illustrated in Haury (Gladwin, Haury, Sayles, and Gladwin 1937, Fig. 112). The variety of layout types is noticeably limited in this histor ical sequence. Table 22 lists the occurrence of these layout types by pottery type. The concept of banding progresses from simple to complex in
Hohokam pottery. Estrella Red-on-gray utilizes the multiple rows of very simple units of a linear nature. Sweetwater Red-on-gray introduces the more complex unit, the scroll, into the band situation though it had been used individually in all-over design earlier. Opposed triangles and
stepped units appear in Sweetwater Red-on-gray and multiple hatch filling bands replace the parallel lines of Estrella Red-on-gray. In TABLE 2 2 166 Layout Types Found on Hohokam Pottery
POTTERY TYPE BANDED SECTIONED CENTERED LATERAL ALL OVER
SINGLE SIMPLE- POSSIBLE
UNILINEAR ESTRELLA MULTIPLE - 4 ROW R/G SECTORED ! ! 4
SINGLESIMPLE- PRESENT UNILINEAR SWEETWATER MULTIPLE 4 R/G SECTORED HALF 2 , 4
FORE RANDOM SINGLE RUNNER OF C R O SS - SECTORING EVEN SNAKETOWN MULTIPLE BANDING R/B
HALF
SINGLE S IM P L E - RADIAL- RANDOM
SECTORED CSMALL MULTIPLE - 4 ELEMENTS) GILA BUTTE EVEN ROW CROSS R/B BANDING MULTIPLE
SINGLE S IM P L E - RADI A L - RANDOM
SECTORED (SMALL MULTIPLE- 4 SA NTA C R U Z ELEMENTS) EVEN ROW OFFSET- R/BQ / D UNILINEAR ZOOMORPH. MULTIPLE 4 1C
SIM PLE - RADI AL - USED WITH EVEN SINGLE SECTORED tS M A L L A SIM ILA R 4 CENTERED SA C A T O N ELEMENTS) O F F S E T - UNIT R/B M U LTIPLE - , UNILINEAR ZOOM O R PH - ROM1 A 1C CROSS- BANDING 167
Fig . 4 3 . Hohokam designs showing variations of the scroll, a,b; triangle-edged b ar, c; early s e ctioning , d ; and linear all-over design, e. 168 Snaketown Red-on-buff, Sweetwater Red-on-gray ideas continue with the addition of the interlocking scroll in bands. There is one example in Sweetwater Red-on-gray which Haury (Gladwin, Haury, Sayles, and
Gladwin 1937, Fig. 89 g) mentions as suggestive of Snaketown Red-on- buff. In Sweetwater Red-on-gray and Snaketown Red-on-buff, multiple- row bands are replaced by multiple banding, but multiple-row bands begin to return in Gila Butte Red-on-buff and by Sacaton Red-on-buff, replace the multiple band. Sectioned decoration remains popular but simple throughout the history of this tradition. Four-part simple sectoring is found in every type except Snaketown Red-on-buff. Its absence in Snaketown
Red-on-buff may be a result of sampling. Four-part simple unilinear sectioning appears in Estrella Red-on-gray and Sweetwater Red-on- gray, is absent in Snaketown Red-on-buff and Gila Butte Red-on-buff, and then unilinear division returns, though scanty, in Santa Cruz Red on-buff and Sacaton Red-on-buff in four-part offset design.
Cross-banding is suggested in the two-part sectored design (Fig. 43 d) in Sweetwater Red-on-gray. It then becomes popular in single bands through Snaketown, and as single and multiple-row bands in Gila Butte Red-on-buff. No cross-banding is found in Santa Cruz
Red-on-buff, but would logically fit in. It reappears in single-row and multiple-row bands in Sacaton.
