LA REVUE EN SCIENCES INFIRMIÈRES • THE NURSING JOURNAL

Vol.1, Numéro 1/Vol.1, Issue 1. ISSN: 1918-1345 Sommaire/Content 2014: Vol.6, Numéro 4/Vol.6, Issue 4

Éditorial/Editorial

6 19 30 GJ ANDREWS ARTICLE 3 ARTICLE ARTICLE 1 ARTICLE 2 ARTICLE PJ CAPLAN & JC FORD PJ CAPLAN NURSING HOME INSTITUTIONS A FORCE FROM THE BEGINNING: A FORCE FROM J HOLMGREN, A EMAMI, LE ERIKSSON, & H ERIKSSON J HOLMGREN, REPLICATING THE FAMILY: THE BIOPOLITICS OF THE FAMILY: REPLICATING THEIR INSTITUTIONS/ PROGRESS TOWARD DIVERSITY TOWARD THEIR INSTITUTIONS/ PROGRESS COLLEGE THEIR EXPERIENCES AND PERCEPTIONS ABOUT INVOLVEMENT DISCOURSES CONCERNING RELATIVES IN DISCOURSES CONCERNING RELATIVES INVOLVEMENT THE VOICES OF DIVERSITY: WHAT STUDENTS OF DIVERSE WHAT OF DIVERSITY: VOICES THE WELLBEING IN THE AFFECTIVE INTENSITIES OF POP MUSIC THE WELLBEING IN RACES/ETHNICITIES AND BOTH SEXES TELL US ABOUT THEIR ABOUT TELL US SEXES AND BOTH RACES/ETHNICITIES Éditorial/Editorial

In an effort to optimize healthcare, people (that is, patients, providers, and funders) have started to increasingly scrutinize nurses’ practices, whether these relate to assessments, plans of care, interventions, or evaluations. What people want to know is, what is the utility, efficacy, and effectiveness of the services being recommended, delivered, and paid for? Do these interventions induce their intended outcomes, or do they cause more harm than good? This trend, which is commonly known as evidence-based practice, has challenged all healthcare practices. There are no sacred practices seemingly beyond the apparently critical gaze of evidence-based practice. From this lens, everything should be subject to critique and critical review.

While the foregoing aim of evaluating everything seems ideal, it is not as comprehensive in practice. What is lost in this new movement is the actual practice of critical appraisal. In decrying the previous approach of providing care based on anecdotal evidence, personal opinion, and historical practice trends, we have failed to maintain the foundational premise of critical reflection: to question and challenge everything. Indeed, the basic tenets are simple: question that which we are told is best; ask how and why one item has been established as ideal; and challenge the prevailing norms, so as to fulfill our professional obligations of providing patient care that achieves patients’ goals. Such critical thinking, which should be a central aspect of evidence-based practice, however, is often applied to everything but evidence-based practice itself. Reflecting on if, how, when, and in what ways evidence-based practice helps, including a review of how evidence-based practice is implemented, is required.

What appears to have happened is that, in opposition to a previous mindset, wherein initiatives were simply applied, we now seem to be unable to provide care until the so-called right type of evidence emerges. We have become dangerously immobilized in the absence of evidence. But does this make sense? Is this actually a change in how we care for patients? It seems to be little more than the replacement of one dogma with another. Instead of practicing without evidence (what I suggest is the previous modus operandi), we now simply do nothing when there is no evidence (the current approach). How is this different from before though? Does this new approach actually improve patient care, or does it simply create a new form of practice that is equally devoid of critically thinking?. Now, it simply seems that we have becoming unable, or at least increasingly reluctant, to address inequities and suffering due to a paucity of allegedly

2014: Vol.6, Numéro 4/Vol.6, Issue 4 3 good, correct, or adequate evidence. Now, we stand by and blame our unwillingness to change and our fear to act on the new trend of evidence-based practice. I will explain this point using a recent discussion I had at a conference about screening and men’s health.

Since 1979, the Canadian Preventative Care Task Force recommended the abolition of the annual health examination. They advocated, instead, for a periodic health examination that was tailored to each patient. Their logic was that indiscriminate annual examinations not only were costly, but also (and most importantly) caused innumerable instances of harm. That is, incidental findings arose from tests with poor sensitivity and specificity in the context of low prevalence figures for the tested-for conditions. The result was needless treatments, which ranged from rather benign interventions to the outright removal of perfectly healthy organs. Some of the damage was irreparable. (As an example of this evolution of screening guidelines, consider the recent changes to recommendations for cervical cancer screening.)

Accordingly, the periodic health examination has been adjusted to maximize the detection of pathologies, while minimizing the potential for harm. However, the pendulum has now swung so far toward evidence-based practice that it has become nearly impossible to recommend new strategies in the abscence of experimental studies that establish sensitivity and specificity values. For example, while we have good data showing that men who engage in receptive anal intercourse (i.e., men who are penetrated anally as part of their sexual practices) have elevated rates of anal cancer due to the acquisition of sexually transmitted human papillomavirus (HPV), clinicians are reluctant to undertaken any sort of examination or screening for such cancer in the absence of a validated screening tool. This leaves us with the situation of known harm (men being diagnosed with advanced stage cancer), and clinicians being reluctant to do any screening because there is no evidence for such screening. Here, we are witnessing the ongoing manifestation of harm and clinicians who refuse to act because now one has yet to establish the sensitivity of a digital anal-rectal examination for cancer detection. (Please note that the examination I am discussing here is known as a DARE, which focuses on detecting abnormalities on the anal verge, and should not be confused with the better-known DRE, or digital rectal examination, which targets the prostate and its associatied pathologies.)

In light of the current situation, I am reminded of words from Oscar Wilde, “everything in moderation, even moderation”. Perhaps, in considering this phrase, it is time we apply the same logic to evidence-based practice and be moderate in our excitement for evidence? To simply demand evidence—and often specific forms of evidence only—we have simply replaced one dogma with another. How is this an improvement? It is still an uncritical practice. This does not

2014: Vol.6, Numéro 4/Vol.6, Issue 4 4 mean that evidence-based practice is worthless; it is simply that we need to begin functioning in a world of evidence that is based on shades of grey, not black and white, not good versus bad, and not best practices and other. Indeed, we need to step back and say, evidence is indeed needed and warranted. However, are we so myopic that we cannot be critical of evidence and the evidence-based approach as well? Evidence-based practice ushered into a new era of critically examining healthcare practices. As part of this, we must not lose sight of critical reflection, and accidently adopt a new mindset mindlessly. The absence of evidence does not equal evidence that something does not work. Rather than letting history judge this new approach, should we not begin to do so now?

Patrick O’Byrne Associate Professor University of Ottawa Faculty of Health Sciences School of Nursing

2014: Vol.6, Numéro 4/Vol.6, Issue 4 5 Abstract The health impact of music is an emerging interest of research, although few studies have attempted to understand what it might be specifically about popular music that momentarily lifts people and gives them an immediate sense of wellbeing. This paper proposes some basic ideas in this area, using Daft Punk’s1 Get Lucky to explore how such experiences might be facilitated from an artistic and production standpoint. Features the song and its performance scenarios are related to Deleuzian ideas on affect. It is suggested that the physical characteristics of musical sound contribute an important auditory ingredient to affective intensities; mobile energies emerging from force encounters within assemblages of humans and non-humans. These intensities might be experienced as ‘feeling states’; somatically registered vibes and passions that flow through songs, environments and listeners alike. Through the registering of lyrical and other meanings, these feeling states might then slide into consciously known attitudes and emotions. Key Words affect, Daft Punk, music, non-representational theory, place, wellbeing

A Force from the Beginning: Wellbeing Christo), musician/producer Nile Rodgers, and singer/ in the Affective Intensities of Pop Music producer/musician Pharrell Williams. The song was released in April 2013 and, after gaining extensive radio play, rapidly emerged as a worldwide phenomenon. It eventually peaked GAVIN J ANDREWS at the top of the record sales charts in over 20 countries, sold well over eight million units in official downloads and hard copies, and was viewed over 200 million times on YouTube. Introduction Get Lucky was, ‘the song’ of the summer. It was, for a time, Everything [in popular music] was so angular, so difficult to get away from, yet it was liked by broad sections preset and so defaulted. The first time we put out of the general public and hard-nosed music critics alike something that felt festive and celebratory it was like...[pauses] ..the way people have reacted to it! (winning two Grammys for ‘record of the year’ and ‘best You know, they don’t have to, but the fact that they pop performance’). Important to this success, as Pharrell have sort of confirms that there is a shift and people just want to be happy again. And I’m just happy to mentions in the interview extract shown above, Get Lucky be a punctuation in the sentence of the history of possess a positivity feeling and message that resounded with this year. [Pharrell Williams GQ Awards Interview, listeners in the context of a post-recession world. Sept 2013] The positivity aspect of Get Lucky is a critical motivation for its consideration in the current paper. As the following A traditional but modernised disco jam, Get Lucky is co- review will explain, although the health and wellbeing written and co-performed by cult house music duo Daft impacts of music are a growing interest of academic research, Punk (Thomas Bangalter and Guy-Manuel de Homem- few studies have investigated how they might emerge in

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everyday songs, situations and environments. Get Lucky, as not necessarily cause, poor health and wellbeing outcomes a recent and a quite famous example of a ‘feel good’ song, is particularly in the contexts of drug use,[38-39] degrading well suited as a starting point to investigate this specifically and stigmatizing imagery,[40] urban crime and violence,[41] from an artistic/production perspective. Aspects of the song, unrealistic expectations and negative self-perceptions,[42] and the way it is presented and performed, are framed in the high risk sexual behaviour[43] and even extremist political paper by Gilles Deleuze’s concept on ‘affect’; particularly its movements[44-45]. onflow as environment, and movement to and from emotion. Outside medicine and public health, longstanding relationships exist between music and the idea of ‘social Music, health, and wellbeing wellbeing’ (i.e. the meeting of human rights, needs and A range of disciplines have, over the last two decades, explored security on a collective, community level) through musicians the relationships between health, wellbeing and music.[1-3] addressing social causes in their songs, performances, The health sciences have demonstrated how music can be activism and other activities[46] and this, in turn, influencing utilized quite practically in caring situations and contexts their listeners[47]. Andrews et al.[1,48] note that a first phase establishing, for example, its efficacy as a therapeutic and such activity spanned the 1930s to 1950s, when popular technical tool in medical research, diagnosis and treatment gospel, blues and jazz musicians began to publicise threats across various clinical specialities including psychiatry,[4,5] to human rights and liberties. A second phase spanned the audiology and hearing medicine,[6,7] obstetrics and gy- 1960s and 1970, when big name rock artists and bands naecology,[8-9] oncology,[10,11] palliative and end-of-life more firmly cemented the tradition of musicians focusing on care,[12,13] cardiology,[14,15] general surgery,[16,17] and broad societal problems such as vulnerability and inequality, dentistry[18-19]. Moreover they have also focused on its injustice and oppression, marginalization and exclusion, efficacy for treating particular demographic and client cohorts deprivation and conflict - in various forms and scales.[49] such as children (in neonatology and paediatrics),[20,21] A third and long-running current phase arrived during the older people (in gerontology and geriatrics),[22,23] and mid-1980s. Here, although the concerns of the first and people with physical and intellectual disabilities (in second phase continued[50-51] – particularly through a new community health)[24,25]. In terms of benefits, it has been generation of Hip Hop artists[52] - on another level they argued that through its positive impact on both the body and have also become more pragmatic, reactive and emergency mind, music can help reduce pain, blood pressure, stress, focused, grounded in the vast Band Aid/Live Aid/ Live8 depression and tiredness, as well as help increase emotional activities of 1984-2005 and their focus on the survival, health strength and resilience, confidence, contentment, attention and prosperity of populations in Sub-Saharan Africa. Notably, and relaxation.[26-29] Notably, many of the interventions on as part of the current phase, the most famous of musicians have which these observations are based involve the specific use emerged as powerful agents able to exert direct leverage at of ‘music therapy’; an holistic modality of complementary the global scale.[48,53-55] Whilst they have embarked upon medicine integrated into conventional health care settings in various activities (from musical events to direct involvement various ways and to various degrees.[30-31] in organizations, financial initiatives and politics) and Music, of course, is not always part of treatment and exists, have achieved many of their goals (particularly in terms of for the most part, outside and ‘upstream’ of medicine where it debt relief, boycott, policy change, fundraising and public potentially impacts on public health positively or negatively awareness) a critique of their ‘celebrity diplomacy’ has also (or does not impact at all). In a basic cause-and-effect sense, emerged, that helps balance opinion. This raises concerns relationships exist, for example, between dancing and with the accuracy, simplification, contradiction, hypocrisy fitness levels [32-33], and performing/listening to music and and partiality in their arguments and projects.[48,55-59] physical and emotional injuries [34-35]. Most relationships Beyond celebrity, in the last twenty years musical activity are however not so clear or deterministic, and are relative to on social wellbeing has diversified considerably, involving political and cultural contexts. For example, public health many different kinds of musically-led activities, activism and interventions have explored how certain genres of music social commentary - often at more modest local and regional can be helpful in enhancing and delivering public health scales – and different kinds of group agencies, cohesions and messages to youth[36] and investing them more generally in identities. Festival attendance and culture, for example, has health-related initiatives, practice and research.[37] On the exploded in popularity across the globe; festivals being times other hand, musical cultures might also be aligned to, but and spaces existing outside ‘normal life’, that are attached to

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various social causes, spiritualism, globalism and utopianism, have noted how particular genres and styles of music are and wider commercial interests.[60-61] Another growing purposefully aligned to particular wellbeing feelings and phenomenon is ‘community music therapy’ as a way groups experiences - including, for example, popular jazz and work in their own local cultural contexts to communicate, ambient music with simplistic therapeutic moments,[80-81] articulate and overcome their members’ common challenges, rock songs and venues with hope, healing, realism and and increase their collective wellbeing.[62-63] Meanwhile escapism[82-83] - but an opportunity remains to dig far a ‘post-Live Aid’ grass-roots phenomenon has solidified deeper. To pick apart and consider far more fundamentally whereby the important, yet often understated, activism of the basic structures, techniques, processes and performance the many thousands of amateur and more modestly profiled aspects of popular music and how they might, through professional musicians is gaining recognition. Their diverse their combined unfolding in environments, help give rise concerns for social wellbeing have spanned not only to wellbeing experiences. Indeed, as Pharrell commented developing world contexts and issues but have also evolved himself in The Guardian Newspaper on 9th March 2014 within developed world urban cultures.[64-65] “I always want to put something medicinal into my music. To always have some nutrients. It can’t be just shan’t, you In addition to the varied, yet relatively specialist and know what I mean?”. Looking for these nutrients, and the prescribed situations dealt with in the above literatures, challenges this poses, raises the potential of ‘affect’ as an wellbeing can also be part of peoples’ everyday experience investigatory and explanatory concept. of popular music. Indeed, as Ansdell[66] outlines, at one level the everyday consumption of popular music can have Affective environments potentially profound personal impacts and consequences such as helping people build and negotiate their own Affect is a capacity and transitioning of the body; for it to identities and identities with other people and things, helping be affected by bodies, to modify and then to affect other them establish and maintain relationships in non-verbal bodies. As Thrift[84] notes, affect has a diverse philosophical ways, and find moments of transcendence and meaning that precedent and grounding in the work of such eminent might promote change in their lives. Moreover, at another scholars as Plato, Kant and Rousseau, but importantly, level, as most people ‘know’ to be the case, music simply still has no single common understanding. A number of makes them feel good and just a little bit better as they go different explanations exist that span hundreds of years of about their regular lives (which is a big part of why they academic thought including phenomenological and social purchase and listen to it). In terms of understanding how and interactionist (emphasizing embodied practices that create why these things occur at both levels, various explanations visible actions), psychoanalytical (emphasizing practices that have been proposed. Whilst there are those that focus on emerge from and as human drives), Darwinian (emphasizing underlying biochemical and physiological responses in expressions of emotions that are similar across species). It bodies,[67] others are more psycho-social in orientation. Of is however a fourth explanation, a specifically naturalistic the latter, most recently for example, De Nora[68] draws on one, that has been most influential in recent years, which the work of Goffman and Foucault, and suggests music is this paper draws on to the greatest degree. Originating in used as a ‘technology of the self’; a very brief encounter and Spinozas Ethics and his early philosophical reasoning of aesthetic experience through which individuals can work on mind, body and nature, the naturalistic explanation was later themselves – in that moment and thereafter - to reinforce their developed and articulated more extensively in Deleuzian actions, identities and capacities in a ever institutionalised critical theory,[85-86] most recently re-emerged across world. Notably, both within this particular post-structuralist sociology and human geography, in the latter discipline as a understanding and more generally, listeners’ emotions are key testing concept in the turn towards Non-Representational known to play an important and intricate role,[69-73] as do Theory, and approaches to understand the ‘taking place’ of their specific listening situations and practices[52,74-79] the active world.[87] In much geographical research it is in facilitating positive memories, feelings and outlooks – argued that the ‘affective environment’ is affect’s collective including empowerment, hope and utopian desires for a manifestation and transhuman happening in space-time better way of being. involving interactions between all physical things assembled and moving (from atoms and molecules, to the more In terms of understanding how wellbeing is worked complex forms of matter, to complete human bodies and specifically into the form of popular music, far less research non-human objects [88-89]). The result being an intensity has been conducted and even less is known. Scholars that is experienced amongst people (transpersonally) less-

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than-fully consciously as a sensation or ‘feeling state’. This argues, affects are often created by self-interested parties manifests to them on a somatic register, as a vague yet that purposefully provide certain textured feels to the things intense vibe or passion.[90-91] Hence, one might think of the people do and places where they reside. Music, for example, overall affective process and experience as a highly variable is a highly engineered sound that potentially contributes yet constantly occurring part of peoples’ lives in which to affect in the place within which it is played. On the one they participate. A part that is endlessly streaming situated hand, it helps create the immediate affective experience of in-between, but complexly related to, what is physically being in that place.[74-76] On the other hand, if it reoccurs happening, and what they observe, reason and know to have and is predictably present, it helps create a particular happened. ‘affective possibility’; somewhere that is known for particular feeling states, that people might be attracted to and seek out. Because affect implies a transition from one experiential state Moreover, because value is attached by people to particular of the body to another, it potentially impacts on wellbeing, in affective feeling states and things (such as music) that help either positive or negative ways, through it having a bearing create them, one might talk about markets for affects, on people’s energy, and their capacity for engagement and whereby financial resources are distributed and exchanged involvement. Spinoza and Deleuze[85] argue that whilst in their production and consumption.[96] negative affection (a sorrowful or sad affect) acts like a toxin that weighs people down and reduces their capacity to Notably two significant methodological challenges persist operate physically and mentally, positive affection (a joyful when investigating affect. The first is the involvement of the or euphoric affect) acts as a nutrition that carries people researcher’s own emotions and other judgement filters when forwards and increases their capacity to operate physically attempting to make sense of affect - something that they and mentally (whether they participate in the affective do not fully cognitively experience. As Pile[97] explains, a environment by chance or due to conscious decisions [e.g. researcher, like any individual, might witness, experience 92-94]). These processes suggest a fundamental rethink of or add to an affective state but any later contemplation of what should be the starting point and basic unit of analysis this state inevitably involves their full cognition and their in studies of health and wellbeing; a movement from a personally, socially and historically affixed interpretations focus on the ‘body-with-organs’ to a focus on far broader which provide a false consciousness of it.[96,98] Thus, affect assemblages [95] and the environments within which they cannot be truly recalled. The second challenge is related unfold and make [92]. In sum then, given these impacts, to representation and the fact that the researcher’s written affect works in two particular ways with regard to wellbeing. words, no matter how expressive and colourful they might At one level, impacting on a person’s capacity, it leads to be, can never directly expose a vibrant sensory happening, positive or negative feeling states associated with enhanced and will inevitably change and deaden it. Thus, affect or degraded engagement in itself (being able or unable to cannot be written. In response, researchers can recognise undertake activity A, B or C or being able to undertake these constraints and employ a number of mitigating activity A, B or C with more or less ease). At another level, it strategies including, in terms of data collection, a heightened enhances or limits engagements in specific types of activities awareness and use of their own senses during observations, which themselves produce specific positive affective feeling and also providing other access points to the object of focus states (the affective experience of actually doing activity D, (such as audio, video and photographs).[99-101] In terms E or F). Notably, for some of these activities, a range of more specifically of writing, they might and select words and fully-conscious and traditionally measurable positive health phrases that are as true and honest as possible to the event outcomes also exist in unison (such as cardiovascular health that unfolded, and attempt to provide detailed description of through forms of fitness, and tangible wellbeing outcomes the energy and momentum of what happened.[98,102] In through forms of work/income, leisure, social contact and short, all this might be done, so legitimate attempts are made political involvement). at ‘relaying’, ‘conveying’ and ‘presenting’ empirical realities more than (re)representing them. These strategies are used in Although certain affects might arise from relatively ‘natural’ the following study of Get Lucky, which employs structural social or physical conditions and situations (such as persons analysis of the song, video and video analysis, personal entering an untouched natural landscape), reflecting the observation and reflection, reflections of a second person, situations people most typically find themselves in throughout and a scan of blogs and fan sites. their lives, the majority exist as part of human designs (even if the designer is not concerned to affect per-se). As Thrift[84]

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Onflows of basic and technical sound Lucky two introductory bars, each with four riffs, present a “Daft Punk and I were on unified plane of grooviness” simple rhythm that showcases the entire song to come. All instruments - guitar, bass, drums and various keyboards and (Nile Rogers in The Telegraph, 30th June, 2013) electronics - enter the fray at once, yet it is the bars played Link One: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h5EofwRzit0 on a lightly effected Stratocaster guitar, that immediately Affect commences with a particle physics that turns stand out. The riff, constituted of eight or so quick strums, is social; atomic and molecular processes that cannot immediately infectious and begs you to move with it, to be be observed with the human eye yet are continually part of it (the listeners’ inner voice mimics “der de, der de, at play, unremittingly forming and moving the materiality of der de, de de der der….”). Rogers’ crisp ‘funky’ movements everyday life.[88] Those associated with heat, light, kinetics and each of his strums, is responsible for the song’s are all important to affect, and those that underlie sound immediate momentum. It is a momentum, like with much contribute an important auditory component. As Andrews classic funk, that is constituted of hundreds of tiny moments, et al.[92] remind us, all sound is structured and delivered with just a micro-second of anticipation and expectation by soundwaves; longitudinal pressure waves formed by for the next moment to come. As Pharrell explains in the vibrating objects that disturb air molecules causing them to song ‘the present has no rhythm’. Indeed, rhythm is always move. The result is a pulsating motion of air, its molecules leaping towards, and commencing, the next moment. The rebounding off objects or vibrating them; the sound heard song continues, rolling seamlessly through a basic verse- being the variation in density/pressure picked up by the chorus-verse-chorus-bridge-chorus format (order ABABCB), human ear (and its own biological molecules). Soundwaves only the bridge being distinct, with its heavier synthesized vary in frequency (the number of back and forth vibrations sounds and repeating ‘robot’ vocals (yet still overlaying the in a given time), the sensation of frequency being pitch hooks/melodies from the chorus and pre-chorus). In most of (whereby the higher the frequency of the wave, the higher the the song it is the more organic sounds of drums, guitar, bass pitch). Soundwaves also have intensity (energy transported guitar that dominate, with digital sounds and effects placed through time and space) which can be picked up by the subtly in the background (making the song contemporary human ear, and/or measured mechanically or electronically without making a conscious point about it). in decibels, as loudness. Musical soundwaves in particular Get Lucky has a consistency and thus ‘catchiness’ that results possess certain characteristics. Whereas non-musical sound from two specific structural features. Firstly, refrains (regular is a mixture of frequencies whereby no regular mathematical repetition) are a key element of the song (notably as with relationships exist between them (often neutral, unremarkable much other music and its affective qualities[103]). The riff, for or even unpleasant to the ear), musical sound is a mixture of example, is repeated 100 times in three very close varieties frequencies whereby regular mathematical relationships do in four chord loops, and the words “up all night to get lucky”, exist between them (often noticeable, engaging and pleasant for example, 40 times in two styles (including once 18 times to the ear). Beats meanwhile occur within much musical consecutively, once eight times consecutively and twice sound as regular short bursts at a noticeably higher decibel four times consecutively). Secondly, Get Lucky possess an level, and notify the tempo (speed) of the music. In addition, ongoing and unresolved harmonic tension.[104] It does not with most musical sound, multiple sources of sound result in contain or rely on a ‘build’ (which common in much dance multiple simultaneous and complementary frequencies - and music to increase intensity and take listeners onwards and often constructive interference and/or harmony (whereby forwards to a ‘higher level’), but instead generates positive two wavelengths combine to positive acoustic effect). In energy throughout by simply never settling to a ‘home chord’. Get Lucky, this sound energy comes through in particular, This sets up an underlying anticipation in the song which technically manipulated, forms (see link one). is never resolved or released, just recycled and set back in Get Lucky is played in the key of F-Sharp, runs at a tempo motion.[104] All is not perfect however and, as we know well of 116 Beats Per Minute with a Chord structure (Bm7-D- as listeners, just as refrains have the potential to engage us by F#m7-E) that does not vacillate. These facets give the song providing a consistent familiar experience, they also have the a consistency, and drive it straight through its four minutes potential to annoy us in the longer term, for example if we are and eight seconds within minimal change. They also overexposed to a song being cyclically repeated. Harmonic act as a solid base upon which a range of more specific tension can potentially mitigate negative experiences of techniques and content are placed. From the outset in Get overexposure. Indeed because listeners have never reached

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the song’s destination (because one never emerges from the in different forms. As Thrift[108] posits, affect introduces the tension), they are forever exploring its journey (which does possibility that togetherness might also be about quite subtle not so easily wear thin or ‘get old’ for them). However, despite and less conscious forms of human binding and harmony this mitigating quality of harmonic tension, its capacity is not that arise between individuals through their gathering and limitless in this regard, and a certain degree of overexposure their parts and exchanges in immediate and continual shifting will inevitably lead to negative experiences. ‘The gift keeps spatial positioning.[108-109] Indeed, while traditional forms on giving’, but certainly not forever. of togetherness are communicated through language and a conscious reading other bodies, ‘affective togetherness’ Body and object happenings occurs prior to any such communications [84]. Thus affective As described, the physical and technical features of popular togetherness is about what people are doing with other music are important to its affect, yet just as crucial is where people in places energetically in moments, at the point at and how music is played, experienced and interacted with. which who they are is not apparent and does not yet matter. Indeed amongst a complex set of inter-relationships that can Of course, theses points in mind, Get Lucky might contribute be described between sound, affect and space, is the reality towards an affect almost anywhere it is played (whether that both sound and affect are dependent on space. Both this be, for example, a night club, a bedroom, a train, in a need to literally to ‘take-place’ - emerge in space/time within shop etc). Not only is each context unique, each individual an active assemblage of humans (bodies) and non-humans occasion is unique, and thus the experiential possibilities are (objects) - in order to exist. almost endless. Three illustrations - from countless millions So how might this work? Affect brings attention to the body’s around the world - are the song’s official promotional video, relational capacities to act and interact with other things. one of the researcher’s own experiences, and one of his In terms of process, a shift in an individual’s energy and family member’s experiences. Whilst the former showcases capacity emerges as their body becomes affected within a the purposeful production of an affective environment local assemblage of bodies and objects.[105] This is a rapid, by the artist and record company, the latter showcase the continually repeating and open process. Within bodies, emergence of more organic and random events. physical reactions and adjustments might be obvious (such The first illustration as audible sounds or rapid full limb movements) or subtle (such as a tremble, eye or mouth movement). In turn, these The video starts with a close up shot of Roger’s transparent reactions become visible to other bodies that are affected, Stratocaster. Whilst one might consciously register the make, and so on.[97] These relationships are modulated by the perhaps more important is that the guitar is itself moving up presence, and relative positioning and movement of objects and down as Rogers strums and dances. It is creating the (which might be large, small or minute; noticeable, not so auditory rhythm, but has its own physical movements and noticeable or invisible), the numerous physical ‘things’ that rhythm. The camera soon pans out to reveal Roger’s smiling surround bodies and interact with them to various degrees. head which is also dipping and bobbing in time. Rogers In this sense, affective environments can therefore be thought might be operating the guitar, yet he too has his own physical of as the taking place of force-encounters; as the happening movement and rhythm. of the ebbs, swells and flows of intensities passing between Next coming into view are the two Daft Punk ‘robots’, bodies with objects.[106] Ultimately the result is a ‘trans- one on the bass guitar, the other on drums. Their helmets human’ experience, whereby bodies experience themselves present them as shiny faceless bodies; neutral, clean, without expansively as more than themselves; as part of a greater personality. Their gloved hands hit drums and play notes, physical happening.[107] and they are also moving; both creating rhythm and being Such coming together of, and interactions between, bodies rhythm. They are a moving anonymity, a moving blank, a also necessitates a rethink of the fundamental nature of human modernist machine spectacle, that entices. togetherness. Whilst traditional forms of togetherness based The camera turns to Pharrell. He is moving and dancing but on personally and collectively known social positioning and is more expressive and purposeful with his gestures. A subtle identity (for example in terms of class, gender or taste) will smile here and there, a point and look up “to the Stars”. A always be important to many aspects of human life, it might cheeky bite of his lip, then sweep of the arm “coming to far”. be that togetherness can arise prior to this, through affect, A subtle fist pump “to get some’. A pull on his lapel, “to get

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lucky”. This might choreographed, but you don’t think about and its vibration is felt through the body. Friends start to that. He’s enjoying himself, moving, getting into it. dance, one-by-one on the deck, to various tunes. The beat of the music is increasingly stamped onto, and felt, through Eventually we see the entire band. Its only them, on their own, the wooded planks. The makeshift dance floor becomes even in black against a black background . Yet this emptiness seems fuller as Get Lucky comes on, each body adding volume to only to enhance their collective energy and movement. Their a single mass of human movement. The energy increases as suits glitter in the studio lights creating human mirrorballs. the Guitar strums, and the bass vibrates. A little more effort Stars sparkle and twinkle in time behind them; a flash here a is exerted by the mass, braver moves showing left and right. flicker there. The camera is also moving around, circling and Uplifting feelings and smiles emerge, all as one. going in and out, participating with the band. It is within affective moments like these where music The second illustration comes together in an overall performance event; a complex It’s an early summers evening and I’m driving through and changing mix of sound, objects and bodies whereby Toronto on my way back home, after visiting a museum with traditional dichotomies and binaries, such as ‘production’ son. I hadn’t heard Get Lucky before. My radio is off, only and ‘consumption’, make less sense. It is here where the the hum of the engine and the various city noises can be affective wellbeing feel and experience initially surfaces. heard, as we travel along Bloor Street – horns, shouts, drills Moreover, as the above examples illustrate, whilst affects and other sudden bursts of sound. It’s was a good day, visiting arise, other processes arise beyond them whereby the mind dinosaurs, but we are both tired now a little bit bored… becomes more consciously involved in the experience. This might be through the forming of opinion on the music, My son asks, like he often does, for me to put the radio on. I actively relating oneself to specific aspects of the musical agree to his request, and the sounds of a well known Toronto content, or more simply through being aware of oneself or alternative rock station fill the car. Nothing playing motivates others involved in the sound and sensation of movement. us or moves us at this point, the sound of mainstream jangly This more conscious participation brings us to the subject of indie guitar riffs, youth voices and adverts – that we have music and meaning. heard hundreds of times – provides at least some noise, a backdrop at least, and a slight increase in energy. Enter meanings Then a tune comes on the radio; funky guitars and an instantly “It [Get Lucky and the album Random Access Memories] brilliantly captures the melancholic catchy groove. I start to move. I’m tapping my hand against beauty of the nightclub, the feeling that the party the steering wheel, rat tat tat tat tat, tapping my left foot in must inevitably end, with moments of reflection and a sense of space” (Hodgkinson, The Times, May 2013). the foot well. I’m nodding my head to the beat. I’m suddenly smiling, and for some reason looking more intensely at the Although a variety of musical content can be responsible for people on the street, as if they can hear. I’m even starting to bringing a song’s meaning into focus, lyrics are a powerful enjoy the movement of the car, the speed that it is picking up and direct way of communicating it. Whilst lyrics, like along the street. The thumping and vibrations of the street car instrumentation, do not have to be thought about by the tracks add to the sensation, thump, thump, thump, seemingly listener and can easily be ignored, they might be and often in time with the music. I’m engaged, smiling and for some are. Whenever this occurs, the listener moves beyond affect reason I briefly look at my son. He is also nodding his head and their emotions – which are necessary to unlock and but in an even more exaggerated motion than myself, smiling make personal sense of meaning - come into play. On this and tapping his foot. We say nothing, just move in time subject, Pile [97], outlines a three stage process. The first together, increase our movements, enjoying the moment. stage is the non-cognitive action of affect; the purely physical The song continues to the end but, even thereafter, we feel interactions and energies that occur within assemblages lifted, less tired. We talk and laugh our way up Avenue road, of bodies and objects. The second stage is a less-than- continuing on our way home. fully conscious, pre-personal, affective feeling state; how these physical interactions are tacitly picked up, yet not The third illustration consciously registered. The third stage is consciously known A summer barbeque by the lake, the sun has gone down, and felt emotion; the way affective experiences can be later its final warm red glow now past. The volume of the music fixed on, or compared to, personal knowledge and known increases on the stereo so it now stimulates the ears physically social categories. Although the process might stop at the first

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or second stage, a one-way rapid advancement typically takes to argue that ‘getting lucky’ can mean things other than place through from the first to the third stage, always crossing having sex, such as getting along with friends, and meeting an involving the second stage [97]. Thus, an affective feeling new acquaintances). In terms of wider social meaning and state is always a forerunner to, and influence, on any emotion identity then, Get Lucky is to the second decade of the pertaining to a person’s immediate situation. In a song, these twenty-first century what Wham’s ‘Club Tropicana’ was to three stages - movement, vibe and meaning - might transition the 1980s [110], or Destiny’s Child’s ‘Jumpin Jumpin’ was to back and forth and re-circulate rapidly, rather depending on the early 2000s (noting many alignments across other genres the immediate circumstance/assemblage, and the listener; of popular music – such as Pulp’s ‘Sorted for Ez and Whiz’ the extent to which they are listening and with what purpose, and The Specials ‘Nite Klub’). and their current and broader life situations and contexts. Finally, based on and looking beyond social realities, As Bailey [104] explains, a relationship exists between the music holds potential for the release of hopes, dreams and musical structures and lyrics in Get Lucky which assists fantasies. Millions of possibilities exist, each personal and transitions to emotions; specifically whereby the musical each relational to each listener. This ‘imaginary landscape’, structures encourage the listener to, at key times, notice reached through affect and emotion (the latter often involving specific lyrics and lyrical meaning. Bailey observes, in escapist visualization) is critical to popular music’s feel good particular, that the chorus of Get Lucky is composed of factor. A music website and blog included the fan comment: twenty bars, each with four beats. The only lyrics actually “I get this feeling of love being something that you can’t sung ‘on the beat’ are sung on the fourth and final beat of deny, and being part of that, pushing that idea thought when each bar. This creates a situation whereby the listener is the song is on”. For the author of this paper, now in his mid paying more attention to these specific words. Moreover, 40s, the song evokes momentary nostalgic reflections on on six of the twenty bars, the final ‘on beat’ word has two- the feelings and circumstances of his 20s; of past times and syllables - “ lu-cky”- (as opposed to one syllable in the places long gone. Occasionally these might be specific and other fourteen) which makes it stand out even further. The focused, but often they are general and vague. It also evokes sounding of a hi- hat cymbal and changed pitch of the robot a smile when thinking of the generation younger than himself voice on the word lucky, add even more to the emphasis and all the personal fun, trials, tribulations and changes they [104]. Further emphasis is placed on the meaning of some must be going through. The song, in a way, connects his own lines in the song by the extension and higher pitch of certain history to their present. words within them; making the entire sentence slower and clearer. For example in the pre-chorus “we----ve, come to Conclusion fa-----ar, to give u------p, who we ar------re” and in the Think about an occasion when you have entered a chorus “I’m up all night to get so-----me, she’s to all night for dance venue of any kind…. the affective quality of the space in which bodies move is never only something good fu---un”. This approach is combined with well placed personal – it is a product of a complex mix between pauses throughout the song and emphasis words possessing music, light, sound, bodies and gesture. What is clear is that this affective intensity is felt – you can feel it positivity such as ‘stars’ ‘sun’ ‘giving’ and ‘winning’ . Indeed, in your gut and that this felt sense can be modulated these types of techniques structurally connect the affective by changes in the level of those factors… [If asked] you might articulate this feeling through identifying and meaningful emotional levels of Get Lucky. a specific emotion – ‘I feel happy’. This designation would make sense because we have a collective – if Thinking beyond the aforementioned three stages, after a vague – understanding of what it means to feel an song is listened to, both the affective and emotional feelings emotion such as happiness.[111 p 1827-8] involved can be recalled and ascribed meaning (even though As McCormack describes above, affect is a reasonably the former has no meaning in itself). Thus both affect and abstract, yet strangely familiar phenomenon. An average emotions both have a longer-term resonance in terms of participant, whilst recognizing affective feeling states, would the meanings people ascribe to music. In the emotional probably never ever talk directly about the ‘concept’ of affect. realm of popular music lies connections to vast social and Moreover, by the same token, it is highly doubtful whether cultural realities (such as gender relations, fashion, work, musicians ever specifically engineer and create music based education etc). Get Lucky is specifically about having fun on an academic understanding of affect. However, both and meeting people whilst partying. It is also about gendered parties undoubtedly value particular vibes and atmospheres differences in experiences and expectations regarding sex in in music and musical performances. Indeed, although these situations (although Pharrell has often gone to lengths

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abstract, the processes by which affect works, and its flows 5.Brandes V, Terris DD, Fischer C, Loerbroks A, Jarczok MN, into emotion, seem to speak greatly to the passions we Ottowitz G, Titscher G, Fisher JE, Thayer JF. Receptive music intuitively know to come hand-in-hand which music, and the therapy for the treatment of depression: a proof-of-concept ways in which we experience and feel music. study and prospective controlled clinical trial of efficacy. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 2010; 79(5): 321-2. In particular, the analysis of Get Lucky illustrates how understanding the affective qualities of music potentially 6.Bartel L R, Greenberg S, Friesen L M, Ostroff J, Bodmer D, broadens our understanding of the dynamics between music, Shipp D, Chen J M. Qualitative case studies of five cochlear health and wellbeing. As the initial literature review noted, a implant recipients’ experience with music. Cochlear Implants substantive volume of research published across disciplines International 2011; 12(1): 27-33. has firmly established the many ways that music can be used 7.Okamoto H, Stracke H, Stoll W, Pantev C. Listening to to directly promote health and wellbeing, whether this be tailor-made notched music reduces tinnitus loudness and in social, political, institutional or everyday contexts. Affect tinnitus-related auditory cortex activity. Proceedings of the does not necessarily conflict with any of these explanations, National Academy of Sciences 2010; 107(3): 1207-10. and might be thought of as something that initiates prior to, and works more broadly and environmentally alongside, 8.Clark ME, McCorkle RR, Williams SB. Music therapy- them. Starting off with atoms and molecules, then involving assisted labor and delivery. Journal of Music Therapy. 1981; energetic interactions within assemblages of human bodies 18(2): 88. and non-human objects, affect emerges as part of a musical 9.Davis CA. The effects of music and basic relaxation event (rather than after it, or as a result of it). instruction on pain and anxiety of women undergoing in- Get Lucky is just one song, part of one particular genre of office gynecological procedures. Journal of Music Therapy popular music with specific affective qualities, connecting to 1992; 29: 202. specific cultures and evoking specific types of emotions. In 10.Zimmerman L, Pozehl B, Duncan K, Schmitz R. Effects future many other types of music could be examined in terms of music in patients who had chronic cancer pain. Western of their affects and connections to health and wellbeing. In Journal of Nursing Research 1989; 11(3): 298-309. this endeavour attention could be paid, not only to musicians and their songs, but to other people and roles involved 11.Burns SJ, Harbuz MS, Hucklebridge F, Bunt L. A pilot study including listeners/fans, their practices and experiences. into the therapeutic effects of music therapy at a cancer help Music is an energy and force that flows throughout peoples’ center. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine.2001; lives. It is commonplace in their movements, actions, 7(1): 48. thoughts and feelings, and the places they frequent and make. 12.Hilliard R E Music therapy in hospice and palliative To not engage more thoroughly with music’s immediacy and care: a review of the empirical data. Evidence-Based emergence as environment, would be a missed opportunity Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2005; 2(2): 173-8. for critical health research. 13.Clements-Cortes A. Portraits of music therapy in References facilitating relationship completion at the end of life. Music and Medicine 2011; 3(1): 31-9. 1.Andrews GJ, Kingsbury P, Kearns RA. Introduction. In Andrews GJ, Kingsbury P, Kearns R A (eds). Soundscapes of 14.Bolwerk C A L. Effects of relaxing music on state anxiety Wellbeing in Popular Music. Ashgate, London; 2014 in myocardial infarction patients. Critical Care Nursing Quarterly 1990; 13(2): 63-72. 2.MacDonald R, Kreutz G, Mitchell L. (Eds.). Music, health, and wellbeing. Oxford University Press; 2012 15.Cadigan, M. E., Caruso, N. A., Haldeman, S. M., McNamara, M. E., Noyes, D. A., Spadafora, M., Carroll, D. 3.MacDonald R Music, health and wellbeing: a review. L. 2001. The effects of music on cardiac patients on bed rest. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Health and Progress in Cardiovascular Nursing 16(1), 5-13. Wellbeing 2013; 8, 20635. 16.Augustin P, Hains A A.. Effect of music on ambulatory 4.Gold C, Heldal, T O, Dahle T, Wigram, T. Music therapy surgery patients’ preoperative anxiety. AORN Journal 1996; for schizophrenia or schizophrenia-like illnesses. Cochrane 63(4): 750-8. Database Syst Rev, 2005; 2. 17.Haun M, Mainous R O, Looney S W. Effect of music

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Contact Information for Author: Gavin J. Andrews, Ph.D. Professor McMaster University Faculty of Social Sciences Department of Health, Aging, and Society 1280 Main Street West Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4M4 Canada Email: [email protected]

2014: Vol.6, Numéro 4/Vol.6, Issue 4 18 Abstract The aim of this study was to describe the biopolitics of involvement discourses articulated by nursing staff concerning relatives in nursing home institutions, using a Foucault-inspired discourse analytical approach. Previous research has described how relatives have not been involved in nursing homes2 on their own terms. This is partly due to a lack of communication and knowledge, but it is also a consequence of an unclear organizational structure. Results from a discourse analysis of six focus group interviews with nursing staff show that the “involvement discourse” in nursing homes can be described as a “new” vs “old” family rhetoric. This rhetoric can be said to uphold, legitimize and provide different subject positions for both nursing staff and relatives concerning the conditions for involvement in nursing homes. As part of a “project of possibility” in elderly care, it may be possible to adopt a critical pedagogical approach among nursing staff in order to educate, strengthen and support them in reflecting on their professional norming and how it conditions the involvement of relatives. Key Words discourse analysis, focus group interviews, involvement, nursing home, nursing staff

Replicating the Family: The Biopolitics a supplement to municipal efforts, relatives play a crucial of Involvement Discourses Concerning supporting role as informal caregivers while the older person lives at home.[10] Relatives in Nursing Home Institutions Previous research on the involvement of relatives in nursing JESSICA HOLMGREN, AZITA EMAMI, LARS E homes shows that relatives want to continue being involved in the care of their older family members even after they ERIKSSON & HENRIK ERIKSSON move to an institution.[11,12] Studies have described how the move sometimes involves a transition for both the residents and their relatives as new relationships are formed According to Swedish law, all health care should be with the nursing staff.[13,14] Due to the move and the form provided with respect for and considering the dignity of the of care in nursing homes, relatives who have previously individual, and contribute to health and well-being among played a significant role are expected to transfer care the care recipients.[1,2] Accordingly, the involvement of responsibilities to the nursing home staff. This implies that relatives in nursing homes is an important element in holistic the earlier care by family members, which complemented and individualized care,[3,4] for the residents’ psychosocial the municipal care, is demoted in importance in the context well-being[5,6] as well as for the development of high of the nursing home.[15] Many relatives find it a relief to quality nursing home care.[7,8] have their older family members cared for professionally, In Sweden, approximately 90 000 persons over the age of and they accept the need for a transition in roles.[16,17] 65 live in nursing homes.[9] Today it’s basically just the most However, some relatives find it difficult to understand acutely ill persons who end their lives in nursing homes. As

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what is expected of them in the nursing home and do not subject positions and it is not possible to be outside a understand how they can best continue being involved. This discourse. In this way, subjects (nursing staff and relatives) leads to conflict between family members, the nursing staff reproduce the discourse on involvement at the same time and heads of units responsible for the nursing homes.[3] they are constructed by them. Previous studies argue that this conflict may be due to a To Foucault,[27] the concepts of power/knowledge are lack of a philosophy of care and unclear guidelines on how inseparable. It takes power to produce knowledge, and family members can be involved[18] within the framework knowledge itself produces power relations. Foucault claims of what is legally possible.[1,2] The nursing staff sometimes that power is pervasive and involves all aspects of social feel that relatives make unreasonable care demands, which interaction. Power is thus relational, without an absolute leads to the description of relatives as “challenging“ or center, and it is irrelevant who holds the discourse on “difficult”.[12] The relatives, in turn, do not feel that their involvement. This means that power is not directed against views are valued[19] and feel they are mainly regarded as the subjects themselves (nursing staff and relatives) but toward “visitors” whose role includes only limited involvement.[20] subjects’ possible actions. Accordingly, this study does not Researchers have pointed to the need for new approaches seek to make the nursing staff accountable when they as well that will improve and facilitate the involvement of relatives as relatives are governed by the “involvement discourse”. in practice.[14,21] Instead of studying power top down, Foucault[27] focuses Research on the involvement of relatives has been going on how knowledge in the form of discourses operates and on for several decades.[3,22-24] However, such research produces “truth” and subjects. Foucault argues that power still appears to lack certain perspectives. To our knowledge, is productive and not always negative in an oppressive and up to date studies with a more explicit critical stance that sovereign manner. Power is not an institution, but may be address the involvement of relatives in nursing homes are exercised within institutions such as nursing homes, as almost totally absent.[cf. 18] More critical research is needed shown in this paper. As soon as there is a purpose and a in order to enhance the quality of nursing home care by goal, power is exercised in relations. While the discourse focusing on the involvement of relatives. on involvement is influenced by power, it also reproduces power through linguistic representations. Foucault stresses In line with a critical research approach, Michel Foucault[25] that we only have access to reality through language. It is offers some perspectives that may be valuable as a theoretical through representations that we produce discourses that are framework. Such a framework has been utilized in this never reflections of a preexisting reality. Power in the form of study. In general, Foucault’s theory of power is a useful biopolitics[26] is thus exercised through language, which is tool when studying the biopolitics of public welfare-state expressed among the nursing staff. institutions such as nursing homes, and specifically when studying upholding discursive practices governing such Biopolitics, according to Foucault,[26,27] is the modern institutions.[26,27] To facilitate the understanding of this state’s control of citizens’ lives and health. The biopolitical framework, we will briefly describe the most important strategy is communicated and maintained through and relevant concepts underpinning Foucault’s theory language and is imposed through various social institutions. of power,[25] such as discourse, power/knowledge, and Historically, knowledge has been established in the form biopolitics. We do not claim that this presentation is in any of public health programs, with a view to controlling way exhaustive. people’s behavior.[26,28] Biopolitics thus involves the entire lifespan and constitutes the link between the subject, social Theoretical framework institutions, expertise and practice. Foucault[27] further In examining the discourse on involvement in this paper, describes how biopolitics intends to construct a modern, we start from Foucault’s[25] views about power as being self-regulating and responsible subject. In line with this, relationships in societies expressed through language and he has also linked biopolitics to the medical discourse and practices. In other words, a set of statements or practices that described how the lives of people are governed and affected systematically constructs the objects of which it speaks. The by the status in society of the medical sciences as guide and power in the form of discourses controls the ways in which “bearer of truth”. we can express ourselves, act and think, and each discourse In this paper, we will address the “involvement discourse” as has its own limitations. The discourses produce both truths part of a biopolitical strategy in the care of the elderly that and subjects in this way. Different discourses enable different relates to a governmentality. We also assume that biopolitics

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and issues related to what happens in later life are closely were a total of 27 nursing staff members, 26 women and linked, where biopolitics is one way to control the discourse one man, originating from Europe and Asia and aged 36-63 on involvement. There are for example discourses on what to years. Their work experience varied from two to eighteen eat, and that one should exercise and what is considered old years and their workload varied from 37%-100%. All age and how later life should be lived.[29] These discourses informants received both oral and written information about are launched and sustained through language by using the purpose of the study before giving informed consent. scientific knowledge, which in itself becomes a force with They were told that their participation was voluntary and that various biopolitical meanings. Part of these aging discourses they could withdraw their participation at any time without can also occur when one is a relative of someone who any restriction. moves to a nursing home and there is a meeting with the The focus group interviews were conducted as six sessions nursing home, creating a discourse on how the family can during one month in early 2011. The interviews took place be involved. in connection with the nursing staffs’ regular shifts. The first Language, knowledge and power may play a central role (JH) and last (HE) authors conducted the interviews together. for relatives in the meeting with a nursing home, because The interviews took place in reserved staff rooms and coffee the discourse that is created conditions their involvement. rooms in the nursing homes, where the interviews could be The aim of this paper is thus to describe the biopolitics carried out privately and undisturbed. The interviews lasted of involvement discourses articulated by nursing staff between 59 minutes and one-and-a-half hours, with an concerning relatives in nursing home institutions, using a average of 75 minutes. Each interview began by asking the Foucault-inspired discourse analytical approach. nursing staff member to describe what her or his work in the nursing home consisted of during an ordinary day. Their A Foucauldian-inspired discourse analysis stories always included relatives in one way or another. Based In this paper, we have used Allen and Hardin’s[30] step- on this, we asked questions related to relatives’ involvement by-step analysis about how to conduct a foucauldian data in care activities. In an attempt to avoid taking for granted analysis within the field of nursing sciencea. A foucauldian things the nursing staff discussed, we felt it was important to analysis focuses on power relationships in societies as let them speak uninterrupted while we asked naive clarifying expressed through the intimate connection between language follow-up questions. The interviews alluded to the complex and practices.[25] This approach focuses on analyzing how situations where the perceptions of relatives and the nursing power is exercised and how it can be understood, rather staffs diverged. For instance, we asked what would happen than studying who is in power. Before we describe the data if relatives presented a suggestion and what responsibility analysis, a short overview of participating informants is nursing staff and relatives had for the residents feeling well. provided and a description of how the focus group interviews Each interview ended with an open-ended question asking if on which the analysis is based were conducted. the interviewee wanted to add to, modify or withdraw any of what was said during the interview. No one wanted to take As part of a larger ethnographic project, 27 nursing staff back anything that had been said. However, the interviews members from three nursing homes in central Sweden were often ended with informants beginning to expand their recruited for focus group interviews. The intent of conducting reasoning and sometimes they also started to talk about other focus group interviews was to study how the nursing staffs things. The interviews were conducted in Swedish, as authors collectively constructed meaning of the involvement of and informants spoke Swedish. All interviews were digitally relatives, rather than their individual perceptions.[cf.31] recorded and transcribed verbatim by the first author. Each head of unit in the nursing homes was informed that we wanted to interview approximately 30 nursing staff in groups Data analysis of four to five people. The informants were to be Swedish Based on the foucauldian theoretical framework, presented speaking, permanent employees of the nursing homes, and in the background section, we analyzed the focus group actively engaged in nursing care practice. We also wanted interviews, focusing on three starting points as outlined by the focus groups to be as heterogeneous as possible in terms Allen and Hardin.[30] The starting points focus on linking of gender, professional affiliation, ethnicity, age and work language with practice, asking social and historical questions experience. This was to capture a diversity of opinions and and creating public models of subjectivity. Based on these perspectives about involvement.[cf.31] The result was six methodological implications, the following questions led us groups, two from each of the three nursing homes. There

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through the analysis: discussed among all the co-authors.