Centered design begins in Gila Butte Red-on-buff. With the 169 exception of six zoomorphic figures in Sacaton Red-on-buff and one in Santa Cruz Red-on-buff, centered design is limited to the radial organ ization of small elements. One vessel in the Snaketown phase exhibits, by definition, a lateral design. It is, however, in most characteristics, a forerunner of a sectioned design using the interlocking feathered scroll. Haury calls it sectioned in his text. Lateral design does not otherwise appear except when used with a comparable unit in the center in Sacaton Red on-buff. All-over designs are essentially limited to small elements. These appear to be more randomly placed in earlier design, and in the later phases become controlled, often into organizationally bound bands, sections, and radially centered patterns. By Sacaton, no random place ment is noted. Linear units in Sacaton Red-on-buff (Fig. 43 e) may be classed as all-over layout. Checkering in an all-over pattern is found as far back as Snaketown Red-on-buff. From the above commentary of layouts, it becomes apparent that in an elaborating sequential continuum of decorative modes, such as is exhibited in the pottery of the River Hohokam, the relationships of design motifs and layouts is fundamental to the tradition. In Hohokam design, specific units are established. These units are combined to form motifs which are internally structured to fit specific layout situa tions. As the tradition progresses through time, two things happen.
Firstly, variations in the shapes and combinations of the basic units 170 formulate new motif structures, still confined however to essentially the same layouts. Secondly, design units with similar shapes replace or exchange with initially chosen units, resulting in the maintenance of the original internal motif structure in layout but exhibiting new design
elements or units which somewhat change the superficial character of the pattern. In Figures 37 through 42 and 44, classes of designs have been formulated, either in terms of the fundamental motif or occasion ally with respect to the motifs internal structure within layout. It should be immediately apparent to the reader that some of these classes
are limited to specific layout situations, whereas others are more flex ible and appear in multiple-layout forms. The illustrations do not seg regate simple and combined-forms or multiple-repeated situations but show all variations of the use of a specific class form in all types of layout.
Through the examination of these diagrams, a chronological
sequence of elaboration and change in specific motifs is realized. Many follow through the entire tradition from Estrella Red-on-gray to
Sacaton Red-on-buff. Others are introduced within the sequence and others still fade out before the end.
By following the designs in an historical view, with considera
tion both for the fundamental motif and its relationship to layout, the
progress of an ideal continuity of decorative tradition can be recognized.
Simple scrolls first appear in Estrella Red-on-gray. There is 171 a questionable possibility that one was used as a single unit in a quadrant of simple unilinear sectioning. In Sweetwater Red-on-gray scrolls are more elaborate. Many are bi-linear with hatch filling, and edges are serrated, with interaction against other serrated edges. Interlocking scrolls are also found. The serrated edge, although not located on the back of the scroll, is the beginning of the "feathered scroll" or inter locking "feathered scroll" motifs. No evidence is present for the use of the scroll in a quadrant in this period. This may be due to the small size of sherds. Simple scrolls appear in bands. In Snaketown Red-on- buff, scrolls and "feathered scrolls" appear both singly and interlock ing. They are bi-linear, with hatch fill of a finer quality. "Feather ing" is not simple serration but barbing or a running fringe (Fig. 40 e, f), and it is located on the scroll back. Interlocking "feathered" scrolls are found in bands and in a lateral situation reminiscent of the quartered sectioning.
Gila Butte Red-on-buff marks a burst of elaboration of this motif. The simple forms continue and the scroll now has a wide base with hatch or solid fill and a linear spiral. Barbing and the running fringe continue with slight variation and this treatment is also often added along the outside of the banding line at the bottom of the base of the scroll. This fringing, then, may interact with that of another band parallel to it. Bands of interlocking scrolls and "feathered" scrolls are used horizontally and now in cross bands. In the quadrant, the 172 interlocking scroll continues, with variation, out of Snaketown Red-on- buff, but the concept of interaction between motifs through the "feather ing” is now expressed between quadrants from the back of the scroll of one motif to the base of the scroll of the next motif. Gila Butte is the period of the first well controlled running application technique of the scroll, created by a continuous flow of line. Many variations of this method appear in this phase, including the introduction of the multiple- repeated motif and multiple-row forms of the multiple-repeated situa tion (Fig. 38 m). This appears also with the "feathered" scroll (Fig. 38 o, j>). In Santa Cruz Red-on-buff, previous innovations continue with minor changes. The running fringe has shorter points. Hatching fringe and the use of the squiggle line are introduced as substitutes for "feath ering. " Particularly in Santa Cruz Red-on-buff, but to some extent in
Gila Butte, the "feathering" of scrolls is on a straight line against the curved back of the scroll. Filling now is almost entirely solid, with some very fine hatching. In the quadrant use of the interlocking feath ered scroll, the sectoring layout line is essentially a basal tail to one of the scrolls in the motif which comes up behind the straight feathered back of the opposing scroll and is thus equally feathered to oppose it.