•What differences do the nursing staff mark and construct After consensus in relation to the second question, the first through their language linked to the practice of involvement author went back to transcripts, condensed transcripts, for relatives in the nursing homes? What “involvement memos and notes from the discussions concerning question discourse” is identifiable? one and two and focused on the third question. This step in the analysis process was driven by an interest in interpreting •What other groups or institutions in the society have the key statements we previously structured as “difficult”, historically marked and constructed differences in a similar “expectations”, “don’t correspond” and “comes the relatives way and what are the consequences? here and tells”, as concepts that were defining the available •What possible subject positions are available for relatives, social positions for relatives. In this we applied an alternative based on the “involvement discourse”? reading of the meaning of the concepts where we distanced The analysis started with naïve readings of all the transcripts the wordings as they had been used by the informants to by the first author. After intuitive understanding of the overall create an alternative understanding of the techniques used content, the first author together with the last author started in the discourse on involvement and how it was guided. by asking the first question of the data. Passages that were For example, the constant use of family as a concept has explicit about involvement were used as points of departure a specific meaning for the nursing staff, but we distanced for identifying key statements that were repeatedly used and the concept from their use and related it to various public shared in the transcripts. These key statements were marked models of “a family” in plural, defining the specifics of the and discussed in relation to this question. An excerpt from concept and interpreted in relation to our previous analysis. the interview data may serve as an example of this process: The analysis was again discussed among all the co-authors. Three assumptions were identified that uphold the biopolitics Lucy: What I might think is difficult, is when the expectations and wishes of the relatives don’t in “involvement discourses” concerning relatives in nursing correspond with the residents’ [wishes] because it’s home institutions. These are presented in the results. not at all unusual. The resident wants it in one way, and then comes the relatives here and tells that, that is not the way it’s going to be, my mother or father are Research ethics board approval going to be cared for in this way. The study was granted approval by the Regional Ethical In the quote above, we identified the key statements that Review Board [No 2010/658-31/5] and ethical considerations upheld the shared language about involvement. The key are in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.[32] statements constituted the naturalistic generating structure In order to protect the informants’ integrity, their names, that accompanied the “involvement discourse” that we ages, nationalities, professions and places mentioned in the wanted to identify. In this example, we noted key statements interviews were encoded. such as “difficult”, “expectations”, “don’t correspond” and “comes the relatives here and tells”. Results

After this identification of key statements, we condensed Three assumptions upholding the “involvement discourse” transcripts in relation to the process in the first stage of analysis. were interpreted as “we are family”, “for the residents’ best The first and last author addressed the second question using interests”, and “with the mandate to care”. The specifics the gathered material. In this analysis, the first author read of the “involvement discourse” had a point of departure the condensed transcript again, constantly discussing with from within the resident’s family. Through the language, the the last author how the key statements could be understood nursing staff were placing themselves in the relations of the as techniques used in a broader “involvement discourse”. resident’s family structure. The motive for this was presented Based on how it was guided, we made a genealogical as this being the position that best served the interests of the attempt to understand the “involvement discourse” in a residents. Underpinning this was a dualistic reasoning about historical and social context. The key statements were put in formal and informal care. a broader context. For example, we noted that the specifics of the “involvement discourse” could be related to several We are a family other institutions and to an overall assumption of a “caring The central and influential discourse in all focus group state”, such as psychiatric health care facilities, foster home interviews was the construct of the residents being a part of an institutions and boarding schools. This analysis was then

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already existing family formation in the nursing home culture. Laura: Then it’s fantastic. Everything runs smoothly. As the “old” family, relatives were sometimes constructed as Then the relation between us [nursing staff and relatives] turns out good… if people have had good “has beens” in favor of the nursing staff. The nursing staff relations to their mothers or fathers they are satisfied. ascribed to themselves a significant role in the provision of JH: Mm… care for the residents from the moment the resident arrived Laura: Then they [relatives] possess the social skills, at the nursing home. This was clearly expressed in the third they have brought with them from home [laughs] focus group interview: how to behave properly. JH: So in general…what responsibility do the nursing As shown in the conversation above, when Laura says “We staff have to support the residents to have a good life? kind of end up in these family tragedies” it was stated that Judy: A lot of responsibility. the nursing staff took a step into the families and engaged in JH: Yes. relationships in the “old” families of the residents. In this way Judy: You have a 100% responsibility because, the nursing staff had a central subject position on different what should I say… you are a mother, a caregiver, levels, where they knew just as much about the residents as psychologist, a friend, relatives, you are everything. I think that this job is the most complex job among all their “old” families. ”To care for” meant not only taking care caregiver jobs, to work as a professional caregiver or of the residents, but also collectively engaging in all areas of as a nurse you know…Nurses are kind of more distant [in relation to the residents] but enrolled nurses and their “old” family’s responsibilities, fully and wholeheartedly. nursing assistants are so close, so close. No money The nursing staff further spoke partly based on their own could pay for this responsibility. experience and partly based on something that they marked Karen: And we who work in a nursing home, they as common sense. [the residents] become as part of a family. Judy: Yes they are. For the residents’ best interests The family as referred to in the interview seemed to constitute During the focus group interviews we were also told that the a fundamental position from which the nursing staff defined nursing staff mostly listened to what the residents wanted their responsibility, based on what it meant to be “part of a and desired, or more specifically what the nursing staff family”. The coalition between them and the residents was thought was the best for the residents. They told us about also upheld and legitimized by them being professional several situations where relatives had views on the residents’ caregivers with “100%” responsibility”. care that the staff marked as different from the residents’ This practice was inevitably linked to the conditions of perceptions and desires. It might apply to what the resident relatives’ involvement, since it operated continuously and would wear, how often s/he would take a shower, or when functioned as conditional for the relatives as “new” family the resident should nap or what s/he should have for dinner. members. The following excerpt from the fifth focus group The fifth focus group illustrates how the nursing staff reason interview illustrates the reasoning of some nursing staff about about who to listen to when relatives have comments about the significance of past relationships between relatives and care activities: residents. Laura told the following: JH: So what do you do if a resident has not showered in five weeks but relatives want them to do it? Laura: We kind of end up in these family tragedies so…, they…have a collectively need of… Laura: Then we talk to family members about why. Zoe: Punish [the nursing staff]. Annie: We’re not supposed to listen to relatives. Laura: Yes and a collectively need for therapy [laughs] Jamie: It is not the relatives who should decide, it is yes… I think that they would need to go in some kind the residents who will decide. of therapy. There are many in that generation that is… daughters and sons that were fostered during a tough Laura: No, maybe then they go in to the resident period and they would need therapy. It’s the way you themselves, and try to persuade them [to take a feel, see someone and blurt it out, it is precarious. shower] [laughs] ... I believe that family members can There is a frustration that must seep out somewhere. join in with familiar strong persuasion. But it does not concern ourselves with what they do in the family JH: How important are the relationships between the so to speak, unless it gets ....yes, unless that we can residents and their relatives? see that the residents almost cries afterward and you notice that it almost becomes a mental abuse. So we Zoe: Oh well… have not had much [situations like that] right now, but Laura: The relational aspect is always important. earlier in room X, then we needed to intervene and control a bit. Zoe: Even when it works. JH: Yes. When Annie in the quote above says, “We’re not supposed to

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listen to relatives” it marked where the nursing staff positioned involvement in the discussions was the division of chores themselves in the resident’s family. It seemed as though the and labor. As stated by Samantha, “If you (relatives) manage staff were taking on a position of being the interpreter of your business, we’ll take care of ours”. A key statement what was the best for the residents, placing themselves as a such as this, upholding the “involvement discourse,” seems Hermes in the family structure. This demarcation seemed to to focus on relatives as social visitors, just being there and be important when talking about the relatives’ involvement. socializing but within defined boundaries. For example, As Jamie states, “it is the residents who will decide” and walks and having coffee were relatives’ domains, while within that rhetoric it seemed to place involvement from intimate care was a staff function. It was when this division a top down family configuration (staff-residents-relatives) was not honored that the risk of “endless squabbling” came where involvement was dependent on the staff’s presence to the fore. and their interpretation of situations of involvement in the The nursing staff often returned to the fact that it almost nursing home. always took some time for relatives to adjust to the routines Another example of how the nursing staff marked involvement and hand over the care. Pauline gave us an example of this in relation to relatives was identified in the first focus group process during the sixth focus group interview: interview: Pauline: Oh yes, you notice when you talk to them Mary: Well, it’s a gamble all the time because you’re [relatives] that they find it hard and heavy [to engage supposed to be able to cope with our job…we’re not in the care work], yes. here to discuss and argue with relatives and then JH: Do you have any good examples or an actual it’s easy to succumb to make the business work, experience that you can share with us? otherwise we would argue and quarrel and go to supervision sessions with relatives all the time. Pauline: Yes, there is an old man, that is older than the resident, he can stay here…oh yes, but now he leaves Again, the top down family configuration was addressed at 9 pm in the evenings…then he thinks it’s hard [to leave] but I tell him that it’s optional, you don’t need when talking about how to manage involvement. Inviting to fix with everything, but he, he wants to because he to discuss the job with relatives could have unexpected wants to be a bit of a martyr [laughs] I think. I mean… there is no one who force him but he really wants consequences, so “keeping them short” was referred to [to care for the resident], or else perhaps he doesn’t as being a more important approach to involvement than really trust us [laughs] no, I don’t know, he is special. negotiation. On several occasions the informants addressed Sara: No he wants…I think that he wants to check on this as being crucially important in their ability to function in us, that everything is properly done. relation to the residents. Pauline: Many times, they [relatives] have a bad conscience because they have put their older family members in the nursing home. With the formal mandate to care Sara: Mm… The nursing staff also marked involvement based on Pauline: That’s why they come her every day, and are themselves as professional caregivers and the relatives so worn out. as informal caregivers, as illustrated below. The starting Sara: Yes, usually older people. point seemed to be based on a quite traditional division of Pauline: Yes, older men. responsibilities in the fifth focus group: Sara: It is also a question of trust as well. JH: If I would be a relative here in the nursing home, Pauline: Yes exactly, because later on they let go, how can I be involved? How can I help and get gradually. involved? Samantha: Take a walk with your mother. Come and In the text above, the given, normal pattern and expectation visit, have coffee with her. marked among the nursing staff seemed to be that the JH: Yes. relatives were supposed to trust them and automatically hand Samantha: Perhaps talk a bit with us. over the care. The “new” family expected the relatives to let Jennifer: Just be here. go, although this handover could be protracted and lengthy Samantha: Yes, exactly, just be. according to the nursing staff. The relative in this case, who was seen as having difficulties handing over care to the staff, Jennifer: Not engage in endless squabbling. was constructed as a playing a martyr role and the nursing Samantha: [Laughs] If you manage your business, we’ll take care of ours. staff’s competence was consequently questioned. One could also interpret this as an expression of the fact that even the A recurrent and frequent statement, when discussing relatives’ most enthusiastic relative eventually had to hand over care

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responsibility to the nursing staff in order to fit into the “new” the “involvement discourse,” with the help of “natural” family order. assumptions. These assumptions can result in the relatives’ experiences of finding themselves being on the “outside Discussion looking in” on the “new” family coalition between the nursing How can the biopolitics of involvement discourses concerning staff and the residents, as Baumbusch and Phinney[18] have relatives in nursing home institutions be understood? Before described it. The assumptions seem to be so obvious and answering this question, we would like to briefly comment on “natural” that they are rarely questioned or challenged. The two main points of departure: in this paper biopolitics should question that can be asked is whether the nursing staff are too be seen as a way to govern and legitimize the “involvement oblivious about their privilege of interpreting the residents’ discourse”; and based on how the “involvement discourse” needs and desires. And if that’s the case, then in whose is expressed discursively through language among nursing benefit? staff, what is said also becomes a “truth” and knowledge Similar involvement discourses in a broader about involvement, giving the subjects (nursing staff and societal context relatives) different influence and opportunities. Based on the first and third starting points of the analysis, it The biopolitics in the identified “involvement discourse” can be noted on a macro level that the use of family oriented in this paper could be linked to a discourse resting on a rhetoric has a specific meaning for the nursing staff. In “new” vs “old” family rhetoric. It is thus a family rhetoric relation to the second starting point, in distancing ourselves that upholds and legitimizes the “involvement discourse” from their use of the concept, we have related it to various in nursing homes and provides different subjects positions public models but in a broader societal context. for both nursing staff and relatives. The first interpreted assumption of the results, we are a family, shows how the In this study, we have described the prevailing social representatives of the “new” stepfamily (nursing staff) steps processes in terms of an “involvement discourse” that into the “old” family (the original family of the resident) and comprises the complexities and social interaction in the place themselves in the center of it and attribute to themselves form of a family formation conditioning the involvement a pivotal position. This corresponds with previous research of relatives. The discursive practice becomes the social that showing that the relatives often are given a peripheral interaction of the nursing staff, which is in constant role in relation to the nursing staff when handing over the renegotiation, dynamic and revision. The fact that the nursing care responsibility.[15] staff positioned themselves in the families of residents, positioning relatives “outside” of the “new” relation with The second assumption for the residents’ best interests the residents, is not specific for nursing homes. It is rather upholds the biopolitical aspect of nursing staff prioritizing just one example of many institutions that are characterized first and foremost the voices of the residents even though by the construction, reproduction and implementation of their relatives try to contribute with valuable information a sometimes traditional “involvement discourse” and its to optimize the care provided to the resident. This is in line practice.[26,27] Similar power structures and biopolitical with previous research indicating that relatives are playing an incentives that are constructed and reflected in the nursing important role as part of holistic and individualized care, in home culture have been and are still dominant in society’s helping the residents achieve well being.[3-6] many institutions.[27] This kind of macro power process can The last assumption, with the formal mandate to care, upholds easily mount in conservative and collective milieus where the “involvement discourse” with the rhetoric of a reasoning individuality, creativity and a critical stance are not always of formal and informal caregiving based on a traditional encouraged. Other examples of such institutions in the division of labor in nursing homes. This specific discourse society, nationally and internationally, may be psychiatric conditions what caring activities relatives and nursing staff health care facilities, foster home institutions and boarding should engage in. Holmgren et al.,[20] have described the schools.[cf. 26,27] A unifying concept for these institutions, consequences of this particular part of biopolitics, providing as well as for nursing homes, is that they represent something relatives with the subject position as “visitors”, preferably that one could call the “caring state” - a state that takes care focusing on social and practical activities in relation to the of and protects citizens and that is designed to strengthen residents and nursing staff. the relationship between families and the state in the pursuit Biopolitical meaning presents itself through language in of equality, community and solidarity.[33] The idea of the

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Swedish welfare state[34] can be seen as an example of this However, knowledge itself probably won’t lead to good approach, where biopolitics has been about welfare, resting professional practice if it is not applicable to practice, and if it on social sciences and enactment of public institutions. does not enable a reflective and critical approach.[cf. 39] We believe that if we are to achieve a “project of possibility” in In conclusion, this study’s results are largely consistent with elderly care, it also requires other components. The Swedish previous research on family involvement. This study has school system is an arena where successful work has been also reviewed the relatives’ involvement from a new angle done, in questioning norms and common assumptions.[40] by using a biopolitical framework to analyze involvement Based on a critical pedagogy presented among others by discourses articulated by nursing staff. “Replicating the Paulo Freire,[41] it is possible to create social change. The family” is ultimately about how the nursing staff in relation critical pedagogy is ultimately about promoting social justice to the “involvement discourse” takes on the subject positions and democracy by paying attention to how norms and as “new” family members. Their role becomes that of notions sometimes marginalize people. In elderly care, a representing what is moral and biopoliticallly “right” and more pronounced organizational holistic care culture may “wrong” regarding the care that is best for the residents. be a theoretical base from which to start. Studies that have calling for better cooperation based on holistic care and a partnership between nursing staff and Previous research has shown that such framework both relatives,[16,35,36] seem to have been overlooked, based on protects health care workers in elderly care from burnout and this study’s conclusions. promotes workplace engagement.[42] This ensures a caring work culture where one is treated with respect and fairly, Displacing the “involvement discourse” in nursing social support at work to experience connectedness and the homes – a “project of possibility” experience of having an important mission. We believe this Based on the discourse analytical approach presented in this holistic approach could also benefit the residents and their paper, there is great potential for understanding discourses relatives, in the transformation of the current “involvement on involvement in alternative ways, since this is only one of discourse”. As it stands today, in a biopolitical sense it several possible interpretations. Cheek and Porter[37] reason appears that the “involvement discourse” is challenging and about how a foucauldian approach could change the social unreflected. Acquiring the skills and support to work with situations that are not always constructive, and in some sense issues of involvement, in more conscious ways could be oppressive to a “project of possibility”.[38] They argue that it is valuable for both nursing staff, residents and relatives. not always about making large disruptive changes to achieve As previous stated, a critical pedagogical approach[41] positive outcomes. It should rather be small modifications can be beneficial to change institutional practices such as that could lead to positive social changes. Although there are involvement of relatives in nursing homes. This could be probably no quick and easy solutions to change the power done through long-term critical pedagogical work that structures that circulate and condition the involvement of should aim to educate, strengthen and support the nursing relatives in nursing home, it might be worth exploring the staff in reflecting on their professional norming and how it best practices in similar venues where professional norming conditions perspectives about the involvement of relatives. and practices have been changed and improved successfully. For example, by using recurrent forum plays and various In order to attend to a “project of possibility”,[38] we believe valuation exercises in a holistic caring environment,[40] it it is necessary to reconsider the elderly care contents and might be possible to improve cooperation between relatives biopolitics. This could possibly initiate a transformation of and nursing staff in a future postmodern elderly care. the existing “involvement discourse” partly providing nursing staff with new knowledge and insights as well as encouraging Clinical and research considerations a more reflexive critical approach to the notion of family In order to achieve a holistic practice and a critical and reflexive involvement in institutional care. approach in nursing home institutions, we suggest not only Foucault[26] points out that there is always a possibility of a framework of critical pedagogy but also implementation resistance where there is power. The “project of possibility” of a systematic assessment and benchmarking of a holistic could in particular help to support nursing staff in making practice. This would provide a quality improvement indicator, relatives more involved through an open and unbiased way which may show the effectiveness and outcomes of a holistic of understanding their role and contributions to the care of and critical intervention approach. There is a need for more residents. research about how power relations operate in the nursing

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home arena and how we can find ways for to change the Where they had comments, we took these into account and current structure for the better. revised the paper accordingly.

Methodological considerations Notes

The methodological shortcomings present in this study a There is an ongoing development of literature concerning are associated with the theoretical perspective that guides discourse analysis and how to conduct such a method. the discourse analytical reconstruction of the focus However, within nursing science, the literature on discourse group interviews. This means that the foucauldian power analysis is relatively scanty. Allen and Hardin provide a perspective influence what to focus on in relation to the aim method for conducting this kind of analysis, developed of the study, and also provide the framework for how things within the nursing science field. can be interpreted. The consequence may be that deselected interesting and valuable aspects can be omitted, since they References do not correspond with the perspective. This does not mean 1.Hälso- och sjukvårdslag [Helth and Medical Services Act]. that other interpretations would not have been possible, since (SFS 1982:763). Stockholm: Socialdepartementet. the ontological basis of the study assumes that knowledge is constructed rather than that it exists objectively and 2.Scialtjänstlag [Social Services Act], (2001:453). Stockholm: independently outside of human influence.[31] Even if it was Socialdepartementet. the aim of the study that guided us through the interviews, it 3.Haesler E, Bauer M, Nay R. Staff-family relationships in cannot be overlooked that we as researchers were co-creators the care of older people: a report on a systematic review. during the interview process. This meant that we expressed Research in Nursing & Health 2007; 30(4): 385-98. ourselves and presented relatives’ involvement in elderly 4.Irving J. Beyond family satisfaction: Family‐perceived care based on our own situated individual positions in the involvement in residential care. Australasian Journal on interaction with the nursing staff. This made us conscious Ageing 2014 May 29. and reflexive in that we helped produce and were produced by prevailing discourses concerning the elderly care context 5.Hov R, Hedelin B, Athlin E. Nursing care for patients on the during the interviews. From this perspective, the focus group edge of life in nursing homes: obstacles are overshadowing interviews should be considered not as innocent transcripts, opportunities. International Journal of Older People Nursing but as power producing where we as researchers are not 2013; 8(1): 50-60. innocent and neutral but highly operating. There is a criticism 6.Caspari S, Lohne V, Rehnsfeldt AW, Sæteren B, Slettebø that interviews as data are not preferable because researchers Å, Heggestad AKT, et al. Dignity and existential concerns are as co-creators of data to a great extent. This is something among nursing homes residents from the perspective of their of which we are aware and that may affect the outcome, relatives. Clinical Nursing Studies 2014; 2(3): 22-34. but we believe that there are no neutral stories or genuine truths behind the prevailing discourses in any form of data. 7.Nakrem S, Vinsnes AG, Seim A. Residents’ experiences However, we have presented both the interview questions of interpersonal factors in nursing home care: A qualitative and the nursing staff’s answers from the transcripts in order study. International Journal of Nursing Studies 2011; 48(11): to give a wider perspective on the interview contexts. To 1357-1366. minimize the risk of over-interpretation of the results, the first 8.James I, Blomberg K, Kihlgren A. A meaningful daily life author has enjoyed continuous reconciliation and dialogue in nursing homes-a place of shelter and a space of freedom: with the other co-authors regarding the reasonableness of the a participatory appreciative action reflection study. BMC interpretations. In cases where we have had different views Nursing 2014; 13(1): 19. of the material, we have discussed this and reformulated the interpretations. Finally, the results and the paper as a whole 9.Socialstyrelsen. Flytt och särskilt boende. [The National has been reviewed, during an academic seminar by other Board of Health and Welfare. Relocation and special researchers who had not participated in the research process. housing]. Available from URL: http://www.socialstyrelsen. This was to assure that what was presented in the paper would se/nationellariktlinjerforvardochomsorgviddemenssjukdom/ seem reasonable and convincing.[31] As these researchers centralarekommendationer/boende. Accessed 1 August had not participated in the work of the paper, they had the 2014. opportunity to look at our work in a more objective manner.

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10.Jegermalm M, Sundström G. Stereotypes about caregiving care in rural nursing homes. International Journal of Older and lessons from the Swedish panorama of care. European People Nursing 2014 May 9. Journal of Social Work 2014; March 10. 22.van de Bovenkamp H, Trappenburg M. Comparative 11.Gaugler JE. Family involvement in residential long-term review of family-professional communication: What mental care: A synthesis and critical review. Aging & Mental Health health care can learn from oncology and nursing home care. 2005; 9(2): 105-18. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing 2012; 21: 366-85. 12.Utley-Smith Q, Colón-Emeric CS, Lekan-Rutledge D, Ammarell N, Bailey D, Corazzini K, et al. Staff perceptions 23.Hertzberg A, Ekman S-L. ‘We, not them and us? Views on of staff-family interactions in nursing homes. Journal of Aging the relationships and interactions between staff and relatives Studies 2009; 23(3): 168-77. of older people permanently living in nursing homes. Journal of Advanced Nursing 2000; 31(3): 614-22. 13.Sandberg J. Placing a spouse in a care home for older people:(Re)-Constructing Roles and Relationships: Doctoral 24.Nay R. Relatives’ Experiences of Nursing Home Life: Dissertation. University of Linkoping, 2001. characterised by Tension. Australasian Journal on Ageing 1997; 16(1): 24-9. 14.O’Shea F, Weathers E, McCarthy G. Family care experiences in nursing home facilities. Nursing Older People 25.Foucault M. Vetandets arkeologi. [The archaeology of 2014; 26(2): 26-31. knowledge]. Lund: Arkiv förlag/A-Z förlag, 2012.

15.Lindahl B, Lidén E, Lindblad B-M. A meta-synthesis 26.Foucault M. Sexualitetens historia 1. Viljan att veta. [The describing the relationships between patients, informal History of Sexuality. The Will to Knowledge]. Göteborg: caregivers and health professionals in home-care settings. Bokförlaget Daidalos, 2002. Journal of Clinical Nursing 2011; 20(3-4): 454-63. 27.Foucault M. Övervakning och straff: fängelsets födelse. 16.Sandberg J, Nolan MR, Lundh U. Entering a New World: [Discipline and Punish]. Lund: Arkiv förlag/A-Z förlag, 2004. empathic awareness as the key to positive family/staff 28. Foucault M. Power/Knowledge. Selected Interviews and relationships in care homes. International Journal of Nursing Other Writings, 1972-1977. USA: Vintage books. A Division Studies 2002; 39(5): 507-15. of Random House USA Inc, 1988. 17.Nolan M, Grant G, Keady J, Lundh U. New directions 29. Folkhälsomyndigheten. [Public Health Agancy of Sweden]. for partnerships: relationship-centred care. In: Nolan M, Available from URL: http://www.folkhalsomyndigheten.se. Lundh, U, Grant, G, Keady, J (eds). Partnerships in Family Accessed 7 August 2014. Care: understanding the caregiving career. Berkshire: Open University Press, 2003; 257-91. 30.Allen D, Hardin PK. Discourse analysis and the epidemiology of meaning. Nursing Philosophy 2001; 2(2): 18.Baumbusch J, Phinney A. Invisible Hands: The Role of 163-76. Highly Involved Families in Long-Term Residential Care. Journal of Family Nursing 2013 October 11. 31.Bryman A. Social research methods: Stockholm: Liber, 2013. 19.Haesler E, Bauer M, Nay R. Recent evidence on the development and maintenance of constructive staff-family 32.Association TWM. WMA Declaration of Helsinki - relationships in the care of older people-a report on a Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human systematic review update. International Journal of Evidence- Subjects. Available from URL: http://www.wma.net/ Based Healthcare 2010; 8(2): 45-74. en/30publications/10policies/b3/index.html. Accessed 27 March 2014. 20.Holmgren J, Emami A, Eriksson LE, Eriksson H. Being perceived as a ‘visitor’ in the nursing staff’s working arena-the 33.Vabø M, Szebehely M. A caring state for all older people? involvement of relatives in daily caring activities in nursing In: Anttonen A, Häikiö L, Stéfnsson, K (eds). Welfare State, homes in an urban community in Sweden. Scandinavian Universalism and Diversity. UK: Edward Elgar Publishing Journal of Caring Sciences 2013; 27(3): 677-85. Inc., 2012; 121.