Interaction then is self contained within the motif, both through inter lock and the inter-fingering of the feathers (Fig. 38 1). In the multiple- repeated multiple-row interaction (Fig. 38 o, p) a change is taking 173 place, with its possible beginnings in Gila Butte Red-on-buff, which re sults in an alteration of the former motif into new forms. The motifs in Figure 39 o become those in Figure 38 o, and Figure 39 p progresses into the forms in Figure 38 p. An example of unit replacement is exhibited in Figure 38 r, which shows the use of the nested rectangle, with opposed barbs be tween motifs, in place of the interlocking feathered scroll. Sacaton Red-on-buff expresses an even greater degree of elab
oration, which is illustrated in Figure 37. Alteration of motor habit and interchange of units has created an increase in rectilinear forms (Fig. 20 c). Replacement of the scroll with nested circles and negative circles filled with small elements evolves designs like those in Figure 37 cc. Direct relationships seem to exist also between motifs in
Figures 37 y and 30 aa, and those in Figure 30 q and r. These are then in turn related to those in Figure 30 o and p. As might be ex pected in a constantly elaborating continuum, old ideas give rise to
new ones through variation and through combinations of more than one
older concept.
There are a number of additional details in the development of
this one line of motif evolution that have not been mentioned, which only
strengthen the continuity tradition concept for this pottery group. Other
motifs such as the alternately-opposed triangle motif and the checkering
motif follow through the sequence in the same manner, though they are 174 not as elaborate. With the exception of a few less significant innova tions which are injected after the commencement of the tradition, the whole aspect of decoration in the River Hohokam culture up to about A. D. 1100 exemplifies an ideal, uninterrupted progression of an elabo rating tradition.
Casa Grande Red-on-Buff
This point brings the discussion up to the final phase of indig enous River Hohokam ceramics, the Red-on-buff pottery. The Soho phase is represented by Casa Grande Red-on-buff. It has not been discussed until now because of the extremely limited range of its dec
orative character. Haury has provided a detailed discussion of this type (Haury 1945a: 51-62) and in this coverage he states that ’’Casa
Grande Red-on-buff vessels are decorated in a more or less standard
ized fashion, the structure of which was undoubtedly derived from proto
types of earlier horizons. The conception of the decoration is quite un
like the contemporary and companion Gila Polychrome ware of Pueblo origin, although it employs some of the same elements." Casa Grande
Red-on-buff preceded Gila Polychrome in the Gila-Salt area. It does
evolve from Sacaton but certainly has had outside influence affecting its
forms and decoration. Consequently it has not been discussed until now
in order to evaluate the indigenous qualities as opposed to concepts
which may have intruded from the Salado expression. Whatever the 175 DESIGN BANDED CLASS
I I
r u m UUUIM finsuui
M m
( 2 ^
x> Hi Gi cJ qJ O
\^/\^/\zy xzs _xxz\ o © ® o /^\ y^N
O o o o O D Q D O ■ Fig. 4 4. Designs on Casa Grande Red -on- buff. 176 introduced concepts were in origin, they seem to have taken hold rather rapidly. This possibility is fostered by the noticeable rarity of inter mediate or transitional types between Sacaton and Casa Grande Red on-buff.
The jars have obvious ties with Sacaton Red-on-buff jars. A remnant shoulder, often low on the vessel body, is common. It is not sharp, however, and does not necessarily act as a field border. Dis tinct necks are a new introduction. The sharp flare of the rim is gone. This is the first standardized use of multiple primary fields of decora tion on a single vessel. The new pitcher form is essentially a smaller and somewhat more globular jar with an added handle. Only two bowls with steep walls are in the sample of 27 specimens. Those vessels, which Haury calls canteens, may be treated as ordinary jars when judging decoration. Only one interiorly decorated vessel is found in the sample.
It contains four laterally placed anthropomorphic figures, completely unrelated in style to the earlier material (Haury 1945a, Fig. 37).