21.Ryan AA, McKenna H. ‘It’s the little things that count’. 34.Larsson B, Letell M, Thörn H. Transformations of the Families’ experience of roles, relationships and quality of Swedish Welfare State: Social Engineering, Governance

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and Governmentality. In: Larsson B, Letell M, Thörn H Acknowledgements We want to thank the informants who participated in this study. (eds). Transformations of the Swedish Welfare State: Social Without them it would not have been possible to conduct this Engineering, Governance and Governmentality. Hampshire: study. We also want to recognize and express our gratitude to the Palgrave Macmillan, 2012; 3-22. AMF Pension and the Division of Nursing, NVS, at the Karolinska Institutet, which has funded the project. Thanks also to the School 35.Wilson CB, Davies S, Nolan M. Developing personal of Nursing at University of Washington and the School of Health, Care and Social Welfare at Mälardalen University, which in various relationships in care homes: realising the contributions of ways have provided support in conducting this study. staff, residents and family members. Ageing and society 2009; 29(07): 1041-63.

36.Davies S, Nolan M. ‘Making the move’: relatives’ experiences of the transition to a care home. Health & Social To Contact the Authors: Care in the Community 2004; 12(6): 517-26. Jessica Holmgren, R.N., M.N.Sc., Ph.D. (student) 37.Cheek J, Porter S. Reviewing Foucault: possibilities and Karolinska Institutet Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society problems for nursing and health care. Nursing Inquiry 1997; Division of Nursing 4(2): 108-19. 23300, SE-141 83, Huddinge Sweden 38.Walker K. Crossing borders: Nursing practice, teaching Email: [email protected] and research together into the 21st century. International Journal of Nursing Practice 1995; 1(1): 12-7. Azita Emami, R.N., Ph.D. Professor 39.Josephsen J. Critically Reflexive Theory: A Proposal for University of Washington School of Nursing Nursing Education. Advances in Nursing 2014, July 24. Division of Nursing 40.Björkman L. En skola i frihet-med “misstagens hjälp. (A Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences, and Society school in freedom - by the “help of mistakes”. In: Bromseth Lars E. Eriksson, R.N., Ph.D. J, Darj F (eds). Normkritisk pedagogik: Makt, lärande och Associate Professor strategier för förändring. (Normcritical pedagogy: Power, Karolinska Institutet Division of Nursing learning and strategies for change). Uppsala: Centrum för Department of Neurobiology genusvetenskap, 2010; 155-82. Care Sciences and Society

41.Freire P. Pedagogy of the opressed. 30th Anniversary Henrik Eriksson, R.N., Ph.D. Edition. London: Continuum International Publishing Group Professor Ltd, 2000. The Red Cross University College

42.Ng S-M, Fong TCT, Wang X-l. The role of holistic care culture in mitigating burnout and enhancing engagement: a study among elderly service workers in Hong Kong. Aging & Mental Health 2011; 15(6): 712-9.

2014: Vol.6, Numéro 4/Vol.6, Issue 4 29 Abstract The Voices of Diversity project’s goal was to explore which experiences of students of color and women students on campuses of predominantly white institutions make them feel welcomed, accepted, supported, and encouraged, and which make them feel the opposite. This was to address (1) the frequent3 claim that African American and Latino/a students’ lower graduation rates are unrelated to anything that transpires on campus and (2) the increased subtlety of many expressions of bias against members of historically mistreated groups. At each institution, between 51 and 54 students of color participated, as well as three white women and three white men, each completing a questionnaire about demographic information and campus experiences and being interviewed about what has been helpful and hurtful to them on campus. Manifestations of racism, sexism, and the two combined were reported on all campuses in both overt and microaggression forms. Recommendations for change were made in individual reports to each institution, and at one, major changes were made immediately and ongoing, and at another, work was begun on comprehensive action plans. Keywords campus, higher education, microaggression, qualitative research, race, sex

The Voices of Diversity: In order to change the way race is understood, race has to be directly addressed rather than ignored. What Students of Diverse Races/ --Lani Guinier [2 p207] Ethnicities and Both Sexes Tell Us About Their College Experiences and Their When the ideology of racism is examined and racist injuries are named, victims of racism can find their Perceptions About their Institutions’ voice. Further, those injured by racism discover Progress Toward Diversity that they are not alone in their marginality. They become empowered participants, hearing their own stories and the stories of others, listening to how the PAULA J CAPLAN & JORDAN C FORD arguments are framed, and learning to make the arguments themselves. --Daniel Solorzano, Miguel Introductiona Ceja, & Tara Yosso [3 p64] If…true equality of opportunity and appropriate learning experiences will result in equality of achievement, then we must organize our In Can We Talk About Race, Tatum concluded, many professional services and our society such that university personnel today know little about how to improve no person is kept from achieving that potential interracial interactions,[4] and Milem et al. have noted that by our indifference to his or her condition, by the some institutions’ diversity agendas are “poorly conceived inadequacy or inappropriateness of our service, or by the impediments society deliberately or accidentally and misguided”[5 p3] and often fail to include active places in his or her path. opposition to exclusion and prejudice and a comprehensive --Edmund Gordon [1 p219] rather than piecemeal approach. These problems are

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dramatically reflected in the recent “I, Too, Am Harvard” one cannot assume that increases in numbers of students of project by Harvard University students, which began with color have been accompanied by adequate changes in what photos depicting ongoing forms of both blatant and subtle has been called the “chilly climate”d for students of color and racism on their campus,[6] and in attorney and activist for women in undergraduate populations at PWIs.[18,20,21] Wendy Murphy’s recent analysis of ongoing violation of the Increases in numbers alone have not led to equal educational rights of women college students that are supposedly granted achievement, as reflected in grades, retention and graduation by Title IX but that has too often failed to protect them in cases rates, and post-baccalaureate education.[9,22,23] Indeed, of the civil and human rights violation of sexual assault.[7] the dramatically lower graduation rates for African-American, Latina/o, and Native American college students than for Due to rapid increases in numbers of students of color in whites and Asian-Americans are current problems crying out undergraduate student bodies and especially at predominantly for solutions, and women of color’s outpacing of their male white and traditionally male-dominated colleges (see Figure peers in college attendance makes it clear that interactions of 1 and references 8-11,13-16), “[b]oth the organization and race and sex also warrant attention.[8-12] Important policy the new students display new needs”.[17 p179] The same is changes like racial, ethnic, and women’s studies programs true because of increases in the proportions of women among and student associations; increases in racial/ethnic minority undergraduate populations.[8-12] This renders it especially and women faculty; peer counselors; financial aid; and important to understand current students’ experiences. The policy changes have been helpful, to be sure. But experience vast majority of American colleges and universities were in the civil rights and women’s movements has shown that created by and for white men [18] and have often been less even changes in structures and policies do not, in and of welcoming and supportive for members of other groups [18, themselves, eradicate racism and sexism and in fact often Carnegie Foundation, 1989, unpublished data], even when lead to the metamorphosis of expressions of prejudice into the latter have been recruited to attend.[19] subtler forms, including especially what Pierce has called The increasing representation of racial/ethnic minorities and micro-aggression (see references 18,24-26). The voices of women on traditionally white and male-dominant college students of color and women are thus essential in the search campuses is strikingc (Figure 1). Between 1976 and 2007, for what will be helpful to them. Blacks as a percent of total students grew from 10 to 13; Some who wish to explain differences in graduation rates Hispanics, 4 to 12; Asian/Pacific Islanders from 2 to 7; and focus on factors intrinsic to the individuals, their families, and women, from 48 to 57. But simply changing the representation their pre-college schools (see references 18,28-31). Although of various groups does not in and of itself ensure that the – as with any student –those factors can play roles in students’ experiences of racial/ethnic minority and women students college achievement, it is important as both an ethical and are as positive as those of their white and male counterparts. a practical matter to consider what is happening and what In order to know whether and how there are differences, it is can be done on campus, in the present, for undergraduates necessary to ascertain students’ perceptions about the degree of color and women (even while efforts can also be made to to which their campus experiences suggest that equity has assist pre-college youth). been achieved. Since institutional change tends to be slow,

Figure 1: The Changing Student Body Changes by Race/Ethnicity Changes by Sex (male) (female) 2007 2007 2000 2000 1990 1990 1980 1980 1976 1976 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 0% 50% 100%

Black Hispanic Asian/Pacific Islander American Indian/Alaska Native Nonresident Aliens Source: Synder, T. D., et al. (2009). Digest of Education Statistics 2008 (NCES 2009-020). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, Washington, D.C.

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College administrators may do outreach to certain high race but also sex and the combination of race and sex into schools and even middle or elementary schools and their account in attempting to understand what it is like to be an communities, but they largely deal with students as they undergraduate attending a PWI. The media have reported are when they arrive on campus. Knowing what happens some admissions committees’ decisions to admit men who right on campus that makes students of color and women are less qualified than the women they admit in order to feel accepted and supported and what makes them feel the equalize the sex distribution of student bodies,[14] a policy opposite can give administrators guidance for on-campus that promises to ignite a new kind of affirmative action services, procedures, structures, and practices that they want debate. to continue or alter and for some that they might want to That there are well-documented, positive effects of diversity, initiate. including academic and social ones [4,37-44; Smith et Factors at many levels and in many realms of on-campus life al., 1997, unpublished data], does not mean that racial/ can help determine whether or not students feel accepted, ethnic minority students experience no difficulties resulting encouraged, supported, and respected because of their race/ from factors on campus (e.g., Nettles and MIllett[32]). In ethnicity and sex.[32,18] The factors are formal and informal, fact, McCormack found that, despite years of institutional- individual and institutional, academic and social, horizontal level efforts to value diversity and pluralism, displays of (other students) and vertical (faculty and administrators). discrimination had increased during those years, and the A vast amount of research related to diversity has been longer the students had spent on campus and in residence, conducted over the past three decades. The research the greater was the likelihood that they had experienced has represented an array of approaches to gathering and discrimination.[45] Even Gurin, Nagda, and Lopez, analyzing information, ranging from large-scale surveys to despite finding that the students of color who had the most interviews of small samples of participants and institutions. experience of diversity showed more interest in learning about groups besides their own and perceived less division Is diversity working? among racial/ethnic groups, also found that diversity did not College campuses are more diverse than ever,[8-12,14-16] foster, “for students of color, a stronger sense of commonality and increasingly, students of color who graduate from high with White students”.[40 p31] And Gurin et al. found that for school are collegebound.[33,10,34,35] However, inspection African-American students, there was a negative relationship of graduation rates for different racial/ethnic groups strongly between classroom diversity and their self-assessed academic suggests that there are problems that need fixing. College skills.[41] It remains the case today, as Allen wrote, “we graduation rates are highest for Asian-Americans (65%) – have only a limited and imprecise understanding of the although their figures vary widely depending on nation of factors that…provide these students with an institutional origin (Hune & Chan, 1997, unpublished data), followed by and educational experience that is personally gratifying and whites (58%), and are strikingly lower for Latina/os (45%), academically successful”.[46 p166] African-Americans (38%), and Native Americans (37%).[36] Theories of causation Thus, despite improvement in recent decades in the rates at which African-American, Latina/o, and Native American It’s not just about the choices folk make. It’s also about the choices they have available to them. students who start college obtain their baccalaureate --Dyson [47 p6] degrees, these rates remain markedly lower than those for But we cannot overcome the history of racial white students,[8-12] and racial differences persist even oppression in our nation without understanding and when members of racial/ethnic minority groups are matched addressing the subtle, subversive ways race continues with whites on high school preparation and socioeonomic to poison our lives. --Dyson [47 p223] factors.[9] Two kinds of explanation have been offered for the lower Because increases in baccalaureates have been far greater retention and graduation rates of African-American, Latina/o, for women of color (78%) than for men of color (54%), and Native American undergraduates: the individualistic with a similar pattern within African-American, Asian- and the structural. Advocates of individualistic explanations American, Latina/o, and Native American groups,[Cook & attribute racial/ethnic differences in retention and graduation Cordova, 2006, unpublished data; Guinier, Fine, & Balin, rates solely to pre-college experiences and factors within 1997, unpublished data;14-16] it is essential to take not only

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individuals or their families — including the racist, assumed that this was proof of their intellectual superiority. scientifically discreditedhereditarian view of intelligence.[4] As Lawrence-Lightfoot points out, these are “…scores on These views persist despite abundant evidence that on-campus narrowly constructed tests that capture only a limited range factors, including racial climate, impede students’ progress. of knowledge, and an even smaller spectrum of ways of [8,32,38,48-58] knowing. And these are quantitative, evaluative instruments that tend to focus on phenomena that are measurable Though some argue that “the responsibility lies with the — discrete, visible, and countable — not necessarily the university to…provide an atmosphere of inclusion and dimensions that are meaningful to the learning and growth acceptance…” [59p189; see also 60], there has been a of students” [61 p236]. But the public’s and even many widespread belief that campus conditions play no role in educators’ lack of awareness of this information has made it students’ happiness or success, based partly on the myth easier to blame students from groups who tend to take longer that academia is a full meritocracy and that people and to graduate than white students, on the grounds that this must scholarship outside the “mainstream” are nevertheless fully be due to their intellectual inferiority and/or their having been valued.[23,18,29] This has also been an explanation put admitted under affirmative action programs with allegedly forward for the lower numbers of women in mathematics, lower standards. As Guinier notes, one who holds this view sciences, and engineering (Caplan & Caplan, 2009, “ignores the experience of racial disadvantage” [2 p141]. unpublished data). Some administrators have perpetuated One form that the individualistic approach can take is race- this myth by denying that prejudices exist on their blindness — at the extreme, the “new white nationalism” campuses,[30,31] and an institution that looks diversity- [62] — which carries the risk of blinding us to the fact that positive in quantitative terms may nevertheless be a site educational equality among racial and ethnic groups is a long of considerable institutional or other forms of racism and way off.[Giroux & Giroux, 2004, unpublished data; 9,62,63] sexism that do not show up in numbers but have tremendous negative impact. This is of all the more concern at a time In contrast to the individualistic view, which scholar when, because of laws and rules against hate crimes, Michael Eric Dyson describes as less likely to be held by expressions of prejudice often take forms that can be hard more educated citizens, is the structural view,[47] whose to identify as clearly prejudicial and thus confusing and proponents identify impediments that are extrinsic to students, complex to deal with. their families, and their high schools. These impediments include factors that produce a negative climate on campus, Contributing in a complex way to an individualistic view was including an institution’s earlier history of minimal diversity that, during the last half of the twentieth century, allegedly and of exclusivity[52] and its problematic organizational and objective measures such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test were structural aspects,[64] all of which affect the climate both given major roles in admissions. It was widely believed that for students of color and for women. Milem et al. note that this would go far to reduce the role of biases such as racial some institutions’ diversity agendas are “poorly conceived prejudice as determinative admissions factors. However, those and misguided”,[5 p3] and often fail to include active who held this belief failed to take into account the significant opposition to exclusion and prejudice and a comprehensive positive effects on test scores of such factors as expensive test rather than piecemeal approach. As Tatum points out, preparation courses[46] and the significant negative effects many university personnel today know little about how to of such factors as text anxiety and expectations of failure improve interracial relationships.[4] Combined, these factors (see later discussion of stereotype threat.) The tests were encourage those who do not feel accepted and supported assumed to be objective because of having been derived to adopt an individualistic view and assume wrongly that from scientifically designed criteria, and thus excellence was the faults lie in themselves.[18] Guinier proposes a focus on assumed to be measurable, an assumption reflected in Justice what she calls racial literacy, which “begins by redefining Sandra Day O’Connor’s decisions in the Grutter and Gratz racism as a structural problem rather than a purely individual cases.[2] This assumption, however, cloaked ongoing racism, one”.[2 p202] She points out the paradox that the Court sexism, and classism.[2] still “requires institutions to consider race differently from White and Asian-American students have tended to have the way they consider merit”,[2 p197] as though the test higher SAT scores than African-American, Latina/o, and scores typically used as indicators of merit were far more Native American students,[46] and it has often been important predictors of success in college than the presence

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of racism on campus. Furthermore, she underlines the Despite recent claims that we are in a post-racial and post- importance of understanding the need for structural mobility: feminist period in which racism and sexism have been “…an institution’s commitments to upward mobility, merit, eradicated, so that no further attention to these issues is democracy, and individualism are framed and tempered warranted, in fact, as noted, manifestations of racism and by an awareness of how structures…tend to privilege some sexism have not disappeared but have often become more groups of people over others… places the issue of merit subtle.[18] Two areas that have been especially illuminating firmly on the table and attempts to define it in the context of in the effort to understand the experiences of students of democratic values”.[2 p159] color in the context of mechanisms that tend to work in subtle, even unconscious ways but often have devastating Hochschild has proposed changing the structural conditions effects on their targets have been Claude Steele’s theory and that create the gap between the promise and practice of equal research about stereotype threat and Chester Pierce’s work opportunity”.[57 p160] As Takagi writes, “Although it is true about microaggression. that blacks and Hispanics have lower graduation rates than whites and Asians, it is unreasonable to assume that such Steele has articulated the notion of stereotype threat, the differences are the inevitable result of racial preferences. threat that others will view one through a negative stereotype Approximately four years pass between the time a student or fear that something one does will confirm or strengthen is admitted to the university and his or her graduation”,[63 the stereotype.[69-71] Importantly, his research about p193] and Ponterotto (1990, unpublished data) attributes to stereotype threat has shown that such stereotypes as racist the inhospitable climate on predominantly white campuses and sexist ones have material effects on students’ scores, the higher dropout rates of Blacks, Hispanics, and Native because knowing that there are widely-held negative beliefs Americans. Mary Catherine Bateson succinctly encapsulates about a particular ability of members of a group to which one a structuralist view when she points out that “Each time belongs adversely affects one’s performance on a test of that we have understood that some social group had the right ability.[69] Willie (2003, unpublished data) and Massey et to full participation, innovations in education have been al.[72] have written that double-consciousness (as described needed to make the transition possible”.[65 p134] Focus by DuBois [73]), the awareness of not only one’s own beliefs on a structuralist view is of the utmost importance, for it about one’s group but also of the beliefs of others about one’s is nothing less than tragic for those who manage to obtain group) is particularly intense in the Ivy League, where whites’ admission to higher education to encounter unnecessary and stereotypes of Blacks often include the latter’s intellectual demoralizing obstacles. inferiority and social pathology. Caplan has noted that negative stereotypes serve important functions, including to What distinguishes experiences of students of justify a scapegoated group’s subordinate position and thus color from those of white students and those of make it easier for the dominants to maintain their greater women from those of men? power and control.[74] The groundbreaking importance of In trying to understand what on-campus factors could help Steele’s work has been to show that stereotypes can impair explain the lower graduation rates of African-American, performance in ways that reinforce the stereotypes (e.g., that Latina/o, and Native American students of color, what most Black students are not as intelligent as white students, or that compellingly warrant exploration are the ways that racial women are not as skilled at math as men), thus providing prejudice and bias are expressed. It is particularly compelling ammunition for those who want to keep the scapegoated in light of the fact that many stereotypes about these three groups down. groups – such as that they are less intelligent and less What Pierce calls microaggressions are manifestations of hardworking than others (e.g., references 66,67) – are strongly prejudice and hatred that are brief and/or subtle but great negative and directly related to academic achievement, in in the power or magnitude of their consequences.[24] They contrast to the relatively innocuous stereotypes about whites can include comments that actually impugn a person’s race and the intensely positive stereotypes about Asian-Americans or sex such as, for instance, “You are better, nicer, or smarter as the “model minority” characterized by high intelligence than most Black women or Latinos” or a rolling of the eyes and a propensity to study long and hard.[68] Of course, when a woman or racialized person speaks in class. Sue et those model minority stereotypes result in their own kinds of al., suggest that nearly all interracial interactions are prone pressures on Asian-Americans. to microaggression and note three forms of microaggression:

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microassault, microinsult, and microinvalidation.[75] They the person committing microaggression or perpetuating distinguish among these by saying that microassaults are stereotype threat, the dangers of self-blame and shame are explicit, conscious racial derogations in the form of verbal increased.[74,75,78,80] or nonverbal attacks that are meant to hurt the intended The presence of “micro” in Pierce’s term is a reference victim; that microinsults are communications that often to the brevity and/or subtlety of these manifestations of unconsciously convey rudeness and insensitivity and prejudice and hatred, not to the power or magnitude of their demean a person’s race/ethnicity, such as a white prospective consequences, and indeed Pierce writes that “[t]he subtle, employer telling an applicant of color, “I believe the most cumulative miniassault is the substance of today’s racism”. qualified person should get the job, regardless of race”; [81 p516] Their very brevity and subtlety lead the target into and that microinvalidations are “communications that self-doubt about whether or not something racist or sexist exclude, negate, or nullify the psychological thoughts, actually happened,[82] and they make it harder to obtain legal feelings, or experiential reality of a person of color,” such as redress or even the support from family and friends, because complimenting Asian-Americans for speaking good English the manifestations can too easily be deemed minor and the or repeatedly and persistently asking them where they were target overly sensitive if unable or unwilling to shrug it off. born. In fact, partly due to this lack of validation and support, the It has been said that many daily manifestations of racism consequences of microaggression include feeling insecure, and sexism on campuses (e.g., a racist “joke” told at lunch, unself-confident, self-doubting, frustrated, isolated, silenced, professors’ tendency to call on male students more than frightened, ashamed, discouraged, helpless, powerless, and females) might seem minor in some sense but that they despondent.[3,75,78,80,83] Sue and colleagues address are so numerous that trying to function in such a setting is “the invisibility of unintentional expressions of bias”[75 “like lifting a ton of feathers”[18, see also 8,25,26,76-78] — p277] that results from their being subtle, indirect, and often which are not reflected in quantitative statistics made public unintentional and from their happening when explanations by institutions. As Pierce has written, “the cumulative burden other than prejudice (such as “just joking”) are available. of a lifetime of microaggressions can theoretically contribute They also describe the “perceived minimal harm of racial to diminished mortality, augmented morbidity, and flattened microaggressions” [75 p277], which involves whites’ failure confidence” [79 p281]. to take into account the history of racism that intensifies the negative effects of what Whites might assume to be, if As Sue points out, the operation of white privilege and male anything, only minimally hurtful: “When one considers that privilege “maintain their power through their invisibility. On people of color are exposed continually to microaggressions a personal level, people are conditioned and rewarded for and that their effects are cumulative, it becomes easier to remaining unaware and oblivious of how their beliefs and understand the psychological toll they may take on recipients’ actions may unfairly oppress people of color, women, and well-being” [75 p279]. Solorzano et al. report that, as a result other groups” [29 p767]. of microaggressions, Black students are “on the defensive to Targets of microaggression ask themselves whether they keep from succumbing to stereotype threat” [3 p67], and imagined the microaggressions, whether they were deliberate Sue et al. write that for people of color, microaggressions or unintentional, how to prove that they took place, and “impair performance…by sapping the psychic and spiritual whether it is worth risking the punitive consequences, energy of recipients and creating inequities”.[29,75 p273, including increased hostility from the perpetrator, of naming 84] Microaggressions thus create a negative climate or what and objecting to what has just happened.[75,78] Larkin has in sexual harassment cases is called a hostile environment for found that microaggression can significantly interfere with students of color and for women.[3,77,85] the targets’ attempts to acquire an education, leading them, Microaggression is often a consequence of the somewhat for instance, to avoid certain classes and certain geographical paradoxical combination of visibility and invisibility spaces in educational institutions.[77] And as decades of experienced by those identified as different: They experience research about, for instance, verbal abuse directed at women a heightened visibility that includes scrutiny for conduct that has shown (e.g., Caplan, 2005), even a single incident of is disapproved of by the dominant group and for signs of dismissive or demeaning behavior can lead to chronic self- inferiority, as well as the expectation that they will represent questioning, lowered self-confidence, and fear of doing and speak for the whole of their racial/ethnic or sex/gender anything to precipitate a second such incident. When the group.[18] Curiously related to heightened visibility is the target for any reason finds it difficult to confront or challenge

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invisibility that often also plagues members of racial and campus experiences is thus compelling, all the more in ethnic minorities and women, manifestations of which light of what Gordon describes as the “pitifully small include being talked over and around and having their although growing body of knowledge available” about these opinions undervalued or ignored.[18] experiences.[1 p217]

Although pre-college experiences that result in stereotype The methodological approach threat and pre-college experiences with microaggressions may have some effect on students’ college experiences Participating campuses and performance, as they enter a campus where stereotype threat continues or is exacerbated and/or where steps The four institutions participating in the VOD study were are not taken to counteract its origins or consequences selected to represent both public and private institutions or to reveal, analyze, and reduce the consequences of from different geographical areas that have varied degrees microaggression, they may find it more difficult to move of selectivity in admissions and varied histories with regard through their undergraduate years. There is a widespread to diversity. Confidentiality requirements prohibit us from belief that members of some racial/ethnic minority groups naming three of the participating campuses, which in this were admitted through affirmative action and thus (through report we call by the pseudonyms Midwest University, South a misunderstanding of affirmative action) are less intelligent University, and Ivy University. However, President Michael than white students, even when the data do not support this Nietzel of Missouri State University explicitly requested that belief.[8,22,86] Students of color’s awareness of the belief, the participation of his university be publicly acknowledged. in combination with the effects of stereotype threat,[70] The four universities were selected as follows: internalized racism (e.g., Bivens[87]), or both, can seriously •Missouri State University was chosen because it is a public impede their education.[78] These students know that institution and is located in a medium-sized city, Springfield, performing poorly will strengthen assumptions about their Missouri, where the percentage of whites in the population group’s inferiority.[18,70] The common belief that students of is one of the highest in the country, but at the time we color usually have lower Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores conducted the study, the university was headed by President than do whites is especially troubling, given the considerably Nietzel,f who has been described as having a sincere and lower SAT scores of white students whose parents attended profound commitment to diversity. Missouri State University the same institution or whose families have made large had a history until well into the middle of the 20th century e donations to it. [88] of refusing to admit Black students. It has moderately high There is no purely academic college environment free from admissions standards. social components, for even classrooms, study groups, and •Midwest University was chosen because it is a public, libraries are laden with social signals and import, and the research institution with high admissions standards and a presence of stereotypes and microaggressions might thus strong history of pro-diversity work. It is located in a medium- be expected to constitute a barrier to academic progress.[3] sized city. In any case, these problems could certainly be expected to reduce the extent to which students who are their targets feel •South University was chosen because it is a public, research welcomed, accepted, supported, and encouraged on their institution and a Southeastern flagship university with a campuses. prominent history of racism but some recent, beginning attempts to address issues of race and sex. It is located in What seem to be missing from the research literature are a small city, and its admissions standards are high for a the perceptions and perspectives of students from various public university in that geographical area but not compared racial/ethnic groups and women spoken in depth, in the to those of some public universities in other regions of the privacy of confidential, one-on-one interviews, about what country. they perceive to enhance or detract from their college experiences. It can be informative to hear students express •Ivy University was chosen because, although some of its in their own words what they consider to be barriers that numbers for undergraduate diversity are high, it has had they have to surmount and what they believe to be needed to a mixed history with respect to both race and sex. It is a make them feel welcome and supported on their campuses. private, research university with extremely high admissions [3,8,28,89,90,91] The need to hear from students of both standards and is located in an urban area in the Northeast. sexes and the various racial/ethnic groups about their on- This report reflects solely the interviews of participating

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students, because it was not within the scope of this project the terms African-American, Latina/o, Asian-American, and to gather information from administrators, faculty, or staff or Native American. The vast majority of participants classified to incorporate data collected by the institutions. themselves as the official university records classified them, but a small number in most categories classified themselves Participant sample differently, including as biracial or multiracial.

The main goal on each campus was to interview at least At each of the four university sites, we used a random number 50 students of color from the four targeted groups of table to select students from full lists of all of the racial/ African-Americans, Asian-Americans, Latinas/os, and ethnic minority undergraduates. Invitations to participate Native Americans, both women and men, and generally in were emailed either by the Registrar’s office (Midwest) or by proportion to their representation in the racial/ethnic minority Harvard University Project Director, Paula J. Caplan (MSU, undergraduate population of their university, as well as three South, Ivy). For some groups, more than one set of invitations white women and three white men for comparison purposes. had to be sent until we obtained our target number of We did not include international students. Some variation participants for that group. For example, at MSU response with regard to internal demographic classification systems rates were highest for white women and lowest for white existed across the sites, but for purposes of uniformity in our men, with the other groups at various points in between. At reports about each of the four institutions, we generally use Midwest, as many as four sets of invitations had to be sent for

Table 1: Profile of Undergraduate Classes and VOD Participants

% of Total % of Minority % of Total % of Minority % of Total % of Minority % of Total % of Minority Undergrad VOD Undergrad VOD Undergrad VOD Undergrad VOD Participants Participants Participants Participants Race/Ethnicity & Sex MSU MSU Midwest Midwest South South Ivy Ivy African-American 1.72% 21.82% 4.14% 18.87% 8.13% 47.06% 5.66% 15.09% Women African-American 1.50% 16.36% 2.93% 11.32% 5.08% 31.37% 4.67% 11.32% Men Latinas 1.05% 12.73% 2.61% 9.43% 0.63% 3.92% 4.67% 11.32% Latinos 1.00% 12.73% 2.38% 11.32% 0.54% 1.96% 4.08% 9.43% Asian-American 0.90% 10.91% 6.48% 18.87% 0.75% 3.92% 13.19% 28.30% Women Asian-American Men 0.81% 10.91% 7.32% 22.64% 0.79% 3.92% 9.11% 16.98% Native American 0.56% 7.27% 0.47% 3.77% 0.23% 3.92% 0.46% 3.77% Women Native-American Men 0.41% 7.27% 0.41% 3.77% 0.17% 3.92% 0.42% 3.77% Sub-Total 7.96% 100.00% 26.74% 100.00% 16.32% 100.00% 42.26% 100.00%

White Women 51.17% 36.76% 41.60% 27.13% White Men 40.87% 36.50% 42.08% 30.61% Sub-Total 92.04% 73.26% 83.68% 57.74%

Sex Females 55.39% 52.73% 50.46% 50.94% 51.34% 58.82% 51.11% 58.49% Males 44.61% 47.27% 49.54% 49.06% 48.66% 41.18% 48.89% 41.51% Source: MSU, Midwest University, South University, Ivy University and Authors’ analyses of interview data. Note: These race/ethnicity figures do not include students classified as non-resident aliens or with ethnicity unknown

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Table 2: Demographic Information of VOD Participants Race/Ethnicity Midwest South University Ivy University Missouri State University University African-American/Black 8 24 8 12 Women African-American/Black 5 16 6 9 Men Asian-American/Asian/ 9 2 15 6 Pacific Islander Women Asian-American/Asian/ 10 2 9 6 Pacific Islander Men Hispanic Women/Latinas 3 2 6 7 Hispanic Men/Latinos 5 1 5 7 Native American Women 2 2 2 4 Native American Men 1 2 2 4 White Women 3 3 3 3 White Men 3 3 3 3 Multi-Racial Women 4 Multi-Racial Men 4 Race not Reported 1 Women Race nor Reported Men 1

Native American men and white men until we obtained our After the necessary rounds of invitations, at least 57 target number of participants, whereas for others —African- students participated at each campus. Table 2 contains the American women, Latinas, Latinos, Asian-American women, demographic breakdown of participants across schools. and white women — only two sets had to be sent. At South, (More complete numerical data on each campus, as well because of the very low response rate and very small number as the numbers of invitations sent out on each campus, are of Native American men, invitations were also sent more available upon request from the first author.) than once. Mixed methods design Differences in response rates for the various race-by-sex groups suggest that there may have been some skewing in The VOD project is a mixed methods study with a dominant/ the sample ultimately included in our study. However, we less dominant design.[95] The interviews with the students can only speculate about a wide variety of reasons for the constitute the heart of the study. Through these interviews, differences in response rates and thus what ways our sample as well as detailed questionnaires, we have aimed to may be skewed. Research has shown that response rates for identify both current benefits and pressing problems for college students tend to be higher for women[92] and for which solutions must be sought in order to optimize the white and Asian students than for others.[93,94] Because of benefits from diversity for these students, as well ashow this, our findings may not be completely representative of they understand the causes of the problems and how they each university’s undergraduate population. Table 1 provides cope with them. Many factual questions are included in the the enrollment percentages of race/ethnic minority students two instruments, but many are opinion and/or open-ended for each of the undergraduate populations of all four colleges, questions to highlight students’ own viewpoints and to as well as a similar breakdown of the composition of the VoD encourage rich and elaborate responses. participants by campus. Overall numbers enrolled in the undergraduate populations are not provided here in order Voices of diversity questionnaire survey d to protect the confidentiality of the participating campuses. Each participant completed a questionnaire (available from first author upon request) about their demographic,

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family, individual academic history, and an array of on- discussing racial microaggressions and campus climate. campus experiences that were expected to help uncover [3,75] In order to achieve inter-coder consistency, two ETS the sometimes blatant and sometimes subtler factors that team members first coded one question to see if they were are associated with students’ feelings of being welcomed, consistent on coding. The team coded the top two tiers of accepted, supported, and encouraged or the opposite. We questions independently of each other. Their coding for these conducted descriptive analyses for the entire sample as well questions was then compared to see which categories were as by race/ethnicity and sex. used by one coder but not the other and to see if the styles of coding differed (Richards, 2005, unpublished data). The Voices of diversity student interviews ETS research team met biweekly to compare and discuss After completing the questionnaire, each participant was the coded questions, coding issues and differences. The interviewed about her or his on-campus experiences. An researchers used a grounded theory approach [97,98] to African-American man and a white woman, each of whom analyzing the qualitative data, in that they used immersion had had decades of interviewing experience, conducted in the material and identification of themes based on the the interviews. Interview questions were focused primarily input of the interviewers and the coders. As a result of these on the students’ descriptions of the experiences they have meetings, the ETS researchers ultimately achieved a Kappa had as undergraduates that they knew or believed to be coefficient of 98% in NVivo. Mid-way through the study, a related to their racial/ethnic background, their sex, or both. Harvard team member joined the coding team. The ETS and The questions were comprehensive, because the aim was to Harvard researchers achieved a Kappa coefficient of 92%. understand what the students considered important about ETS assigned a pseudonym to each student participant. their experiences, in the context of a wealth of information Study limitations about their lives. The interview also included requests for suggestions about improving campus climate with regard Students are only one group at colleges and universities that to diversity for race/ethnicity and sex/gender. The interview experience racism or sexism in their daily lives. This study is questions are presented in Appendix A. Interviews were not about the experiences of those other groups (e.g. faculty, recorded on MP3 equipment, and the interviewers kept administrators, or staff). In addition, in many of the situations extensive notes about their interviews. When a participant that students report in the interviews, they discuss their made a statement such as that they were treated in a way that interactions with faculty, administrators or staff. This phase was discriminatory or hurtful in some way, the interviewer of the research was not designed to interview these groups asked them to describe the treatment in ways that an observer to gain their perspective on the circumstances that students would have been able to confirm. Thus, for instance, if report. An additional limitation is that the foci of this study someone said they were mistreated because of their race were factors related to race and sex, so that we did not ask or sex, the interviewer asked them to say exactly what had explicitly about such factors as sexual orientation, social happened, and this probing elicited concrete descriptions of class, or disability, not because these are not important but behavior, such as: “When the professor asked the students to because of simple constraints of resources. form study groups, the white students literally turned away We primarily carried out a thematic analysis of the qualitative from the Black students and formed all-white groups” or “The content from the interviews. For the quantitative data on the professor never called on women students even when they written surveys, the samples were too small to allow us to raised their hands to speak.” go beyond frequency distributions, but these produced some The ETS research team read through ten randomly selected interesting information as well. Tables of frequency data are interview transcripts to get a sense of overall interview tone available on request. and to see which questions were eliciting better responses Issues related to racism and sexism are complex and nuanced, than others.[75,95,96] The Harvard research team and the as many of the participants’ responses reflect. For reasons of ETS research team chronicled their thoughts and reactions space and clarity, it was not possible to include in the text to the interviews and discussed what each found. From of this paper more than a fraction of all the interesting and this first reading, the two research teams collaborated to illuminating responses the students gave in their interviews. develop a preliminary coding scheme, and the interview The vast majority of the results presented in the text of this items were classified into five categories or tiers (in order report come from the interviews, but selected results from the of importance). Coding categories were based upon articles online survey are also included.

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Findings body becomes hot, and your eyes automatically become glassy, because you just feel so inferior, A wide variety of manifestations of both racism and sexism because of something like that. I’ll try to just walk and the often silent suffering they cause appeared in the away, but if I walk away then I cry, then I feel bad for feeling weak about it… I would feel like I needed to interviews at all four universities. The findings were so richly say something in defense of myself, because it does detailed that they cannot be easily summarized here, but cause a great, overwhelming emotion within me. some of the major ones are presented. From the interview Raymond, an African-American, is among several students material, some of the quotations that best illustrate the who describe the painful and emotionally draining dilemma findings are given. of having to wonder, when someone is unfriendly, if it is Findings about racism and sexism because they are racist or just having a bad day:

1. On all four campuses, racist and sexist treatment often I have to stop and think sometimes, ‘Are they being racist? Or, is that just how they act? Or, are they just take the form of micro-aggression, causing their targets not being friendly because they’re having a bad day?’ confusion, sadness, self-doubt, anxiety, and frustration So I try not to let it get into my head and make me and constituting drains on their energy and attention. This angry and things like that. I just try to think it through, like maybe there are other reasons why they’re not suffering is often silent due to a combination of the subtle, friendly. So I try not to think about all the negative “joking” ways they are conveyed; uncertainty about whether and try to think about the positive. I do speak and the perpetrator really meant to be racist or sexist; social try to get them to speak, but if they don’t want to, I pressures to keep silent in the face of such mistreatment; the just try to go on with my day. It makes me feel like I am not wanted, but I know what this campus has a absence of an ethos in which all students are encouraged tradition of, and I’m here to actually change that. So, to object to expressions of bias; the unavailability of forums I’m going to be one of the people you see that has in which such matters can be safely discussed or reported; helped the university grow and prosper. and the failure of universities to help students and others And when Demonde is inclined to act aggressively in learn about various ways to respond. In an example in which response to mistreatment, then suppresses that inclination something powerfully racist was allegedly said as a joke, for fear of causing yet more trouble for African-Americans, Emily, a South Asian-American woman, says: and instead just walks away, he feels regret for having done My [last] name is a very Muslim name, and even nothing. Describing this devastating Catch-22 situation, he though I don’t act like I’m very conservative, I don’t says: come across as that, people have made jokes like terrorist jokes: “Oh yeah, you have a bomb in your I don’t feel that there is anything I can do. If I do backpack?”…I kind of looked at him and I was like, anything physical, I’m in trouble. If I do anything ‘Shut up, don’t say that,’ and he was like, “You know through the wall, it’s like, well he said, she said. What I’m just joking.” can I do? I feel useless. I’m being hurt by this person. It’s messing with me emotionally. I’m getting angry. Sang, an Asian-American senior, vividly describes how even …I’m not stable, and the fact that I cannot do anything a single incident can lead to self-doubt after causing her about it makes me feel even worse. …sometimes you can walk away from situations, then it just eats at you “shock and sadness”: for days, and you’re like, ‘Man, I should have done Some white guy stepped on my foot…and yelled at this. I should have done this,’ and in your head, you’re me and told me to go back to my country. And then I going over and over what you would have done if was thinking, “Oh wait, this is my country, I was born you see this person again, what you would have said. here.” That was one of the first and only times that And when you see this person again you’re like, ‘You I’ve been discriminated like that, so to me it’s like I’ve know what, I still can’t do anything. There’s nothing I never felt like I don’t belong here or in this country can do.’ You’re just out of it. There’s nothing you can or anything until that day that this made me think, “Is do. Ever been in a situation when there’s nothing you that what people feel about me?” can do, and you felt so strong about something? I mean, it’s crushing. Other students describe how mistreatment affects them. Alexandra, an African-American senior, says that due to 2. Common and varied manifestations of racism and sexism racist incidents, “You start questioning yourself. …I had… on all four campuses make too many of our participants ridiculous anxiety about turning in work for school.” Gladys, —especially African-Americans, Latinas/os, and Native a Latina senior, says: Americans (but almost no whites and only a few Asian- Americans) — at a vulnerable time in their lives feel that they I go nuts, I do.…it hurts so much, so much, it’s indescribable the way it makes you feel…your whole have to prove they are qualified to be at the university and say that they do not have a sense of belonging or fitting in in

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either the academic or the social realm. This, however, was incident that no one involved in the email complaints about less likely at Ivy University than at the others, but of those at the Black students was able to identify any of the latter and Ivy who believe that they must prove they are qualified to be did not realize they lived in their residence, as well as that there, African-Americans of both sexes were especially likely the emailers were asking whether the Black students were in to attribute that to their race, and women in general were middle school, although the Black students included “a lot more likely to attribute that to their sex. The participants who of big men, big women that clearly look like the adults they said that someone had suggested outright that they had been are”; she feels that this “spoke volumes to how much people, admitted only because of affirmative action also constitute a to how much [our university] as a community outside of the sizeable minority of our interviewees. Black community says that we belong here.” She is further disturbed that no one recognized that the Black students Some examples illustrate the very wide range of incidents that were wearing their organizations’ T-shirts, which some of lead to these kinds of feelings. Anthony, an African-American them wear to class. senior, says that surprise that he is an Ivy student is expressed in fairly subtle reactions – “a slight raising of the eyebrows, 3. Many members of all of the groups of students of color at or eyes following you in the dining hall, mostly from white all four universities reported that on campus they have been students, particularly from females.” A white woman friend aware of negative stereotypes some people – especially told that the first time she saw him, she was frightened of him, whites – hold about the interviewees’ racial groups, and the although he had done nothing threatening to her, “because same is true for many negative stereotypes about women. I was wearing a do-rag.” Veronica, an African-American, Negative stereotypes about African-Americans are often the has been asked in disbelief on campus, “You go to Ivy?” most intense, and at Ivy, African-Americans and Latinas/ In an example of microaggression that “highly offended” os in particular say they feel scrutinized, that some people her, Meadow, who is part Native American, was at the Ivy are on the watch for them to confirm negative stereotypes Powwow when a white male and female in their late 50s about their races. Asian-Americans are more likely than asked her from where Ivy flew in all of the Native Americans other students of color to report positive stereotypes about to participate. When she told them that she was Native their groups but point out that these often set standards that American and that “the powwow was put on by Natives at are difficult to meet (e.g., always being very smart) and thus Ivy, they acted astonished and then told me it was ‘great’ are burdensome. White, male students rarely report negative that Ivy was ‘letting in’ Native Americans.” Luis describes an stereotypes about their group. instance of a white, male student assuming that, because he Despite the fact that the following examples are numerous, is Latino and was putting up posters in a dormitory, he was a they constitute only a tiny fraction of reports of negative custodian. And a Black woman, LaToya, says: stereotypes based on race and/or sex that our participants The ways that people look at me, things that teachers described. African-American senior LaToya says, “With the say, you know, make me feel like I don’t… people would just kind of flat-out say…that Black people got Black students, it’s very hard to be one of the few women here ‘cause of affirmative action…[and] don’t deserve in certain classes, like Engineering or something like that,” to be here. …the general campus is mostly white, because sometimes “the teacher doubts you because you are and…I don’t fit in there…. the only Black person.” Stereotypes about African-Americans At one university, an incident that brought significant media that participants say have been voiced, mostly by white coverage and protest involved a social event approved by students of both sexes, include that African-Americans are the university and hosted by official university organizations not intelligent (reported by Rosa), “are all athletes, or at least of Black students. Some non-Black students called police related to one” (Rashard, also Jarett and Chad), many are to report that they believed the Black students were not Criminal Justice or Business majors (Sebastion, Michelle), university students and did not have the right to be there. “all have some street knowledge [about] hustling someone” Although police came, saw the permit to hold the event, and (Rashard), are all rappers and are “corrupting the world” went away, Black students’ groups and others protested the (Jarett), and speak in certain ways, such as “Yo, yo, yo, what’s message that Black students are unlikely to be students at this up?” (Sasha). Lawrence, who is African-American, reports highly-respected university and do not belong there. It was the stereotype that African-American men are loud and clear from our interviewees’ comments that this sense of not aggressive. He infers the existence of this stereotype from the belonging resonated with other, common experiences Blacks surprise white people show just “from coming in contact” have on campus. Dedra, an African-American, says of this with the former, especially those who are “academically

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inclined.” He says “they seem to be surprised at first and report the race and sex of the perpetrators, more often than taken aback that you’re actually there. Because you’re not… not, the latter are white men. just out on the streets selling drugs, and objectifying women, The students had an unfortunately great number of examples stuff like that.” Rosa is an African-American who reports to offer, though only a fraction are included here. Many the stereotype white people of both sexes have of African- students relate the story of an Asian couple who had been Americans as “ghetto,” as being loud, “And that we fight. spat on, and Sang, an Asian-American woman who is a That we ruin things. We ruin parties. We ruin events….it’s senior, says: “A group of Asians were walking [on campus], saying we’re uncivilized.” She points out the double standard and then a group of white people peed on them.” Tyrone is embodied in the fact that when white men “come in at three one of many students reporting that “a Black male” at a white or four o’clock in the morning, hollering, running up and fraternity house was pushed down the stairs and had beer down stairs, getting onto elevators, and pouring powder,” cans thrown at him, and he says that the fraternity was at they are not called uncivilized. Ayano notes the stereotype least temporarily “kicked off campus.” Alexandra, an African- that Asian-Americans “all speak Chinese, every last one of American senior, says that as a female intramural referee, she us”; she reports being asked, when she says she is Vietnamese, is subjected to sexist treatment from all-male teams who treat “Do you speak Asian?” and when she replies that there is no her as though she is incompetent, saying that “it kind of sucks such language, being asked, “Don’t you all speak Chinese?” that you have to deal with that kind of stuff and just blow it Demonde, an African-American, describes a remark made off, because then we’re accepting behavior that shouldn’t be by a white woman student in his program, in which he was happening, and we’re accepting it like it’s normal, and it’s the only African-American man: not.” Hyun has friends who attend parties at private, social She would say, “You’re a good Black person.” I was clubs for men but will not go to particular ones, because like, “What do you mean a good Black person?” “Like, you’re not really Black.” …I felt bad. I want they are at greater risk there for being raped. Naoki, an to be Black. I am Black. Just because I’m here, I’m in Asian-American man, knows a male student who became college, I speak, I guess, proper. [Other people have drunk and “was touching girls and everything while they said to him] “You don’t talk Black. You’re this Black, were asleep.” The man remains on campus, according to you’re not this Black.” Well, I’m Black. I’m proud I’m Black.… It’s like Black people can’t be educated. Naoki, awaiting legal hearings but has not gone before Ivy’s Black people can’t do what I’m doing. adjudicative board, which cannot hear his case until after the court procedures have ended. Anthony, an African-American, Stereotypes about Native Americans that the students report read in the student newspaper about a white football player hearing on campus include that they are alcoholics (Jake) getting angry at his white girlfriend, kicking her door down, and are not intelligent, live in tepees and on reservations, and choking her. He says the attacker was expelled from Ivy, and wear feathers (Lauren). The interviewees believe that though he does not know if the expulsion was permanent. such stereotypes are often freely expressed because there are Carlos describes being allowed to enter a party given by so few Native Americans on campus that those voicing the a white fraternity (he is friends with the students in the stereotypes do not realize they are present, and many Native fraternity) whose members tried to prevent African-American American students are assumed to be white. male students from entering. When the African-American Gladys, a Latina senior, notes: students became angry, a “big brawl” ensued, with 45 white Just being in the Greek system, women are objectified men attacking the four African-American ones. He says that a lot. Like sorority girls are supposed to be gorgeous, the African-Americans “were going to get demolished, so they’re supposed to be social, they’re supposed to be sluts, they’re supposed to sleep with the frat that they walk away all angry, yelling things.” He believes that they’re going to the party with. There’s expectations this incident was not reported to any authorities: “It kind of that, I think, put a lot of pressure on the women. just blows over, and that’s it.” Louis, an African-American 4. Most participants on all campuses report having witnessed student, describes an incident of racist behavior exhibited in or heard about incidents on campus involving race-based or a social situation, when white members of a fraternity yelled sex-based discrimination, harassment, or aggression. There at his friend: were many examples of offensive body language, so-called …we are walking home and we walked across the humor, and racial slurs such as calling an African American street, and I was with my Indian friend, Jay. They were making racist comments towards him like, “Where’s student “nigger,” an Asian American student a “yellow chink” your turban at?” …They were just making racial slurs and a Middle Eastern student a “terrorist.” When students towards him, and it got out of hand…. A fight was

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about to escalate, but it was me and couple of my never see that…. And that should be a great case other friends. We tried to break it up, and we called study, but you won’t talk about that. Yeah, omission. the cops. You would never talk about, it would never, I have yet, in all my academic life, to come across someone Ping, an Asian-American woman, describes being the target who I can identify with, as far as being successful. of the interaction of sex- and race-based aggression: Justin, who is Native American and white, notes as I was walking home late one night, and…two white problematic the “ignoring” of “some things that might, that college males were on the balcony, and I could hear them talking about me. “Look, an Asian girl.” I started should be there, perhaps.” For instance, in his introductory blushing and getting upset. As I walked underneath Humanities colloquium, the work that was assigned was by the balcony, they started calling out to me. At this “dead white guys.” Monica says that after taking nine or ten point, I was so angry I simply raised my hand and gave them the finger… His friend then called out, English classes, she has probably read works by a total of “Well fuck you, too! Fucking bitch! Fucking 8-year- three women authors. old figure.” I went home extremely upset. I’m used to drunk guys yelling inappropriate remarks at girls A great many students of both sexes identify sexism in during weekends when everyone is out partying. It what is excluded from course materials. Meadow says that has happened to me several times before, all by white in most courses except for those in Women’s Studies ones, males. But this was the first time my being Asian was mentioned. I felt like they expecting me to be some “almost always male authors are chosen instead of female submissive Asian exotic, like in the movies. authors,” a general observation also made by Andre, Wu, and Sundara and made by Zachary in relation to courses in 5. Many participants on each campus show a lack of Economics, by Fen and Melcia in relation to Social Studies, awareness of or uncertainty about whether the university and by Amanda and Dinh in relation to History. Russell, is making system-wide efforts to reduce racism and sexism who is African-American, was “shocked” to see in his Social and about the university’s policies about diversity and Psychology book, which is written by three white men, what procedures for reporting incidents of discrimination and he considered the “ridiculous,” sex-stereotypic definitions of aggression. At Ivy, many participants expressed the view that “male domains” and “female domains,” the former related to the university has policies about sexual assault but not about work and sports, the latter to child-raising and cooking. Alisa, other aspects of sexism. another African American, also reports “sexism in a lot of the 6. Many participants on each campus note racism and psychology course materials,” in which the male is used as sexism in course materials, sometimes because of what is the standard, and the female is presented as different from present and sometimes because of the absence of materials the male. When one calls attention to this kind of thing in created by anyone other than white men. Raymond is an section meetings, she says that the instructors respond, “Oh African-American student who was surprised that in his yeah, that’s really interesting,” but “you’re still responsible for Music Appreciation course, only two African-American the material in exactly the way that they teach you,” and the singers were even mentioned, and those mentions were instructors are not willing to deviate much from that. Van, an brief. Asked how he handled this, he says, “I was just ready Asian-American woman, took a Chinese class, in which the to get out of class, because I was so frustrated. I didn’t want textbook “was really sexist,” including such things as fill-in- to make a big scene or say anything, because…I don’t want the-blank sentences along the lines of “Men only like women my grade to be affected.” Tanya, also African-American, if they’re pretty.” notes the racism inherent in the absence of course materials 7. Related to the racism and sexism in course materials, written by anyone other than whites: substantial minorities of participants at each campus feel Most of the material has nothing to do with African- that their racial/ethnic group’s perspectives are often not Americans, Hispanics, just mainly white people. … the only way on campus that you can really learn included or valued in the courses their departments make about a different race, is, just, taking African-American available or in classroom discussions, and many do not studies and different classes just for that race. feel that perspectives of members of their sex are included An African-American named Rashard describes the effect in their department’s courses or valued in classroom of the absence of examples of successful African-American discussions. businesspeople from textbooks: 8. Many participants on all four campuses report that We get textbooks from McGraw Hill, and things of African-American Studies, Asian-American Studies, Latina/o that nature. But I will say, you would never, ever look Studies, Middle Eastern Studies, Native American Studies, at Reginald Lewis’ takeover of Beatrice. You would