Therefore, the long popular use of sectioning and other interior deco ration is lost in the classic Red-on-buff.
The primary fields, then, are banded, normally with a single band and occasionally with multiple banding. Sharp breaks in the con tour of the vessel do create separate fields of decoration with unrelated bands on each field. A few vessels have two such breaks in the body 177 area, in addition to the break at the neck. Bands are established with banding lines, with the exception of a few free or floating neck motifs. Secondary paneling is present in simplified form, generally created by the nature of the motif rather than by actual division lines (Fig. 44 a). Paneling within design units, such as in the alternately-opposed trian gle motif (Fig. 44 d), is a new idea, perhaps derived from motifs like Figure 37 g or Figure 37 q or aa. Many of the motifs of Casa Grande Red-on-buff are direct derivatives of earlier usage. This is true of motifs b, c, some of d, e, f, g, h, k, and j), Figure 44. Motif g relates to q of Sacaton Red on-buff. Number 44 k is like Sacaton Red-on-buff o, using circles rather than diamonds. Number 44_p is basically like Sacaton Red-on- buff 37 aa. These which are specifically mentioned are some of the more important motifs. The others also show obvious ties.
The possibly introduced motifs are 44 a, jl, 1, _m, and_n, al though some resemblances to them are found earlier. Of these, the interlocking hooked triangles or simple frets of motif 44 and the hourglass unit of motif 44Jl, show the strongest Anasazi influence.
The concept of squiggle or barbing is an extension of Sacaton Red-on-buff. In addition, the squiggled line used as a banding line in
Sacaton and earlier pottery now acts as a framing line parallel to a straight banding line in Casa Grande Red-on-buff.
Essentially, Casa Grande Red-on-buff appears to be a 178 continuation of the prior tradition, but it exhibits a number of abrupt changes, both in form and decoration, which suggest the effect of out side influence, perhaps the first foreign influence of any consequence on the design tradition with the exception of the tradition's initial source. 5.
COMPARISON OF THE MESA VERDE AND HOHOKAM TRADITIONS
The foregoing analysis and classification of the decoration traditions of Mesa Verde and River Hohokam pottery was carried out with the intention that the two traditions would then be compared. Com parison is for the purpose of showing similarities indicating possible re lationships, or for showing differences which suggest a lack of relation ship. Mesa Verde and Hohokam have been chosen because they were felt to be as diverse as any two ceramic traditions found in the South west.
If these two show great diversity in decorative technique, then a range might be established for Southwestern pottery decoration. The degree of similarity between any two or more traditions in future studies would then represent, in part at least, the amount of possible relation ship between them, using the Mesa Verde and Hohokam as the scale for maximum diversity.
The comparative discussion will follow the same general order used in the description, considering first the field, then structure and design.
179 180 As the analyses of the two groups progressed, the tendency was to stress certain features in one tradition and different qualities in the other. The character of each tradition causes the analyst to be more emphatic about those things which make the tradition distinct. The greater the differences are between the groups under study, the more obvious these differences will appear to be through the contrast in em phasis. Vessel forms in both the Mesa Verde and Hohokam traditions follow an evolutionary continuum with no apparent break from the early to the late phases. The forms themselves, however, are noticeably dif ferent between the two areas. Mesa Verde bowls dominate the count and are basically hemispherical throughout. Hohokam bowls fall into four classes, the plate, the flare-rim bowls, the simple, almost hemi spherical bowl which is rare (and the only type similar to Mesa Verde), and the steep-walled bowl. In Mesa Verde, bowls are decorated only on the interior, except in the final phase. Hohokam bowls have an in terior primary field on all forms except the steep-walled type, which has its primary field on the exterior wall. Secondary fields are found on flare-rim and simple bowl exteriors.
Mesa Verde jars are globular, with necks or without necks.
Except in the Soho phase, Hohokam jars have no necks, or the neck blends with the body so as to leave no distinct junction. Related jar forms are the pitcher and the mug. Only the pitcher is found in the last 181 phase of Hohokam. Breaks in the contour of the Mesa Verde jar forms are relatively sharp, and areas delineated by the breaks form separate fields of decoration. Hohokam vessels consistently have only one ma jor field per vessel, except in the Soho phase.
Ladles are popular in the Mesa Verde but are rare in Hohokam, and dippers occur in both traditions but the form is different. Hohokam fields of design tend to cover the maximum area in the field of decoration. Mesa Verde fields of design leave more space beyond their limits, particularly on bowls. Layouts are more varied in the Mesa Verde. The band domi nates on all forms and multiple-banding is common. Sectioned fields and centered and lateral layouts are much less numerous than the band, but they occur in a variety of types with wide use of two-, and four-fold, and sometimes three-fold patterns. The sectioned layout is often used on jars. Hohokam also uses banding on all forms but sectioning occurs only on bowl interiors, and centered and lateral design is very rare.
With the exception of a few early designs, all sectioning is four-fold and either unilinear quartering or sectioning. Offset is not common.
All-over layouts are most common in Hohokam.
Secondary division or paneling is much less common and less clearly defined in Hohokam than in Mesa Verde. Tertiary layout occurs in late Mesa Verde but is rare, and does not occur at all in Hohokam.
Design shows the most diagnostic differentiation between the 182 two traditions. Design units are much more varied in Mesa Verde but the motifs, either fundamentally or in the variations, are much more limited. The Hohokam have made diverse use of a few components.
Also the Hohokam established their initial motifs and elaborated them throughout their history. Mesa Verde design evolution is far less ob vious and suggests intrusive concepts periodically introduced to main tain the ’’horizon styles" of the time; they are characteristic of the whole Anasazi area. Where the Mesa Verdians made greatest use of the fret, the triangle, and the stepped triangle, the Hohokam used the scroll, small elements, and lines. Mesa Verde units were generally solid, rectilin ear, and closely fitted; Hohokam units were hatch filled early, and later tended toward the linear, curvilinear, and open. Mesa Verde units were, in the late period, constructed of short straight strokes; Hohokam units were formed by free flowing curving lines. Continuous strokes were also used in forming small elements.
The relationship of specific motifs to layout was relatively con
sistent in both traditions but the specific motifs involved were totally different in sectioning and mostly different in banding. The figures
showing design motif variations are the best illustration of the differ ences in designs between the two groups.
Space filling differs between the two groups. In interior bowl banding, the band runs to the center in Hohokam but remains on the 183 upper wall in Mesa Verde. Wide, vertical design areas are mostly multiple banded in Mesa Verde. Multiple-row banding, often with mul tiple-row interaction, is more characteristic of Hohokam. Open areas in offset sectioning are filled with an additional unit in Hohokam.
The shift from first a broad linear technique to hatching and finally solid filling in design units, typical of the Hohokam, has no com parable sequence in Mesa Verde. Mesa Verde hatching is an integral part of the variety of filling employed by the tradition.
The comparison made above has been extremely general and has pointed out only gross differences between the groups. Such detail has been included in the analysis of the two areas that further discus sion seems superfluous. Additional comparison may be made by the reader. The comparison shows that there is no obvious or even sug gestive relationship between the two traditions. 6.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Archaeology gleans unrecorded history from the remains left behind by man. In the Southwest, in particular, men living in the latter part of the unrecorded past made extensive use of pottery, a durable artifact found in large quantities in the excavations of that area. Plain, undecorated pottery is often undifferentiated in time and space, but decorated wares hold a graphic expression of culture, which if studied, can give clues to cultural continuity, change, contact, move ment, and artistic expression. A large amount of time and effort has been given to the collection and recording of ceramic material, but I feel that more information may be extracted from the material than is done at present. The method of decoration analysis and classification presented in this paper is directed toward a better understanding of the workings of pottery decoration, approached through the decorator and the decorative process itself. Secondly, it attempts to establish criteria for disassembling and ordering decoration components and structure, and formulating them into classes which contain comparable material when pottery groups are held up for comparison.