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and Women’s Studies are held in low esteem. For example, problems, and in general, women were more likely than Hyun has heard many people make negative comments men to report sex-based discrimination, with the exception about the women’s center on campus or about feminists in of Ivy, where men were quick to report signs of misogyny. general. In one instance, two African-American men said to In general, participants were more aware of people and a woman that the only use for the women’s center is to get organizations working against racism than against sexism on things printed there for free, and she had two white, male campus. Nisha, an Asian-American first-year student on one friends express similar thoughts. of our campuses, describes the way greater attention is paid to racism than to sexism, to the point that sexism can be 9. Some participants of color on each campus express invisible: concern about the small numbers of professors of color and women professors on their campuses. One example I think sexism is harder, because like racism is more looked at as radical. People look at it is as something is the observation from Dwuana, an African-American, that hateful, but sexism is so subtle. It’s hard. Sexism is “the Black, the minority people don’t really get a chance to something you really grow up with like the male/ speak out in class…because the class is controlled, basically, female roles, your mom and your dad how they act and how your relatives act. It’s really subtle; you don’t by white professors, male and female.” Therefore, she says, even think it is sexism. Even if you are exposed to they tend to “get in the corner block,…out of the way of how men and women should be equal, as you go up the instructor…especially where you’re in a class where the and up in the education, you see a lot less females…. majority of them are white, both male and female.” It is harder for women. It is so subtle, people just accept it [as though it] is something you should do. 10. Many participants at all universities did not know Illustrating Nisha’s point is Dong, an Asian-American, who who on their campus is currently working against racism describes feeling threatened in the presence of race-based and/or sexism or what their universities’ policies about aggression but only “maybe a little indignant” in the presence diversity are, but that was less true at Midwest than at the of sex-based aggression. Similarly, Quan, who is South others. Participants were especially likely to name student Asian, says he is “angry” about the race-based aggression organizations as doing that kind of work and to feel that and “I would definitely interfere. Kind of, calm it down, the administration should do more. For instance, at South or something… And I definitely would not want to take it, University, Anita, an African-American, reports that her just standing, or sitting down, or anything.” This contrasts awareness that the university has a creed about diversity strikingly with his reaction to sex-based aggression: “I guess came only from someone’s having pointed it out on a plaque I’m kind of numb to it. I should probably be angry, but I see it during orientation, and this was echoed by several students more like a fact of life…” And Jake, who is Native American, who said they knew the university has a diversity policy only responds to the question about race-based aggression by because they had to read it aloud during orientation. Also at saying that he takes “jokes” about sex/gender less seriously South, Douglas is an African-American who believes that the than those about race: “I become most upset or offended, top administrator of the University has done a lot to advance personally. …I’ll tell people to stop…usually do what I can diversity on campus and has received death threats for getting actively or passively to kind of discontinue the conversation rid of its racist images, but “in my opinion, it’s just policy on or that kind of train of thinking at that time”; however, his paper.” He says he doesn’t know if this administrator knows response about sex-based aggression is, “not as big of a deal, that “he still has so far to go.” Notes Douglas: really.” This man also notes that, although he feels hurt by …if you go out into the Union — that’s where most ethnic “jokes” and does not make them himself, he sees no people go to eat — and at the fraternities, the campus is still considerably (though not officially) segregated, problem with sex-based ones. Demonde, despite having just, and African-Americans at parties at white fraternity in response to a question about racist incidents, described houses have been “called ‘nigger.’ white men making fun of his African-American girlfriend 11. More participants report the presence of racism than as “nappy-headed” and reporting how badly she felt and sexism on most campuses, and even where the reports are how provoked and ready to confront these men he was, about equal, more treat racism than sexism as a serious says in response to the next question, which is about sexist problem. No participant denies that there is racism on their incidents, by saying that he is not aware of any on campus. campus, but some deny the very existence of sexism or And Sasha, despite having earlier in her interview expressed consider it to be “normal.” At South University in particular, a great deal of dismay about the double standard with regard men were unlikely to report the existence of sex-based to women’s social behavior and problems with what her boyfriend expected her to be (stay-at-home, like his mother),

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denies that there are any sex/gender problems on campus. “a huge commitment to making the Native Americans feel Although Sandra, an African-American, has had more welcomed” and notes that a foundation for race relations experiences on campus of sexism and sexual assault than on her campus is trying to arrange for a Native American with racial discrimination, Zachary, an African-American, event. Althea, who is African-American, says there are “a lot says that people do not think that sexism is a problem on his of student organizations and events that are targeted towards campus, although he believes that the common view that the Black community and Black females.” Ivy women are less attractive than Ivy men is definitely a 13. Despite participants’ abundant reports of manifestations manifestation of sexism. of racism, many appear to cope with these by trying to ignore Gladys, a Latina, describes the danger run by women who them and/or taking the individualistic approach that “what speak up against sexist treatment, pointing out that “a lot of you get out of college just depends on what you put into people are like, ‘Oh, my God, you’re racist? That’s horrible!’ it.” This was the case for many students at MSU and South but if people are sexist…I think people would euphemize it and for several at Midwest and several at Ivy. Raymond, an and make the woman look like she’s overreacting as opposed African-American, says there is an unwritten rule that, “you to the man was disrespectful, and I’ve seen that happen in have to keep the peace and keep silent on this campus in the Greek system so many times.” And Althea, an African- order to succeed.” Describing how she copes with negative American participant, notes that sex and gender issues are stereotypes about African-Americans, Krystal says: played down in her university’s dealings with affirmative There are times when you do have to suck it up action matters, because people would take it less seriously if and just go with it. Sometimes that may mean not sex were added as a primary focus: “the general sentiment on saying something in class. Sometimes that may mean not losing your temper with others. It’s definitely a campus was that diversity is good, and that diversity means complicated binary to exist within, but it’s going to race and ethnicity, although it also means a lot of other be a part of the Black experience, especially when things, like gender. But at the same time I felt like [gender] you’re trying to become successful…or…educated or…to do something for your community…. Maybe was left out.” At Ivy, Baleria, a Latina, notes that orientation they don’t think that you can answer the question sessions include a required discussion about racism but not correctly in class. Sometimes they will question you, about sexism, other than sexual assault. She believes that to make you have double proof of your answer…. “there really should have been a community conversation in Or they’ll just keep reiterating what they’re saying… like it really matters…. It’s expressed in different little the same way that girls can talk about the pressures they feel, ways, but if you pay attention, just in conversation, or I think that was a big, something that was definitely missing just in discussing things in class, you will see that a there.” lot of times they think that their take on life is more valid than me.

Findings about racism Latina senior Isaura says that “even in your classes, if you feel like you’re the only Latino or Latina, it should push you 12. More than one-fourth of participants of color feel harder and not make you feel like you’re inferior as everyone that race has some bearing (usually as an impediment) on else.” And Sebastion, an African-American senior, denies their success at college, although some cite racial/ethnic throughout nearly the entire interview that there is any students’ organizations, university programs for supporting racism on campus and does not mention race in giving his students of color, and (at Missouri State, Midwest, and first two pieces of advice in response to the question of what South) scholarships for students of color as especially he would tell a new student. However, he then checks with helpful. Haneul, who is Asian-American, says that it can be the interviewer to confirm that the person he was to advise “intimidating” if “there’s no one else of your race in a class.” belongs to a racial/ethnic minority and says: It makes you feel, “This is so weird. Maybe I shouldn’t be taking this class,” so that “even if you’re at the same level Oh, stay out of trouble. Stay. Out. Of. Trouble. Because some people still expect Black people to do as everyone else, it sort of, like, maybe a little bit, just, like, wrong, just because we’re Black people. And, do not pushes you down, a little bit.” Andre, an African-American, put yourself in a position where they can, you know, describes the pressure that students from his racial group may say, ‘Hey, I told you so.’ feel because of the existence of stereotypes leading them to 14. South University participants reported more blatant think, “Am I good enough? Did I only get in because of [being expressions of racism, including comments from some Black]?” Arianna, who is Native-American, appreciatively faculty; being ignored and excluded by white students; and cites her university’s Native American program which makes the use of race- and slavery-related images on campus than

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did participants at the other universities. In stark contrast to previously admired apparently felt that Raymond was not participants at the other universities, more than half at South achieving as well as he should in an extracurricular activity University have considered leaving the institution, many for of which this professor is in charge and made a “joke” about reasons related to racism. Some at South describe people joining the Ku Klux Klan and choking him in order to get there as simply not knowing how to interact with those of him to improve. This happened in the presence of dozens other races. Monica, an African-American, describes white of other students, only one other of whom was African- people staring at her both in the classroom and elsewhere American, and there was an audible gasp when he said it, on campus, as well as moving away from her if she sits next but no one called the professor on it. Because that professor to them and ignoring the comments that she makes. She also makes the decisions about scholarships in Raymond’s field considered leaving soon after she arrived because of all the of study and about who is placed in the top positions in racism she experienced, including hearing about the Black organizations in his field, Raymond wanted to speak up but man who was pushed down the stairs at a white fraternity was frightened about the consequences of doing so. When house, but she, too, stayed, because “racism is everywhere.” the comment was made, Raymond “just kind of closed my Freddy, who is African-American, describes one situation ears. I just looked down…and thought, ‘I can’t believe he that made him feel he does not fit in: said that.’” He was “about to walk out” but stayed and later When Barack got nominated, I…heard some spoke with his mother, who was glad that he had not walked comments made by certain whites, males and females, out, because he would probably have lost his scholarship if whom I did not know, who was making racial slurs he had. He told his mother, “If somebody disrespects me like about him being President…. And that, kind of, made me rethink, “Why am I here?” …it made me feel like that, it’s not worth it. It’s not worth my time to be insulted I should not be here. Like, when Barack Obama got and be said things like that to. It’s not worth it.” He spoke elected, they were saying, “I can’t believe we have a with some white people in the group whom he trusted, “and nigger as the President.” I heard that a couple times. they said, ‘I’m a white person, and I was offended by that, Michelle, an African-American, describes the rude awakening because that was totally over the line.’” After a couple of she received in her first year, when a white friend told her days to “regroup from that and think of different ways that that some white sorority members: could have been interpreted, he courageously went on his …were sending out Valentines... And this one girl had own to see the professor and told him that what he had said wanted to send one to her African-American friend… was “very offensive.” The professor thanked him “for coming And she was like, “Oh wait. Isn’t this girl African- to him in such a professional manner, because he knows American?” “Well,” she said, “Black.” …So she, the girl on my retreat, she looked at the other girl, and she that I could have taken it to [the top administrators at the was like, “Yeah. Send it to her.” The girl was like, “I University].” don’t know if we should, cause she’s Black…. I think we should call the housemother, because she’s Black. At South University, Tareek, who is African-American, says And I don’t know if we should send it to her.” …that’s that when a group of white men is walking toward him, one of the things when I really hurt, where it happens, “They take up the whole sidewalk, for the most part, like they but you just don’t hear about it.” don’t see you. And they expect you to step off in the grass,” Shane, who is African-American, objects to South University’s and on one occasion this happened with a group of white mascot as racist and finds this especially disturbing because women. Jarett, also African-American, describes himself as a most of the sports teams’ players are Black. At South friendly person who speaks to people as he walks by them, University, when Jarett, an African-American, asked a white, but “It just feels like a lot of Caucasians won’t speak to me,” male student to stop making comments about all African- an experience Gorou, an Asian-American, and Rosa, who is Americans being athletes, the latter replied, “You’re in [the African-American, also report, although Rosa says that some state where South University is located],” as though that whites are friendly to her. Talia reports verbal aggression, made it all right to say such things. with one of her close, African-American friends reporting that “one of our [white, male] classmates from high school At South University, a particularly disturbing story of a racist who attends here as well…was saying that she didn’t belong incident concerns the ways that it affected one participant’s here, because South University is for white people.” At South attempt to get an education, keep his scholarship, and try University, the night of Obama’s election a fight began when to fulfill his hopes for achieving the top position in a major an African-American man was “sort of exuberant” about the extracurricular organization. Raymond, who is African- victory, and “someone from a dorm yelled down at him to American, says that a white, male professor whom he had

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‘Shut up, nigger, or something,’” and white students used but also to get to know them, “make time for them…go out “the ‘n’ word” to describe Obama the night of the election. to eat with them on occasion, come to meetings, sponsor One African-American woman at South who is very outgoing them for stuff, write recommendations, like, volunteer those and has many friends, including white ones, says that the things…actively.” She says that “that support is just granted day after Obama’s election, many of her white friends looked to us automatically, once we get here,” something that non- away when they saw her and would not even speak to her. Black faculty “absolutely” do not do. Alexandra, an African- With time, most resumed speaking to her, but two never did. American woman who is a senior, reports believing at first that the student body was diverse but realizes: Raymond, African-American, describes the white Greek letter organizations as elitist and exclusionary, to the point Now, I’ve seen pretty much the same faces for the last three years, and… you know when a Black student that he has white friends who do not invite him to their is a freshman. Because you’ve never seen them fraternities’ parties. before…. I can walk all around campus every day, and I can see a new white face or a new Asian face, 15. At South University, Asian-Americans and Latinas/os but if I see a Black kid, and I don’t know who you and Native Americans in particular describe difficulties are… You’re a freshman…and that’s, that’s kind of sad due to the extremely small numbers of people from their on a campus that’s so big. racial groups in the undergraduate student body, and this Rosa, an African-American, observes that white students is the case at Midwest and Ivy for Latina/os and Native of both sexes tend to have closer social relationships with Americans. A Native American student at South refers to the faculty, seeing them outside of class in social situations invisibility of that racial/ethnic group on campus, noting that in which they may also discuss matters related to their the category “Native American” was not even given as an courses. She cites one example of a white, male professor option for listing one’s race for a campus-wide event. That having lunch with a white, male student from his course student says, “They put me under Asian-American, because and discussing the upcoming test with him. Raymond, also they didn’t have ‘Native American’ on there.” They did not African-American, has majored in Biology and Chemistry even have a box labeled “other.” Jake, a Native American and says that the Biology faculty have not been particularly sophomore at Midwest, notes the lack of academic and helpful and “just don’t approach me one-on-one,” but the social things for Native Americans: Chemistry faculty have been friendlier and more willing to Events and everything are kind of lacking and not well interact with him. He thinks this difference may be due to publicized… It’s really easy to find almost anything there being no African-American Biology faculty: “Since that you would want, save for the thing that I find most they don’t have the diversity, they…don’t really know how important. …for other ethnic groups, such as African- Americans and Hispanics, it’s a lot easier to find and to interact with people of different races.” In contrast, the see things for them than it is for Native Americans. …. Chemistry department has a more diverse faculty, even I know it’s probably not the university’s fault, but I still though it has few women. think there’s more that they could do. Dwuana, an African-American, says that “the Black, the 16. Many at all universities want greater racial/ethnic minority people don’t really get a chance to speak out in diversity in the student body and faculty, and at Midwest, class…because the class is controlled, basically, by white African-Americans and Latina/os are more likely than professors, male and female.” other participants to consider their student bodies to be insufficiently diverse. On the positive side, at Missouri State, 17. Participants describe the difficulty of attracting students nearly half of the participants have faculty role models of the to events sponsored by organizations of other races and same racial group as themselves and more than two-thirds of attracting the “unconverted” to events about racism. of the same sex as themselves. At Ivy, Valerie, an African- Asian-American groups at Ivy were the exception, with some American, believes that Black students are often unaware students saying they had had some success along these lines. of resources available to them there, such as some grants 18. Many participants on all four campuses report some or study programs, because they are not as likely to have insensitivity about race issues displayed by some faculty, “deep relationships with non-Black faculty members.” … graduate student instructors, and advisors. For instance, One advantage of staying with their community is that, as Ping, an Asian-American, finds it troubling that faculty ask she describes it, Black faculty “consider it their responsibility her where she is from, she names the U.S. city where she to make sure that we are OK” and go out of their way to was raised, and they nevertheless persist, asking where her follow up with students not just about academic matters parents are from. She says it is clear that they believe that,

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once they know that her parents are from the Philippines, kind of, like, believe in you and, like, tell you that you and thus they feel they can place her race/ethnicity, they could keep going. believe they thereby have learned important things about Tanya is an African-American who reports that most of the her, rather than getting to know her individually. She says, time, she is “the only Black student in the class” and that a “When I’ve had the whole ‘Are you Filipino?’ thing…I get lot of the white, male professors do not seem to think she upset. I start to mumble internally, and then I’m thinking like, can do the work as well as the white students, and they do ‘You should know not to say that.’” Rosa, the only African- not call on her as much as on the latter. Rachel, also African- American student in a music course, describes problems American, describes a white English professor who helped with the white, male instructor’s dealing with hip-hop. They white students of both sexes but not her with a quiz. Dwuana, spent a week each studying other kinds of music but only an African-American, describes a white, male professor one day on hip-hop. The instructor assigned an article about providing course materials for a white woman but not for how “the thug mentality got started, and …how African- a Black man, each of whom had missed the first class. As a Americans sold crack to each other. But we didn’t talk about result, the male student was unable to do his first assignment it in class.” She was offended, because she “didn’t know if and received an “F” for it. Rashard, also African-American, he was saying that hip-hop is centered around crackheads describes the advising system as “terrible” and says that if in the African-American community or was he trying to you go to the advising office without an appointment: give us some background on it.” Furthermore, all of the …like I’ve seen many other people do, walk in there, other students were white and “everybody was looking at and just, kind of, look around, they feel as if, they me, because they wanted me to have an input…. So it’s like wonder if you, they almost feel like you’re going they’re eyeing you, like, what do you have to say?” And in to steal something… everybody looks at you as if, ‘Where’d you come from?’ And they ask, ‘May I help a course about race and culture, the white, male professor you?’ …very quickly, …as if you don’t belong there. responded to an African-American woman’s presentation about the varieties of styles and content of women rappers Valerie, who is African-American, did not feel that her first- by saying that African-American women who listen to them year advisor took her seriously, and she was distressed that are “bitches and hos” and that the Black race is polluting this white woman repeatedly tried to persuade her to take the white race in this way. The participant who recounts this on less difficult work than she wanted, although to do that says that no one reported his statements and that she chose would have interfered with Valerie’s plans for an honors not to because he is a nice person, and, subsequently, he concentration. Alisa, an African-American, considers the apologized. advising in the Psychology department to be poor, basing this conclusion on three different white, male advisors she has had. Each of them she has seen only to have them sign 19. Substantial numbers of students of color at all four her study card at the beginning of the year, and when she campuses report faculty and advisors having made them recently passed one on campus, she “couldn’t figure out who feel negatively or giving them mixed messages about their he was or why I should know him, and then it occurred to intelligence (at Missouri State, these were disproportionately me, ‘Oh, that used to be my advisor.’ So that gives you an idea likely to be women students). Many participants of color at all of how connected we were or how much we interacted.” four universities have had negative experiences with advisors. Dedra, an African-American, three times met her first-year And at Midwest, five of our six white participants have been advisor, who signed her study card but was busy, did not made to feel only positively about their intelligence, whereas give her advice, and “never reached out to see if I was okay half of the African-Americans have had mixed experiences. during the semester or to talk about where, how I was feeling In contrast to other racial groups, at Midwest, fewer than about classes.” Veronica, also African-American, says that half of Latinas/os have been encouraged by advisors, faculty, her first-year advisor “basically didn’t know anything about or graduate students to challenge themselves academically. the undergraduate experience.” Jerome, who is African- Latina sophomore Brenda says: American, reports that a white, woman advisor advised him when he first arrived not to take Calculus classes, although I’ve never really had anyone tell me that I should be taking harder courses. …I wish that I could have had he was a Finance major. He thought it was strange that she someone sort of encourage me to do new things. did not even bother to look at his transcript before giving him When you’re never encouraged to, like, push beyond that advice, and if she had, she would have seen that he had what you’re doing, you kind of feel like that’s all you can do. …it would have been nice having someone taken Advanced Placement Calculus the previous semester.

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20. Many participants of color at MSU and South do not feel The findings that substantial numbers of students of color that their ideas are respected by other undergraduates or by believe that white students hesitate to work with students teaching assistants/graduate students. Monica, an African- of color and believe that students of color hesitate to work American, says that white students often treat her as though with white students suggests that self-segregation is a way she is “not as smart as they are” by listening only to each to minimize risk of rejection by other-race peers. Valerie, an other and disregarding her when she speaks in class, even African-American at Ivy, notes that “for a lot of Black students when her answers are right, and theirs are wrong. here, this is the first time, as it was for me, that there was a significant Black community that was intellectually strong 21. The vast majority of participants at all four universities and kicking, and interesting, and fun to be around,” so that say that whites do most of the talking in class. LaToya they tend to stay within that community for that reason as well contrasts her lone minority situation with that of students as because of troubling attitudes of some non-Black students who benefit from white privilege, noting that “white people toward Blacks. Sandra, also African-American, has friends of in class like to talk a lot,” because “they don’t have to think various races but says that “Black people tend to be drawn about the repercussions.” What she herself says is likely to to each other because they feel like they understand each be assumed to represent all Black, queer women, but what a other’s struggles.” She also notes that many Black people had white student says will not be taken to represent all whites, primarily white friends in high school and are pleased at Ivy she points out. to find other Black people who “talk like them[selves], and 22. A great many participants of color (e.g., nearly half at they have the same academic and career goals.” Kyung, an Missouri State) would like to speak more in class than they Asian-American sophomore at Midwest, says that although: do and often mentioned the discomfort occasioned by being …everyone does know someone of a different asked to speak for all people of their racial group, as though ethnicity…you do hang out, typically, with your every member of their race has the same beliefs. A Black own race. …when you look in a mirror, and you see what you look like, and you look at everyone student says that he is aware that when race topics come up, else, it’s really hard, initially, to get past your self- “there are people staring at me, trying to see how I react,” at consciousness, that you’re afraid someone’s going to which times “I kind of scrunch up and try not to be noticed view you differently…. And so it’s more comfortable in the classroom.” Michelle, an African-American, describes when you’re hanging out with other people who do look like you and when you don’t feel, like, maybe her acute discomfort as the only member of her race/ethnicity they’re going to judge you by physical appearance. in a class around the time of the Presidential election. Her teacher told the class that the campus is segregated, asking 24. At all four universities, Blacks and Latina/os in particular them to look around the classroom and report how many often grapple with the burdens of being the “lone minority” African-Americans they saw. Michelle put her head down in a classroom, including being left out of study groups and and felt, “Oh, God. This is so awkward.” Had she been white, being afraid to speak in class, for fear of confirming the she feels she “would have been like a beet, beet red, ‘cause stereotype that members of their group lack intelligence. I was really heated.” Negative stereotypes — often about African-Americans in particular at Midwest, Missouri State, and South — appear 23. Most participants at all four universities describe to reduce the likelihood of formation of interracial study students of color as tending to spend time primarily with groups. Demonde often feels he does not fit in, does not members of their own racial/ethnic groups, the vast majority feel welcome, and feels “alone” when he is the “only Black attributing this solely to comfort and familiarity, with only person” in courses in his major. When he told a white, a few mentioning the need for a sanctuary from racism woman classmate that he felt this way, she accused him of as a cause. At Missouri State University, Black students in being racist because he had noticed that he was the only particular praise the Multicultural Resource Center as a Black person, and he had to persuade her to consider how comfortable place to go. Students’ answers to the question she would feel if she were the only white person in class. of why students self-segregate seemed to reflect a failure Douglas, who is African-American, worries that, because to examine the assumption that a person will have more in there are so few students of color in his area of study, “there common with same-race than with different-race others and/ may be affirmative action notions applied to us.” Dara, or that what same-race people share is more important or also African-American, notes, “It’s very rare that I will find compelling than commonalities that people of different races someone of my same race in a class with me, even if it’s a might find they have. lecture of 300-some students, maybe I’ll find ten at the most

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of someone with my same race or even a darker skin tone interracial dating, especially white women with Black men, like me.” Dwuana, an African-American, says, “In the classes is “a huge problem for parents” and that when he and a white that I’ve taken, you really never hardly find the Black, both woman friend have gone out to dinner in town, both Black males and females, sitting in the front of the classroom…. and white people have given them “funny” looks, to the point We, kind of, often go to the back of the room, so we’re not that the woman said she did not want to eat any more, so called on as much.” Avoidance of being called on is due to they left. South University student Talia’s white friends have fear of “negative feedback,” of being laughed at because of criticized interracial dating, although they know that she is getting an answer wrong. Donnell describes white students multiracial. in his classes considering him “dangerous” and not wanting 27. Some participants at the time of the interviews at to work with him because he is African-American: “…if Missouri State and South did not believe that there is you’re sitting in a row, and they say, ‘OK, in your, in your administrative support of racial/ethnic minority group section, just pair off into groups,’” he says, “the white person organizations and programs on campus. on each side of you turns away from you to avoid ending up in your group.” 28. Many participants of color — especially Black, male students — report that they have had negative experiences 25. At Midwest, African-Americans and Latinas/os are with campus police at Ivy, Missouri State, and South but not especially likely to have considered leaving the university, at Midwest. Andre, an African-American, describes a Black, most commonly for academic or financial reasons , stress, male friend being questioned by the police about whether he or homesickness, with a few mentioning race-related attends Ivy when he was just about to swipe his Ivy card to problems. Jose, a senior, says it has “never been easy for enter a building, and he reports a woman running away from me to pay for this school”, and early on, he did not feel he that same friend when she saw that he was about to enter the fit in. Krystal, who is African-American, notes “the fact that same building as she. Shaun is among several students who there weren’t many things that the African-American students observe that the campus police selectively dispersed African- could be comfortable doing sometimes, or the fact that I Americans as opposed to whites who gathered in groups the didn’t have anyone to do my hair, or I didn’t have anyone night of President Obama’s election, treating celebrations to handle cosmetic issues that I needed handled.” However, by the former as though they were race riots. In fact, notes once she chose her major and was: Shaun, the South University campus police has a double …continually indoctrinated with the leaders and the standard in general for responding to limit African-American best slogan here at [Midwest University], that became a part of me, and I really felt like, ‘You know what? students’ socializing, for which they will be “out there in full I am a leader. I am the best. I need to stay here so force…have their sirens on and everything, they are trying that I can continue to shine a light for other minority to hurry everyone up for leaving,” but for white students’ students and continue to be an example for them.’ parties, “there’s nothing like that going on.” And Erin, a white And Danielle, an African-American, first-year student felt out senior at South University, reports that an African-American of place until she connected with another African-American friend who is a sorority member says that campus police are woman student. called to break up early those barbecues held by her African- American sorority but permit much noise and drunkenness 26. At Missouri State and South, participants say there around white sorority houses. are unwritten rules prohibiting interracial dating. At Missouri State, the contrast between the high perception of 29. At Missouri State and South, some students of color who acceptance of interracial friendships and the much lower mentioned off-campus experiences reported frightening acceptance of interracial dating suggests a clear limitation ones, such as being chased and called racist names by of racial integration on campus, although both interracial whites, as well as more subtle ones, such as being treated friendships and dating there appear to be more accepted in more demeaning or suspicious ways in stores (a Midwest than at earlier times in history. But the fact that one-third student also described the latter kind of incident). However, of Missouri State participants said that interracial dating is one Black student favorably contrasted Springfield, MO, not accepted reflects some degree of belief that people from the location of Missouri State, with their St. Louis home, other races are different in important ways from members of since in Springfield, one “only” encounters hate speech and one’s own race. Confederate flags, whereas “in St. Louis, you can get shot at.”

Demonde, an African-American at South University, says that

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Findings about sexism students in class, that are females.” She also has seen “in enough classes” male professors more intensely engaging 30. Some women at Ivy and South mention that they feel with male than with female students. Tanya, an African- out of place in classrooms and majors where there are few American at South University, relates an experience she had women, because they feel they are not taken seriously and/ that reflects the stereotypic expectation that a mother with a or they fear confirming the stereotype that, for instance, child cannot handle a heavy workload, perhaps especially women do not belong in Physics or Engineering. Haneul, in quantitative fields. She has a young child, and her white, an Asian-American man, learned when he “stumbled” on a male advisor her informed her that she would not be able Women in Science awards night where he went “for the free to have a double major in Mathematics and Chemistry and food” that women find it difficult to stay in Physics, especially still graduate in four years, and another white, male professor because in many courses, there is only one woman student. told her that she would not be able to take a high-level He also says that many of his women friends have told him, Calculus course and be able to keep her daughter, but she on nights when they had to do problem sets, that they feel took the class and obtained a grade of “A.” Dominique, an they should drop the class, because they do not think they are African-American first-year at South University, describes “good enough,” although he knows they are smart enough to a white, male student who “picks on me all of the time” do the work. Related to this, Van, an Asian-American woman because she is Pre-Med and taking Biology, and he does not at Ivy, says it was: think women should expect to do well in such courses. She ...very difficult for me to ask questions in Computer has been mocked for being a woman taking Pre-Med and Science or admit that I didn’t know how to do something, because I was a girl…. I think that actually Biology instead of looking for a husband and says she tries caused a lot of problems for me academically, within to push past that kind of treatment and focus on getting her Computer Science, just because it was like I felt such education. Veronica, an African-American at Ivy University, a need to prove myself as a female that…it actually has also had a professor make comments with sexual really got in the way of my learning. You know, like situations where I should have just let up and been innuendoes about such things as, “what a proper woman like, “I don’t know. Please explain this to me.” should do and how she should act.”

31. At all four universities, some women participants report 32. Some women participants at each university report that comments from classmates and faculty demeaning their if they assert their opinions and values, they are considered intelligence because of their sex and/or focusing on their to be inappropriately strong and feminist. Evelyn, who is appearance instead of their academic abilities. Meadow, Asian-American and white, has become more aware of a multi-racial student at Ivy University, notes that there are issues of sexism since coming to college, and sex-based some “white, male professor(s)” on campus who are known aggression makes her feel sad. Her reaction is in part because to devalue women. Krystal, a Midwest junior who is African- of the “complicity” of some women in perpetuating those American, relates the story of one of the only African- attitudes and stereotypes through their failure to object when American women undergraduates majoring in Engineering, people make sexist comments. As a result, “people start to who was mistreated by a white instructor. The student, she think it is okay, there’s this whole notion that we are living says: in a post-feminist era, [although] obviously we are not past …was doing her work very, very well, and the teacher sexism.” She believes women’s reluctance to speak up or do wouldn’t give her her proper grade. I think the teacher anything actively feminist is because of their fear of being was trying to fail her or something. And I think she called names, thought to be ugly or lesbian “or all these had to take it to the board, just to prove that her answers were correct…He had some kind of vendetta different negative things that are associated with standing up out for her specifically, because she was the only for women’s rights.” She worries that this is “a very bad place African-American female…. And right there I was for us to be” and she is angry that men feel it is okay to make like, “You know what? There’s no way I could ever be in Engineering.” generalizing comments, and women think they don’t have the right, or they don’t really want to stand up for it because Valerie, an Ivy junior and also African-American, also they are not one of those types of women who get all up in notices “there’s quite a bit of sexism, visibly, especially from arms about these small things, when they are not really that professors.” She and her friends have been in a number of small, and when they are cumulative. Quan, a South Asian classes in which a professor “will just make jokes about man, identifies a Catch-22 for women in academic settings, females, that are not insulting, but it certainly is, like, a very noting that when they dress in certain ways, such as wearing chauvinistic, really, comment. Or, will openly, even, flirt with

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miniskirts, male professors may objectify them but give them he call on them if they didn’t have their hands up?) “better treatment,” but says: Only if no one had their hands up. (What if they did raise their hand?) He would. ...if a girl is trying to be true to her values, sometimes it’s seen as overly feminist. And male professors will, 34. Many participants at all universities reported having sometimes, feel, I won’t say threatened, but they just witnessed or heard about incidents on campus involving don’t like it, I don’t think. And they will, kind of, shun them. sexism of various kinds and/or sexual assault. At all but Missouri State, Greek letter organizations and/or private, Lawrence, an African-American, reports that a woman friend men’s social clubs are described as having powerful, who is president of a feminist group on campus is treated exclusionary effects on men of color and as contributing to badly because she refuses to be objectified, “even jokingly,” sexual harassment and sexual assaults against women. The and abused, and he says that women are expected to wear numerous examples given here reflect the frequency and short shorts and men to dress “like Poppin’ John…normal.” range of such incidents, and to a very great extent, they were At South University, Erin, who is white and a senior from similar across universities. Jessica, a biracial senior, says: the northern U.S., says that people of both sexes sometimes …sex-based aggression “is always shocking” and let her know she does not belong there, because women is upset by the expectation that the women victims in the South are not supposed to have strong opinions, should change, such as by not going out at night, especially not negative ones, so when she expresses a strong rather than the male perpetrators. She describes the double bind for women or people of color who are opinion, people “either close off and stop talking to me, or subjected to either sex- or race-based aggression: “we they become fascinated.” And Cynthia, a multiracial woman kind of have to deal with it the best way that we can, at South, encountered the expectation for women to be because that’s our only option, but at the same time, if we obsess over it, we get called out for obsessing physically weak, helpless, or passive when, at a bonfire party, over it.” because she added some wood to the fire, some men called to her, “Oh, you have some balls, don’t you!” Jessica also reports: My sophomore year, my friends and I were walking, 33. Sex discrimination also includes microaggression in and this guy just grabs us…and pulls us. It was an the classroom, such as professors talking more with male awful experience…. I reported it to our [campus than female students and taking the former’s opinions more safety department], and I think we also talked to the seriously than the latter’s. Students at Midwest and South in [city where the university is located] Police about it, and they just said like, they probably put “attempted particular mentioned these kinds of problems. As an example sexual assault” or something like that…. I actually of sex-based microaggression in the sciences, professors had this guy follow me home, and I feel like men converse more with male students than with female ones don’t have that problem, like being followed home by women…it’s a real problem here. Stalking, too, is a and take the men’s opinions more seriously, according to big thing. I had a girlfriend of mine who was…stalked Brenda, who is Latina. Talia, a multiracial participant who by someone on campus. They would show up to her was the only student of color in a particular course, tells this classes, and…that’s frightening. story: The professor required students to attend a series of Doreen is a Native American who heard from a white woman meetings and became angry at her when she emailed to say that the latter was “drugged at a frat party,” something that she would not be able to come at one point, so she left her Doreen says happens “at all frat houses, women students are job to go to that meeting because “he was so adamant and drugged,” because she has heard similar stories from other stern.” Near the very end of the 30-minute meeting, another women in her dorm to whom this has happened. The first student walked in, and the professor only told him he should woman she mentioned says she was sexually assaulted while arrive on time. An African-American woman named Anita drugged. Xiu, an Asian-American, also reports stories of describes a white, male professor who seemed to favor the women being drugged and then sexually assaulted at parties. male students more than he favored the female students: She describes one white woman to whom this happened: When I raised my hand because I knew the answer to …when she reported it to the officials, they basically the question he was asking, he would never call on said it was her fault and didn’t really do anything me to answer it. (Never?) He only called on me one about it. And I think it really traumatized her…she time when I happened to know the answer. When was really depressed after that. She got into drugs and it was obvious that I didn’t know the answer to the stuff, and…she was finally getting over everything that question he was asking, he called on me to give the happened. And she said that the guy who assaulted wrong answer or to guess. But he seemed to be more her…came up to her and was like, “Hey, I had a great lenient with the male students than females. (Would time, we should do it again.”

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Cynthia, who is Native American and Latina, says that at a give up any more information, then they can’t really help fraternity party, a white, male student “came by and smacked her’.” The roommate did not want to report the man’s name, my butt.” She said, “I don’t know you. What are you doing?”” because she was “nervous about getting him in trouble” and but he “just laughed it off.” She was very angry but took no “didn’t want to be embarrassed herself by ratting him out.” action except to avoid him the rest of the night. She also tells Valerie says that in cases of sexual assault, even if the stories of a white, male student who “just randomly starts poking” are passed around by word of mouth, “identities are, kind the breast of a white, woman friend of hers. When Cynthia of, kept quiet,” and she is aware of no aggressors in sexual challenged him, he said, “Well, I am just messing with her.” assault cases being disciplined, even when they are reported. Cynthia then “cursed him out,” and he left the party. Neither But she says that a stigma is attached to reporting sexual instance was reported to anyone. And Lanita, also African- assault, because: American, says that some African-American men said to her …there’s often…nuances to a situation. Or, if there’s and some other African-American women, as though they any way in which…you are not absolutely pure of any were ‘joking,’ “You’re nothing but a mouth with two holes.” kind of blame at all, there is a great deal of hesitancy. Not to mention the fact that, you know, everybody Liz, who is white, describes men at private, social clubs “in here has a heavy academic course load. So, you’ve their drunken stupor” treating women in degrading ways: got to stop that to pursue something…. when it’s come up in hypothetical conversations, it’s even been You can be standing in a group of guys, and they to the point where,…given the amount of red tape can be talking about the girls that are next to them… I feel like I would have to go through if that were commenting on people’s clothing or ‘She’s pretty, ever to happen to me, given the skepticism, given the she’s ugly, she’s fat. She’s a bitch.’ male-friendly attitude on this campus anyway …I was Hyun, an Asian-American, says that “especially when you’re kind of wondering, if that happened to me, whether it would ever be worth the, like, trouble, to go through in [private, social] clubs [men] feel that they have the right it. to touch you or talk to you as they please.” And Iseul, an Asian-American woman, reports that at a private, men’s Dan, who is white, describes a gang rape of a first-year social club party, “a Black male…just grabbed my behind woman student by players on the football team, and “she may and squeezed,” and when she turned around to protest, he have taken a semester off or a year off,” as far as Dan knows, said, “I am not going to apologize. You were asking for it.” no charges were laid against the rapists. He says, though, that She found this “shocking. …a rude awakening that people in the next issue of the campus humor publication, a “joke” would do that.” She did not report the incident but never was made about the incident on the magazine’s cover. went back there again. She has “also heard of instances of 35. Women are more likely than other students to remain sexual aggression and even rape at a lot of these [men’s] silent in class at all four campuses, even when they have clubs.” Qing, an Asian-American woman, says that the something important to say or ask, and at Ivy University this parties hosted by exclusive men’s clubs are was also disproportionately true of Asian-Americans and very, very unbalanced in terms of gender. When you Latina/os. Brenda, who is Latina, opines that women are less go there, I feel like the average ratio is five girls to one comfortable than men speaking in class until they are very guy. If you’re a guy, and you’re not part of the club clear about what they want to say: and you don’t have friends in it, you have to bring a whole crowd of girls in order to get in. That not [Men] have more access to professors and…. I don’t only objectifies and devalues women; [and] is just a think they feel so inhibited…speaking in class…. I perpetuation of all the most negative stereotypes of think women still feel like they have to be within their Ivy, as being a white, male-dominated, legacy driven, own space and kind of really think about what they connections, all that stuff, and I think that it’s really have to say before they say it…. unfortunate, that it has to be a part of this institution, because I really do love it. Baleria, a Latina, reports that in some classes, including discussion sections, the men are: Sandra, an African-American, describes a rape victim who did not report the incident but “just ended up leaving” Ivy, …more vocal, or sometimes seem to get more attention, or more credit for similar statements, or, because she was so humiliated. A woman friend of Sandra’s let’s say you both have the same thing written down was “roofied” and did not report what happened. And when on a homework assignment but one will just be more Sandra’s roommate was sexually assaulted and was crying, vocal about it. they called the sexual assault helpline, but “they didn’t really Dora, a Latina, feels held back by the maleness of the faculty do anything. I think it was because she was nervous about and “lack of female presence in teaching.” Most of her talking about it, and they were like, ‘If you don’t want to

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professors are men, and this makes her reluctant to approach a great deal of time in internal dialogue, asking themselves them or try to excel in “their” subjects: whether they imagined or misinterpreted what the other person said or did and, given the less than blatant form of I feel like I would be very discouraged even just joining a the mistreatment, feeling apprehension and anguish about panel discussion…. Sometimes I feel a little scared to ask my whether, if they try to name and object to what was done professors something because I’m a female; that’s weird, I to them, they will only be told that they are overly sensitive shouldn’t say that. or even that they are imagining it. They worry that speaking Shun, an Asian-American woman, says she is reserved about up to protest such treatment carries the risk of creating still participating in section because she fears being wrong, saying more problems for themselves and other members of their something “trivial,” and not being able to articulate it well: respective groups. On campus, where they live, dine, work, “I’ll have an idea, and it’s, like, spinning around, and it’ll and socialize with people who commit microaggressive acts come time to talk, and, just, like, I can’t express it very well, against them, to name and object to racism and sexism, and, like, awkward silence.” Similarly, Ji, an Asian-American, no matter how gently, runs the risk of having to function in stays silent until she knows that she has it “formulated.” Mu, settings in which they are further marginalized, mocked, another Asian-American woman, sometimes stays silent or otherwise mistreated. This happens at a time when the when she is not “a hundred percent sure that I am right. And average undergraduate is struggling with issues of identity so I tend not to speak in case I might be judged.” and of self-trust and self-confidence. [3,29,75,78,80,83,84] It is clear that to be dealt with in hurtful ways because of Discussion one’s race and/or sex causes a great deal of pain as one tries What our participants told us about their experiences on to grapple with matters related to identity, and the often campus at their predominantly white institutions revealed subtle and confusing forms of microaggression complicate that, despite the fact that some people believe that the the process of figuring out how much one can trust one’s own United States is a postracial and postfeminist society and judgment of other people.[82] that there are no longer race/ethnicity-based or sex/gender- (2) Related to the matters of identity and self-trust, the students based inequalities, on a variety of historically predominantly we interviewed took their education seriously and were white campuses, many students of color and women have strongly motivated to learn. Facing, not to mention dealing experiences reflecting that substantial manifestations of both with, the existence of barriers to their educational success racism and sexism remain today. This is consistent with the due to racism and sexism — when they cannot change their structuralist understanding of students’ difficulties on campus race or sex — seemed too demoralizing to many, and so they (e.g., see references 2,47,52,57,64), and confirms the coped by believing that “What you get out of this university occurrence of many on-campus experiences that contribute just depends on what you put into it.” In this way, suppressing negatively to the environment in which students attempt to their own awareness of on-campus racism and sexism seems acquire an education and that could well interfere with that to give them a sense of having more control over their lives attempt. At the same time, many participants report some and fates than they would otherwise feel they have. positive experiences, such as receiving support from student organizations and particular faculty or administrators, that (3) Some mistreatment — especially sexual aggression and make them feel welcomed, supported, encouraged, and sexual assault — that is directed primarily against women accepted, but nearly every student also reports experiences is so weighted with shame for the victims and fear of being that make them feel the opposite. blamed, demonized, and revictimized if they report the incidents that the victims often keep the mistreatment secret The kinds of mistreatment the students report come variously or tell only a trusted friend or two, usually begging them not from other students, faculty, administrators, police, and to tell anyone else. others. Furthermore, although there remain some blatant expressions of these biases, especially at South University, (4) Sexism is more likely to be considered a less serious much of the suffering that these manifestations cause on all problem than racism, and this makes the targets of sexism four campuses is silent, and there appear to be at least five feel especially fearful that to speak up about upsetting primary reasons for this: occurrences based on their sex will lead to dismissive treatment. (1) Much mistreatment comes in the form of microaggression, [24,81,79,75] so that the people who are its targets spend (5) Many students who have been subjected to racist and/or

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sexist treatment say that there is nowhere they feel safe on conceptual, ethical, and moral and is of global importance. campus talking about these subjects. On some campuses, it At Missouri State University, the first campus where we appears to be due to the myth that racism and sexism do not conducted the study, some preliminary recommendations exist there, and on others, it is because the targets already were made in an early, written report and some in subsequent feel so pained that they do not dare to risk coming forward in-person meetings with those working on diversity issues. and speaking up, because they do not know of a campus For the other three schools, more detailed recommendations official or a resource designated to help deal with such were made in the written reports, which included the problems. Related to this, students describe some faculty on following lead-in to our suggestions: their campuses as either committing racist or sexist acts or In light of some students’ feelings that they are not as failing to intervene when others commit such acts in their seen to belong on campus or that they do not fit in; of classes. many students’ awareness of the negative stereotypes about people of their race and/or sex; of the ongoing Because of the nature of students’ experiences of sexism and acts of discrimination and aggression based on race racism on campus, it is essential for university administrators and sex, many of which emanate from negative to pay close and intense attention to the suffering that results stereotypes and take the form of microaggressions, thus making them particularly complex and difficult from mistreatment and to take steps to change the chilliness to handle; of some students’ lack of awareness of or of the climate for women and students of color. And as Sue uncertainty about whether the university is making has said, male privilege and white privilege maintain their system-wide efforts to reduce racism and sexism and power through invisibility, rendering it all the more important about the university’s policies about diversity and procedures for reporting incidents of discrimination for these kinds of mistreatment to be the subject of intense and aggression; of students’ perceptions of some study and for them to be reported as publicly and widely as insensitivity displayed by some faculty, graduate possible.[29] student instructors, and advisors; and of the many ramifications of increased diversity, and the handling of many situations that arise at all levels and in all Recommendations realms requires resourcefulness and new sets of skills for many, what follow here are our suggestions for In each Voices of Diversity report that was sent to one of the making the university’s commitment to diversity more four respective participating universities, one section was a salient and create more mechanisms for dealing with list of recommendations designed to address the problems problems related to diversity [we offer the following recommendations]. that the interviewees at their institution described. Many of the recommendations were similar or even identical for all Universal and Individualized Recommendations four campuses, but some differed among campuses. Many recommendations began with a general statement Because racism and sexism cause so much suffering and followed by more specific recommendations. In what follows, are so deeply ingrained in society in general (and thus except where otherwise specified, the general statement for also on campuses), we were specific and detailed in our each recommendation was made to all four universities. As recommendations, providing a plenitude of concrete each recommendation is described here, some of the most suggestions. Given that the campuses where we did the VoD important variations in the specific recommendations we interviews varied greatly in their histories and ways of dealing made at the different universities are noted in parentheses. with forms of bias and oppression, we were aware that, Because the VoD follow-up with Missouri State has been depending on the campus, some recommendations would ongoing, and the production of recommendations more seem more likely and possible than others to implement dialectical than with the other universities, rather more quickly, over the medium term, or over the longer term. information is given about MSU in the Implementation We pointed out that in places where psychological threat section of this paper than in this section. In fact, in light of the due to bias has been alleviated, intellectual achievement earlier timing of our initial report to MSU and of the rapidity has tended to increase,[100] so the research holds promise with which they moved to implement specific changes that for improving marginalized students’ access to better we recommended or that they generated themselves, some of education and thus to improvement in the very functioning those changes were used as the bases for recommendations of democracy. This, we noted, is the ultimate teaching to one or more of the other three universities. Furthermore, and learning opportunity, a chance to create a learning as the VoD study was conducted on each campus, additional community that is truly inclusive and supportive; this work is ideas for recommendations emerged. Thus, the mention

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of any given recommendation for fewer than all four sites how to deal with these problems; therefore, we suggest should not be taken to mean that it would not be important facilitators who are trained to assist with the “difficult or useful for the others. dialogues.” This could become a part of the comprehensive effort for diversity education aimed at improving the campus Recommendation 1 climate throughout. (For Ivy University, we added: These Given the wide array of comments from participants dialogues are needed to ensure that members of under- indicating that equity has not yet been achieved and that represented racial/ethnic minorities and women have some are not sure whether the university has policies about people to listen to and to advise them about the challenges race and sex, and if so, what the policies are, and given that of racism and sexism and changing the climate throughout most are troubled by manifestations of racism and sexism the university. An alternative approach may be to consider on campus, the university should consider taking actions to offering incentives to academic departments that would communicate and make salient its policies, if any, regarding like to examine this issue within the department, report the racism and sexism and its ways of helping people throughout findings to their faculty, and develop strategies designed to the institution to deal with these problems. Based on offer solutions tailored to problems that are identified.) comments from some of the participants, this could include: •Some participants, especially women (and on at least •Making salient whether the university administration has one campus, Asian-Americans, and on another, African- policies and procedures for reporting discrimination and Americans), tend to keep silent in class, so we suggest what they are. (For both Ivy University and South University: seeking ways to encourage and make it possible for these Making not only the increasing but also the accommodating students to speak up comfortably. of diversity on campus explicit, fundamental aims of •Some participants from all racial/ethnic minority groups the university. These goals should be described as the and both sexes are troubled by racist or sexist comments by responsibility of the entire university community and of some faculty members in their classes and/or by the failure of benefit to everyone in that community. (At South University, some faculty to handle racist and sexist remarks and behavior this is especially important in light of many participants’ in their courses in helpful ways, so we recommend that statements either that they had no idea whether the university the University consider offering incentives to departments has diversity policies or that they were aware of them only where faculty identify and take actions to eliminate racism because they had seen the university’s creed once during and sexism and ensure that their courses are designed and orientation.) conducted free of stereotype threat and microaggression. •(For South University: Arranging for increased outreach Actions could include encouraging faculty, administrators, from the administration and from student organizations to and staff to obtain training about the effects of such comments students of color when they are admitted to the university, on students of color and women, as well as about dealing because many participants of color report that no attempts with racist and sexist comments and behavior in class and were made to welcome them.) elsewhere. The administration could promote these efforts by providing financial or other incentives to departments and •(For Ivy University and South University: Many participants other units that establish good records in this regard. (For believe that the undergraduate student body should be South University, we also said: This would include ensuring more racially diverse, especially but by no means only by that the courses that are offered and classroom conduct of increasing the numbers of some racial/ethnic groups, in order faculty moves toward reduction of these kinds of problematic to reduce the frequency of “lone minority in the classroom” behavior.) problems and difficulties for racial/ethnic minority students in joining study groups; therefore, we recommend increasing •Some participants expressed concerns about racism and the racial/ethnic diversity of the student body.) sexism in some course materials through both commission and omission (the latter through omission of works by people •Exploring appropriate media for communicating to all in other than white men), so we suggest providing financial its community the presence and nature of the racism, sexism incentives, assistance, and other resources for faculty who and stereotyping on campus and the consequences they would identify course materials for the presence of bias and have been found to have for students. for the absence of works by diverse authors, identifying a •Most participants encounter problems that appear related greater diversity of materials, and finding ways to integrate to race and sex, and many find it upsetting and hard to know them into courses.