Since archaeology is interested in the activities of mankind
184 185 through time and space, the techniques necessarily involve the compara tive method. Comparison through time within a tradition brings forth the historical and perhaps evolutionary changes which took place. To test the method in this paper, such an historical comparison was made of the Mesa Verde and River Hohokam traditions individually. In order to understand contact, diffusion, migration, and other cross-area re lationships, comparison between traditions is necessary. The com parison herein, between Mesa Verde and Hohokam, simply bore out the initial hypothesis that they were not related, which is just as useful as finding a relationship. The use of the comparative method is not unknown to South western archaeology. It has been used for years but the methods have occasionally been somewhat disorganized and not used to full advantage. As far as I am aware, there are no comparative studies in the
Southwest, in print, of the ceramic traditions of different areas which have been carried out in any detail. Nor has much been done between phases of a ceramic tradition.
Two definitive works, comparable to Bunzel's Zuni pottery study, were completed a number of years ago by Guthe (1925) and
Chapman (1936). These were descriptive studies of San Ildefonso and
Santo Domingo ceramics of recent origins. They apply the construction approach to design but the studies are limited, each to a single pottery type, and comparison in any detail is lacking. Profuse illustration and 186 exceptional detail in description, however, make the studies valuable for future comparisons. A less intense study was carried out by Tschopik (1941) for Navajo pottery. Mera made two studies (1937 and 1939) of historic Puebloan pottery in which historical comparisons were made and intercultural relationships were pointed out. The "Rain bird" study (1939), however, followed only one motif through time and space. The style trend report (1939), on the other hand, per sued style and form among the historic pueblos without much detail or design comparison. Ellis (1953) chose the specific characteristic of vessel lip dec oration as a possible guide to movements and contacts. The approach was excellent and would be of great value if applied to the entire decora tive complex. Clarke’s study (1935) traced certain design elements, units, and motifs through various pottery types in the Southwest, but few conclusive results were established.
The current interest in similarities between Mexico and the Southwest has stimulated a few comparative works, some involving
ceramics, such as Haury (1945b), Ferdon (1955), and Meighan (1959);
however, only one article by Ann S. Johnson (1958) has made specific use of pottery similarities. The characteristics were somewhat ran
domly chosen by Johnson but were at least of a more specific nature
and could easily be more significant than some of the gross character
istics so often used to compare cultures. The picking out of a few 187 similarities, whether they are an element or two in design, or a vessel
shape, or some architectural feature, can give one a lead, but so often the job is left in this stage of progress. It is the relating of trait com plexes, not the random unrelated details, which will indicate ties. Also the knowledge of the history within a tradition and the sudden transferal and continued history, the historical approach, will give the strongest, most decisive clues.
How items of design were transferred is a problem in diffu sion. Parsons (1955) defines three types of diffusion and the kinds of
group relationship suggested by each. Primary diffusion involves con tact, either long enough in time, or with enough people involved to al
low a transfer of cultural complexes intact and in context. An under standing of the complex by the recipient must take place, and this can
occur by migration of a large group or a small, highly influential group. Secondary diffusion requires only a minimal amount of face to face in
teraction between people, such as might occur when objects are traded
purely as merchandise, perhaps even through middle parties, and the
cultural context is lost. Stimulus diffusion of ideas need not involve
any actual interchange of goods, but ideas may pass and imitations re sult.
The fact that no obvious similarities were established for the
Mesa Verde and Hohokam does not necessarily mean that they never had
contact, but there was apparently never enough to affect the pottery 188 design tradition. On the other hand, the obvious transferal of a com plex motif and layout concept from the Hohokam, where its evolutionary
history has been established, to the Kayenta area, certainly suggests primary diffusion. As stated in an earlier section, this is borne out by
the known occupation of the Upper Verde by Hohokam at the time of reception by the northern culture.
It is my opinion that the method for analysis, classification, and synthesis proposed by this paper is sound and applicable and that
an increase in design comparison through detailed comparable classes
of data can result in a better understanding of the archaeological history of the Southwest and perhaps other areas. A GLOSSARY OF TERMINOLOGY USED IN THIS STUDY
BANDING - The organization of design into horizontal strips, normal ly on a vertical type field (Fig. 4 a-i).
BASIC UNIT - The underlying basic form which is the common denom inator of all units in a particular class of units (Fig. 13).
CENTERED DESIGN - The undivided organization of a design in the center of a horizontal type field (Fig. 6).
CERAMIC TRADITION - All qualities which relate to a pottery sequence of a defined group of people through time.
COMBINED- FORM MOTIF - A motif formed by the combination of two or more different standardized design units. Often this form occurs in multiple-row situations (Fig. 16).