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•(For South University: Establishing a Commission on minority groups and women, as well as the view of many Diversity composed of top administrators, faculty, students, that the perspectives of members of their racial/ethnic groups and community and business leaders, charged with learning or sex are not included in course materials, departmental about and disseminating proper information, helping courses, or classroom discussions) improve climate on campus and in the wider community, •What leads to segregation of the races from each other understanding and supporting the role of inclusive on campus (because of our finding that many students of excellence on campus, and facilitating some diversity- color observe that numerous Greek letter organizations related educational events in the community. Subsets of the usually exclude students of color from membership and Commission members could form councils that assist with even from their social events, as well as our finding that most specific projects, such as developing a strategic plan that will participants believe that students primarily spend time with involve every level, college, and constituency in working on people from their own racial group on campus) diversity.) •The nature of white privilege and such manifestations as •(For South University: In light of some participants’ lack lack of awareness of additional barriers to learning faced by of awareness about the women’s center and the center that students of color, especially those from underfunded high deals with racial issues, finding ways to make students aware schools (because of the observations of some participants of their functions and resources and the opportunities they – both of color and white – of the ways that students of provide for undergraduates, as well as supporting the work color have to cope with various burdens that whites do not of these centers.) encounter, such as worrying whether comments they make •(For South University: Given what some participants in class will be used to reinforce beliefs that all people from describe as the success in increasing discussion of race their racial group lack intelligence) issues after having a major, national political event at South •The tendency for the seriousness of some kinds of bias, such University, considering having the university host a national as sexism, to be minimized or rendered invisible by some Diversity Summit or conference.) women and some men from all racial groups (as described in •(For Ivy University and South University: Finding ways to detail in the Findings and Discussion) encourage administrators and faculty to model a constant •(For Ivy University and South University: Opportunities process of examining their own “blind spots” about diversity to learn why Women’s Studies and various ethnic studies and prejudice.) programs are needed and what they are actually about, rather than the negative stereotypes) Recommendation 2g •(For South University: A required orientation session for Most participants report insensitivity or various forms entering students and at least one course required for every of discrimination based on race and sex. Therefore, we major field or as a general education requirement, with recommend seeking ways to address the race and sex follow-through, to educate people throughout the university discrimination and insensitivity on campus, including taking about the matters described above under the introductory steps, with follow-through, to educate people throughout the statement to Recommendation 2. Such sessions and courses university about: should include a strong critical thinking component and •The effects that racism, sexism, and other discriminatory could include, for instance, assignments for students to systems have on emotional states of some people and on their attend one or more multiracial and one mixed-sex cultural attempts to obtain an education (thus necessarily including or social event on campus and to write about them. They detailed education about the concepts of stereotype threat, should definitely include information about the theoretical microaggression, and their consequences) and research literature about stereotype threat and •The need to demystify racial/ethnic groups and women, as microaggression.) well as to ensure the inclusion of perspectives of members •(For Ivy University: Why many students of color find that of all racial/ethnic groups and sexes in courses, course many private, social clubs exclude students of color from materials, and classroom discussions (because of the vast membership and even from their social events) number of negative stereotypes participants report that •(For Ivy University: Barriers faced by biracial and multiracial people on campus hold about members of racial/ethnic students who are not accepted as fully belonging to any

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racial/ethnic group of which they are a part) other and speak more openly about race; the multicultural psychology course; the recently-begun, annual party given Recommendation 3h jointly by Black and white fraternities (though there is some Some participants spontaneously mentioned some programs question about whether many whites attend); and an extra, they have found helpful. We recommend increasing support once-weekly study session in a History course for these programs, which include: •For reducing sexism:

•For reducing both racism and sexism: From Midwest: the existing support group for women in From Midwest: the organization aimed at increasing mutual science and engineering group; Women’s Studies courses; respect among groups; prodiversity student organizations; the required sexual assault session for first-year students; required training for Resident Advisors to take a course about informational sessions held by the LGBT community, as well diversity; a hate crime reporting hotline; and inter-group as their coming-out week; and inter-group dialogues about dialogues sex/gender and sexual orientation

From South: One World (not the real name of the organization), From Ivy: the women’s center; first-year orientation workshops especially (1) an exercise they use called “cultural mapping,” about rape and sexual harassment; the sexual assault office; which involves going beyond race and sex differences to the publication of stories and poetry written by Ivy students seek commonalities of all kids, whether it is music, food, about sexual harassment and assault; support groups for ideas, or other things, as well as (2) their encouragement of various sexual orientations other than heterosexual; Take each other to include a variety of people in planning get- Back the Night Week; and Women in Business, especially its togethers; the campus-wide event which combines people internship program into small groups that are diverse for race and sex and assigns Recommendation 4i them tasks to perform together; and the head administrator’s leadership group of students, which hears a wide, diverse Exploring suggestions that participants made about what array of speakers aimed to decrease “closed-mindedness” changes could be made that would help them feel more welcomed, accepted, and supported, including: •For reducing racism: •From South University: making more widely known a From Midwest: events sponsored by the administration on variety of facts and statistics related to race and sex bias; Martin Luther King, Jr., Day; what a participant called the greater diversity among the student body, which will increase university’s zero tolerance policy about racism; the program the need for work to be done about the taboos that some designed to provide extra academic assistance to students participants describe against interracial dating and even from racial/ethnic minority groups; and the requirement of interracial friendships; greater diversity among the faculty, one of the major colleges for all students to take a course both for race and sex, in order to provide more same-race about race/ethnicity and same-sex role models, advisors, and mentors; for the From Ivy: the undergraduate recruitment program for administration to make it clearer that racism and sexism students of color; racial/ethnic student organizations; the are unacceptable; for the administration to recruit African- required session about race/ethnicity during first-year American high school students in more areas even within the students’ orientation; the campus foundation that organizes state, rather than to concentrate efforts so heavily in one area race-related and multicultural events; the singing group that where there are many private schools; for the administration performs African Diaspora-related music; the “Black campus to follow the One World model and create interracial “friend ministry group”; some race relations advisors/counselors in groups,” aimed particularly at breaking down the tendency the residences of white Greek letter organizations to associate only with From South: a recruitment program by South University each other and increasing opportunities for students to find aimed at helping African-Americans prepare to take the their commonalities rather than remaining separated by their ACT examination; the summer transition program; the real or assumed differences; to include more students of program aimed to support students of color in the sciences color in the invitational honors group; for people of all racial/ and mathematics; Black Alumni Weekend; Black History ethnic groups to overcome stories and stereotypes they have Month speakers and major political events related to race on learned from family and friends about other groups and to campus, which make it easier for students to bond with each try harder to get to know people from groups other than their

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own; to increase opportunities (especially for the targets) to American Studies Program; and find ways to encourage speak about issues related to race and sex; for people who white students to attend multiracial academic, political, and have been the targets of sexism or racism to speak out about social events. it; for everyone to take the multicultural psychology course, in which, among other things, white privilege is discussed, Recommendation 5 as well as taking a follow-up course; to remove racial and Our participants care about whether the climate with regard slavery-related symbols from everything associated with the to race and sex is improving, so we recommend using – and University; for top administrators to take a more “radical” publishing the results of — evidence generated by credible approach to changing the University’s history as an institution instruments such as the Diversity Scorecard (developed by for privileged, white people (The student who made this Bensimon et al. [101]), which assists people on their own suggestion points out that when the administration does try to campuses in identifying inequities and monitoring the make such efforts, they are at risk for being criticized, on the university’s progress in taking steps to make diversity work. one hand, by South University graduates, who say, “You’re being too harsh,” and by the Black Student Union saying, •(For Ivy University and South University, the following steps “You’re not doing enough.”); to find ways to encourage white related to the above recommendation were also suggested: students to attend interracial academic, political, and social making participation in diversity training and implementing events; and to conduct a study of whether there is racial bias other initiatives parts of employee evaluations and faculty in campus police guidelines and procedures, to make known raises or merit pay; giving faculty and employees release the results of that study, and to take steps to correct problems time to work on diversity; having student evaluations include that are revealed, if any are; and providing more space on questions about how faculty deal with issues of race, sex, campus for racial/ethnic minority and multiracial groups to disability, sexual orientation, age, and class in their courses; hold social and cultural events having faculty require students fill out a campus learning climate questionnaire in order to receive their grades, then •From Midwest University: that students need to be made having the university publish these results; ensuring that aware of the procedures they can follow for reporting and orientation for all new-hires includes diversity training; and dealing with racist or sexist matters, because many have no having units use a percentage of travel budgets to finance idea what to do; have in each dorm discussion groups about training about research and teaching about diversity.) ethnicity, where students of various races/ethnicities can meet and talk; some students believe that the university does not Recommendation 6 believe there are problems with racism and sexism, making it all the more important for the students to impel change; an Given that students from all racial/ethnic groups, including Asian-American who has been pressed hard by some faculty whites, describe feeling uncomfortable and uncertain about members to say where she is “from,” even after she tells how to deal with situations of discrimination, whether they them her U.S. city of origin, therefore questions the ability are targets or witnesses, we recommend that the university of faculty to “start all these university policies and your non- find ways to equip students with more knowledge than they discriminatory policies to your students if you’re not even currently have about ways to deal with such situations. This following it yourself?” and she wants students to be helped might well need to include changing the ethos that some to “feel like they can speak up in any situation” and not rely participants from all racial/ethnic groups and both sexes on faculty to reduce racism; that the university president describe as involving great pressure to ignore mistreatment should do this work and also that “student groups can go and to one in which everyone takes responsibility for making the recruit at high schools and make sure students apply”; that campus emotionally and educationally safer from biased undergraduates be required to take a course about sex and statements and actions. This would very likely necessitate a gender; that the university needs to make clear its policies strategy that offers students opportunities to be engaged over about sex-based mistreatment and that the various schools the course of their undergraduate curriculum. need to do more about it; and that the university needs to do •(For Ivy University and South University: Providing more about homophobia and heterosexism on campus substantial financial and other support for One World, •From Ivy University: increase diversity among the faculty, which participants describe as having been extremely both for race and sex, in order to provide more same-race and effective in encouraging students to speak up and object to same-sex role models, advisors, and mentors; have a Native manifestations of bias. This would include exploring ways to

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deal with pressures that students of color and white students, more racially diverse than at Missouri State and South. Ways respectively, feel to avoid speaking up against discrimination that the university could proceed to address these concerns and ways to change the campus culture to reduce such include: pressures and make it highly desirable to speak up.) •Increasing the racial/ethnic mixing in roommate assignments •(For Ivy University and South University: Numerous venues for first-year students, because some participants describe in which to discuss white privilege.) the importance of their experiences in living with people from other races in order to get to know them as individuals •(For Ivy University and South University: A campaign and find commonalities with them, rather than seeing them modeled on the one that Mothers Against Drunk Driving has only as representatives of their race used, including posters and messages from the administration urging people to speak out against bias and conveying that •Conducting a study to see how students feel about having that is the expectation on this campus.) roommates of other races and cultures, then publishing the results Recommendation 7 •(At Missouri State, Midwest, and South: Conducting a Given that participants from all racial/ethnic minority study of the effects of the Greek system’s largely racially groups said that administrators, faculty, or staff had made segregated membership on campus and the apparently them feel negatively about their intelligence or gave mixed racially exclusionary practices of at least some Greek letter responses, we recommend offering financial incentives to organizations with regard to which of their parties and departments that demonstrate having raised the awareness other activities non-members are allowed to attend, then of administrators, faculty, and staff about the importance of publishing the results, in light of that system’s high degree finding opportunities to make students feel positively about of visibility and influence as described by many participants. their intelligence. •(At Ivy: Conducting a study of the effects of the private •(For Ivy University: Incentives could be offered to academic social clubs’ largely racially segregated membership and departments and those in the academic advising system, as exclusionary practices, in light of that system’s high degree well as to other administrative units such as the Financial Aid of visibility and influence as described by many participants.) Office.) •(At South: Some participants of color and some white Recommendation 8 participants describe the greater difficulty that organizations of students of color have in finding spaces on campus to hold At all universities, some many participants of color describe social and cultural events, so we recommend increasing their the academic advising system as seriously deficient in ease of access to such spaces) providing personalized, focused, caring attention to their •(At South: Numerous participants of color express concerns needs, so we recommend careful study of ways to improve about the use of racial images and chants, so we recommend that system. This pattern was especially true at South increasing efforts to understand the degree to which students University. We recommended: of color feel alienated by various racial and slavery symbols •Giving intense attention to ways to improve the advising and references and exploring ways to educate all students system about these effects and to eliminate the use of these materials.)

•Improving outreach to students of color to inform them •(At South and Ivy: Many participants of color describe race about all scholarships and financial aid opportunities, given bias exhibited by campus police; therefore, we recommend some participants of color’s concerns about the lack of that the presence of bias be fully studied and, depending on information they received the results of said study, steps be taken to eliminate bias.)

Recommendation 9 Recommendation 10

Some participants stress the importance of learning about Some participants describe instances of feeling discriminated people of other races and cultures and express concern against off-campus, so we recommend having the university about what they describe as the substantial degree of ongoing systematically study how students feel about the town social segregation by race. This was true even at Midwest community and how the community feels about the and Ivy, where the undergraduate enrollment is considerably university’s students of color, publish the results, and take

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progressive actions based upon the findings. deeply upsetting and that victims and targets are more likely than not to fear formally reporting or even talking about •(For South University: Depending on the outcomes of this them. research, the university might work with the off-campus community in ways that increase the likelihood of positive, •(To Ivy University, we also recommended finding ways to supportive interactions between students of color and encourage students, regardless of sex, to intervene when the wider community. For instance, this could include: someone is being sexually harassed, subjected to unwanted increased attempts to hire people of color from the town touching, or assaulted.)j and neighboring areas for university positions; public service •(To a university that is not named here because that announcements conveying a commitment to diversity by the could risk the institution’s anonymity in this study, we city; the university’s provision of diversity and white privilege recommended strongly supporting the new campus sexual training sessions for interested businesspeople or other assault prevention center.) citizens; the city’s provision of numerous internships in city offices for students of color and women; the city’s decision to Recommendation 13 raise awareness of the importance of diversity in workforce development.) Many negative stereotypes about women in both the academic and social realms were identified by participants, Recommendation 11 and therefore we recommend that the universities conduct a survey of the climate for women on campus and publish At South University specifically, numerous participants of the results, then appoint a Commission on Women to seek color describe the failure of many white students even to solutions to any problems that are identified. respond to their greetings, and many of all races describe uncertainty and discomfort about how to approach people (To Ivy University, we also recommended: that the from other races. Since these difficulties in great measure administration find ways to communicate more clearly the seem based on lack of knowledge about commonalities message that all forms of sexism are unacceptable, and that among them, we recommend holding sessions that are the administration explore ways to provide increased support aimed at making explicit and grappling with people’s beliefs for the Women’s Studies program.) about differences among people of different racial/ethnic groups and uncovering commonalities among them. These Implementation of recommendations could include discussion of what, besides “comfort,” leads From the time this study was conceived, it was hoped to self-segregation when it occurs among students of color that administrators would find useful both the information and when it occurs among white students, e.g, fear, need for gathered and the fact that it came from external institutions. protection from the racism and sexism of others, negative In at least two cases, that is what happened. beliefs about members of other groups, and more blatant forms of racism and sexism. Missouri State University

Recommendation 12 Missouri State University, the first institution whose report was delivered to them, moved immediately to make numerous Many participants of both sexes describe instances of sexual sweeping and specific changes related to diversity. President assault against women, as well as the victims’ reluctance to Nietzel had, after receiving the VoD report, moved quickly make official reports or even speak with friends about it, and to present those findings to Administrative Council (his thus we recommend efforts to increase the salience of the leadership council), and he used those findings to strengthen university’s written policy about sexual assault; working with their decision to propose to the Board of Governors the the Sexual Assault Prevention and Awareness Center, explore prioritization of diversity and the establishment of the Vice ways to encourage victims to come forward; and considering President for Diversity and Inclusion position.k MSU invited establishment of a publication (like the one called Saturday the VoD Project Director to speak at three meetings, so within Night that was begun at Duke University) that includes three months after the report was delivered, she first met with descriptions of sexual assault by victims and those who care the university president and all of his top administrators, about them, as well as extensive descriptions about resources including the general counsel, head of HR, etc.; then met and actions to be taken. This would help make it clear to with the City Council of Springfield, Missouri, where MSU is the university community that these incidents occur and are located; and finally met with the Provost and the academic

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deans. MSU took further steps after these meetings. They reform, and composition initiatives. redefined “diversity” to make it clear on campus that all 5. Training facilitators to assist with the necessary “difficult “historically excluded” groups were included, and that dialogues” needed to educate themselves and the wider included sex/gender, race, ethnicity, disability, age, religion, community. These facilitators can in turn train others so that and social class. Administrative training began immediately, leadership can be provided to the campus community and with Deans and Associate Provosts having discussions about the larger [city] region. Three persons were sent to a week- Inclusive Excellence, and The Faculty Center for Teaching long “Diversity Professional Certification” program, so they and Learning held a book discussion series about White could train additional staff for university-wide sessions. This Privilege and Disability Awareness. team began by providing eight hours of training focused Other changes included the following: on challenges illuminated by the Voices of Diversity Study and future inclusiveness initiatives to the President and his 1. Proactively addressing the intense emphasis in their leadership team (Administrative Council), and additional region on politeness, the “shadow side” of which leads to training sessions have been held with faculty and staff. “silent suffering” by the targets of sexism and racism. This Diversity education will continue in anticipation of turnover was done by leadership taking steps to ensure the hearing of at senior administrative levels. The new Vice President, Dr. experiences of students and faculty of color and of women. Ken Coopwood, was credentialed as a Certified Diversity 2. Focusing on how to recruit and retain faculty/staff from Executive (CDE) and provides leadership in concert African-American and Hispanic populations--an area in with the MSU Faculty Center for Teaching and Learning which they did not feel they had performed well. for development of strategic mentoring, leadership and 3. Building stronger partnerships in the community, curricular programs. including by improving the climate for retaining faculty, staff 6. Recognizing the importance of modeling a constant and students; helping reduce incidents of microaggressions process of increasing their own awareness, the Vice President and stereotype threat; and taking a stronger role in educating has worked with Human Resources to implement a diversity the broader community about these issues. They considered goal mandate for all personnel and created a response team these steps important expressions of MSU’s official Public to help supervisors identify barriers to engagement while Affairs Mission, which has the three components of carrying out the mandate. Ethical Leadership, Community Engagement, and Cultural 7. Collaborating with the Springfield, Missouri, Chamber Competence, and they promote the view that the first two of Commerce leadership in sponsoring six “facing racism” are not possible without the third. intensive training sessions for a broad sector of community 4. The University established an ‘Office for Diversity and leadership and continuing to work toward diversity as an Inclusion” and hired a firm to conduct a nationwide search integral part of economic and workforce development. It was for a Chief Diversity Officer. The title of the CDO position was expected that these training sessions would utilize alumni, later re-named “Vice President for Diversity and Inclusion” to additional trainers and more interactive training components reinforce the importance and reporting level of the position to reach more community stakeholders. and to attract a high-quality pool of applicants, and the office 8. Having Division for Diversity and Inclusion staff work was made into the Division for Diversity and Inclusion. The on web development, including newsletters from division Vice President coordinates efforts campus-wide and keeps entities and other features. these topics in view at the highest decisionmaking level by incorporating cultural competence into all evaluations of 9. Using findings from the Voices of Diversity study to be used employees. The Vice President for Diversity and Inclusion where appropriate to support an upcoming comprehensive provides leadership for diversity efforts campus-wide and climate study. ensures these efforts are included in senior-level discussions, 10. Implementing a Diversity Hire program to identify and planning activities, and employee reward processes. The take advantage of special opportunities to attract qualified VP also integrates cultural competence into his division persons who can also effectively advance goals related to model, “Paradigms of Inclusion”, which entails four pillars diversity; requiring all professional searches to contain of excellence: Cultural Competence, Research, Intervention, a diverse applicant pool to continue to the interview and Pedagogy. The division model provides the framework stage; identifying emerging talent internally and providing for developing campus leadership, academic and program

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assistance for further education in exchange for continued 14. Following the events in Ferguson, MO, in 2014, the MSU service to MSU; and improving a spousal hiring program to campus mobilized immediately to hold dialogue sessions, help ensure retention of new hires who increase the faculty’s panel discussions, and student-led activities in which student diversity. leaders crafted goals for their own community. One of these was to meet with the police chief and express their concerns 11. Supporting Dr. Carol Maples in the Theatre Depart- about the community. This session resulted in the police ment, who developed a troupe of actors to illustrate chief asking to be contacted personally and directly if any “microaggressions” as a teaching tool in “theatre for social of the attendees felt racially profiled in the Springfield, MO, change.” The troupe has assisted in numerous training community. Outreach and follow-up dialogue sessions were sessions, including multiple ones in the community (Juvenile planned to follow the grand jury’s verdict. Justice employees, Leadership Springfield, and others) facilitated by the Interim CDO, as well as on-campus for South University faculty, staff and departments. At South University, the senior administrator in charge of 12. The University has partnered with four other higher- diversity wrote that VoD education institutions in the region to form a diversity was the first formal study of its kind with its consortium, “to coordinate efforts and to partner between methodological approach completed at our university. institutions, serving parallel needs for our students, faculty, There had been more limited sampling of our and staff and the community that surrounds and supports students’ attitudes with less scientific rigor. Moreover, because it was an “outside study,” interest quickly us. As higher education institutions, we recognize both the surfaced as to purpose, content, and ramifications, opportunity and the responsibility to take a leadership role …which created a dialogue with increased interest. with regard to diversity concerns in the larger community. “ This dialogue eventually led to creation of a [plan for making diversity work that went beyond] our (Mission Statement) This group has recruited students from standard model. each of the five campuses and helped those students network together through social media such as Facebook and Twitter, The administrator said that part of what motivated the plans so that students have support throughout the community and was that some students in the VoD study expressed the wish can attend each other’s events. for programs that the University actually already had in place. The students’ lack of awareness of existing programs 13. The University, in conjunction with community partners, suggested the need for “more direct and redundant lines of held a pre-Summit to build consensual interest in a proposed communication,” he said. Furthermore, top administrators in Economic Development and Diversity Summit that was the university and several diversity committees discussed the held in April of that year. The Summit was an all-day event VoD results extensively, and targeted for middle management with the focus of teaching It was decided that a “top down, bottom up” skills to address microaggressions, handle difficult dialogues, University diversity plan would be pursued. The “top and improve cultural competence of participants. The down” portion would come from the blessing of the Executive Summary of the Summit reported that 228 people [top university officials]. The “bottom up” part would were in attendance from a total of 77 organizations (Faith, come through [a group that was] in the early process of formulating university mission and goal statements Education, Civic, Business). A a statewide Collaborative for the next 10 years. Because every component Diversity Conference was subsequently held, involving 200 of the University will flow through this process, community leaders representing 77 organizations across the and because resources will be allocated based on priorities resulting from the work of this [group], four sectors of the community. Work was begun to assess the each component will be asked to include diversity respective organizations for inclusive practices and teaching considerations in their submittal. It is anticipated skills for improving cultural consciousness. Work has that this process will yield the beginnings of a university diversity plan that a subcommittee could continued in the community with intensive “Facing Racism” then formulize into a complete diversity plan for the and other cultural inclusiveness training sessions, which University. have included community leaders from all sectors. The city’s Currently, we are in the process of verifying that all components police chief, after attending one of these trainings, contracted of the University [have] a proper and comfortable channel three trainers from MSU to develop and deliver an expanded for submission. It will be a long process and it will reach to 3-hour session to all officers of the police force, which will the core of the University! be updated and repeated this year. This goes well beyond the mandated requirement of just one hour every other year. South University is implementing its plan for change.

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Midwest University feelings and needs of subordinates, as well as the wealth of information they have that is often unknown to dominants, A senior administrator at Midwest University reported tend too often to be invisible.[102] that “Midwest administrators and staff have had extensive discussion on the [VoD] research. We have compared It was the aim of this study to examine students’ perceptions, it to other research that has been done on the impact of experiences and perspectives about a wide range of current, diversity at [Midwest].” He noted that his university has done on-campus factors that can enhance or interfere with their considerable research of its own about this topic but that the attempts to obtain an education. This work revealed in rich VoD study detail the manifestations of racism, sexism, and combinations of the two on current campuses. Thus, our work should make allowed us to examine whether earlier findings were still holding and it provided us with more current it easier for students to recognize that some of the problems data. The information has been shared with others they have on campus result from on-campus factors rather who work in units that deal with advancing student than to external factors in their past that are beyond their diversity initiatives at [Midwest]. These data and other also provided the impetus for [Midwest] with [a major control. This study has the dual benefits of examining foundation] to sponsor a series of symposia ... with students’ views and what institutions can do to improve, AAU institutions in states that have been impacted by and the variety and depth of steps already taken by some ballot initiatives or legal rulings that prohibit the use or race or gender in their recruitment and admissions of the institutions have powerfully demonstrated how that process. These symposia will be held at [Midwest]. improvement can begin both at the four VoD campuses and elsewhere. Ivy University References At Ivy University, we were told that they were considering our report within the context of a study that the university 1.Gordon E.W. Politicization: A neglected pedagogical is itself conducting and that some of our findings and process. In Edmund W. Gordon & Beatrice L. Bridglall (Eds.), recommendations may be put to use once the university’s Affirmative development: Cultivating academic ability. research is completed. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007; 207-219.

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b 91.Outlaw L.T. Jr. Critical social theory in the interests of The Voices of Diversity Project was funded by a generous Black folks. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. grant from the W.K. Kellogg Foundation

c 92.Sax L.J., Gilmartin S.K., Lee J.J., Hagedorn L.S. Using web The authors are grateful to Julian Bond for inspiring this surveys to reach community college students: An analysis work; for the support of Principal Investigator Henry Louis of response rates and response bias. Community College Gates, Jr. at Harvard University, and Co-principal Investigator Journal of Research and Practice, 2008; 32, 712-729. Michael Nettles at Educational Testing Service, who made it possible; for the invaluable assistance of the students who 93.Sax L.J., Gilmartin, S.K., Bryant A.N. Assessing response told us about their experiences; to Nancy Brigham Cyr, Sara rates and nonresponse bias in web and paper surveys. Lawrence-Lightfoot, Mark Harris, Lindsay Bigoness, Barbara Research in Higher Education, 2003; 44(4), 409-432. Ruaro Vermillion, Donald Yacovone, Mai Huynh, Vera Grant, 94.Underwood D., Kim H., Matier M. To mail or to web: Catherine Millett, Ashley Blake, Ava Nemes, Jocelyn Eastman, Comparisons of survey response rates and respondent Diane Ghogomu, Nikki Gerrard, Leslie Friedlander, Wesley characteristics. Paper presented at the Annual Forum of the E. Profit, Nicole DiCrecchio, and Tony Chu at Missouri State Association for Institutional Research. Cincinnati, OH. (ERIC University; Michael Nietzel, Charlotte Harding, Wes Pratt, Reproduction Service No. ED446513), 2000. Leslie Anderson, Juan Meraz, Chantal Levesque, and Jeffrey Cornelius-White; and the many people at the three unnamed 95.Creswell J.W. Research design: Qualitative & quantitative universities for all they did to help us with this project. approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1994. d After consultation with organizations representing various 96.Tashakkori A., Teddlie C. Mixed methodology: Combining racial/ethnic minority groups, and in light of the guidelines qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA:

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we have followed in inviting participants (such as that we To Contact the Authors: Paula J. Caplan, Ph.D. have not included international students), we have chosen Associate in this report to use primarily the terms African-American, DuBois Research Institute Asian-American, Latina/o, Native American, and white for Harvard University the racial/ethnic groups. This is the case even though the [email protected] terms “Hispanic” and “Black” appear on the questionnaire that our participants filled out. Furthermore, the reader Jordan Ford, B.A. will note that the groups’ labels in Figure 1, which is based Research Assistant Harvard University on data from Snyder, Dillow, and Hoffman (2009), differ somewhat from those we use in this paper. In addition, different students use different terms in describing their own racial/ethnic membership, e Climate in this sense consists of “perceptions, attitudes, and expectations that define the institution and its members” (Peterson & Spencer, 1990, p. iii). f “For more than 40 years, an astounding one-fifth of Harvard’s students have received admissions preference because their parents attended the school… At Harvard, a legacy is about twice as likely to be admitted as a black or Hispanic student” (Larew, 2003, pp.136-7). g President Nietzel subsequently ended his time as MSU President. h In the Midwest report, we noted that interviewees gave mixed reports about the effectiveness and adequacy of such current programs as the required course about race that one of its colleges has, including the lack of long-term follow- through. i Because of the way our thinking about recommendations developed, we had not included this recommendation in our first report, which was to MSU. j Because of the way our thinking about recommendations developed, we had not included this recommendation in our first report, which was to MSU. k Because Ivy was the last campus where we collected information, and it was the one where participants were most likely to describe sexual assault and sexism as serious problems, this addition was made to this recommendation but by no means should be regarded as relevant and important only for Ivy University. l Leslie Anderson. Personal communication. November 26, 2012.

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