COMPONENT - In reference to design, any one of the three hierachical forms within design, the element, the unit, or the motif (Fig.
2).
DESIGN - The relationship of design components to one another through
position or interaction to create pleasing decorative patterns.
This relationship is irrespective of layout or field (Fig. 2).
189 190 ELEMENTS - The simplest complete forms in design, created without the crossing of lines. The removal or addition of any part would completely alter the element (Fig. 12). FIELD OF DECORATION - An area on the vessel surface, normally controlled by vessel form, which contains a decoration com pletely distinct from any other decoration (Fig. 3).
FIELD OF DESIGN - The area delineated by layout for the positioning of design components. FUNDAMENTAL MOTIFS - The basic form, expressing the fundamental internal structure, common to all motifs of a particular class (Fig. 16).
HORIZONTAL FIELD OF DECORATION - A field, which when viewed
or when decoration is applied is like a plate or is a plan view of the vessel. This type of field is usually sectioned, or has centered or lateral design.
INTERACTION - The interrelationship of design components within a
motif and between units of adjacent motifs (Figs. 14 and 15).
LATERAL DESIGN - The undivided organization of a design lateral to
the center of a horizontal type field (Fig. 7).
LINEALLY BOUND MOTIFS - Motifs of a design are contained within
or constructed on layout lines (Fig. 4 e, j). (As opposed to
organizationally bound.) (Fig. 4 e, j.) 191 MOTIF - In this paper a motif is a specific combination of design units either within a single pattern or within a cultural complex. It is the most involved design component which, when set in rep etition, creates the pattern, or when used alone, forms the basis of the decoration (Fig. 16).
MOTOR HABITS - The manual dexterity and habits which affect design
formation and paint application in a ceramic tradition. MULTIPLE BANDING - Having more than one distinct band within a field of decoration.
MULTIPLE-REPEATED MOTIF - Multiple-row banding with the border ing units used in the center of the band. Junction and interde velopment create the relationship between rows (Fig. 16). MULTIPLE-ROW BANDING - Haying more than one row of motifs or
units within a single band area and running parallel to the banding lines (Fig. 23 d).
OFFSET - Referring to sectioning. Where division lines meet or sectors are placed off-center in respect to the field, leaving
space in the center area (Fig. 5).
ORGANIZATIONALLY BOUND MOTIFS - Layout lines are absent and
layout is the controUed placement of design components in
certain regulated layout forms without benefit of structure
lines (Fig. 4 _k). (As opposed to lineally bound.) 192 PRIMARY LAYOUT - The initial organization of division of the field of decoration. The types are banded, sectioned, centered, lat eral, and all-over, with their various sub-types (Figs. 4-7). QUADRANT - An area approximating a quarter of a circle (Fig. 10). SECONDARY LAYOUT - Subdivision or secondary organization of the area established within the primary layout. Further subdivi sion would be tertiary which is extremely rare (Fig. 10). SECTIONING - The division of a horizontal type field normally into two, three, or four parts (Fig. 5).
SECTOR - Referring to sectioning. An area set aside from other areas within the horizontal field, with space between it and the adja
cent sectors (Fig. 5). SIMPLE - Referring to sectioning. Where division lines meet or
sectors form at the center of the horizontal type field (Fig. 5). SINGLE BANDING - Having only one band within a field of decoration.
STRUCTURE - The lineal or organizational framework on which the rest of the design is suspended. It may apply to layout or to
the internal structure of motifs.
UNILINEAR - Referring to sectioning. Division created by single lines
which meet or cross to separate the sections (Fig. 5).
UNITS - The simple combination of design elements which creates
standardized forms in any given tradition (Fig. 13). 193 VERTICAL FIELD OF DECORATION - A field, which in viewing and in design application, is like a cylinder and is an elevation view of the vessel. Normally this type of field is banded (Fig. 22). REFERENCES
Abel, Leland 1955 Pottery Types of the Southwest: Wares 5A, 10A, 10B, 12A,
San Juan Red Ware, Mesa Verde Gray, and White Ware, San Juan White Ware. Museum of Northern Arizona Ceramic Series, No. 3B. Flagstaff.
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