Map Projection Map Projections • Scientific method of transferring locations on Earth’s surface to a flat map

• 3 major families of projection – Cylindrical • Mercator Projection – Conic Projections • Well suited for mid-latitudes – Planar Projections

The Variables in Map Projection Map Projection Distorts Reality Projection Surface G P • A sphere is not a developable solid. • Transfer from 3D globe to 2D map mustresult in S Cyl loss of one or global characteristics:

Light Source Varieties of – Shape geometric – Area O projections Cone – Distance – Direction – Position T O N Projection Orientation or Aspect

We will come back to this graphic later in the lecture

Characteristics of a Globe to consider Characteristics of globe to consider as as you evaluate projections you evaluate projections • Scale is everywhere the same: • Quadrilaterals equal in – all great circles are the same length longitudinal – the poles are points. extent formed a b between two • Meridians are spaced evenly along parallels have parallels. equal area.

• Meridians and parallels cross at right angles. Area of a = area of b

1 Characteristics of globe to consider as you evaluate projections Classification of Projections: Pole • Areas of • What global characteristic preserved. quadrilaterals e formed by any d • Geometric approach to construction. two meridians c – projection surface and sets of b – “light” source evenly spaced parallels a • Orientation. decrease 0° poleward. 20° • Interface of projection surface to Earth. Area of a > b > c > d >e

Global Characteristic Preserved Conformal Projections

• Conformal • Retain correct angular relations in transfer from globe to map. • Angles correct for small areas. • Equivalent • Scale same in any direction around a point, but scale changes from point to point. • Equidistant • Parallels and meridians cross at right angles. • Large areas tend to look more like they do on the globe than is true for other projections. • Azimuthal or direction • Examples: Mercator and Lambert Conformal Conic

Lambert Conformal Conic Projection Mercator Projection

2 Equivalent or Equal Area Equivalent or Equal Area Projections Projections • A map area of a given size, a circle three inches in diameter for instance, represents same amount of Earth space no matter where • A map area of a given size, a circle three on the globe the map area is located. inches in diameter for instance, represents same amount of Earth • Maintaining equal area requires: space no matter where on the globe the – Scale changes in one direction to be offset map area is located. by scale changes in the other direction. – Right angle crossing of meridians and parallels often lost, resulting in shape distortion.

Maintaining Equal Area Mollweide Equivalent Projection Projection Pole

Pole e d c b a 0° 0° 20° 20°

Area of a > b > c > d >e

Equivalent & Conformal Equidistant Projections

• Length of a straight line between two OR Preserve true shapes and exaggerate areas points represents correct great circle Show true size and distance. squish/stretch shapes • Lines to measure distance can originate at only one or two points.

3 Plane Projection: Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area Azimuthal Projections North • Straight line drawn between two points depicts correct: – Great circle route – Azimuth • Azimuth = angle between starting point of a line and north q • Line can originate from only one point on map. q = Azimuth of green line Projection Azimuthal Centered on Rowan

Projections Classified by Plane Projection Surface & Light Source Surface • Developable surface (transfer to 2D surface) • Earth grid and – Common surfaces: features • Plane projected from • Cone sphere to a • Cylinder plane surface. • Light sources: – Gnomonic – Stereographic – Orthographic

4 Plane Plane Projection: Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area Projection • Equidistant

• Azimuthal

Globe Projection to plane

Conic Surface

• Globe projected onto a cone, which is then flattened. • Cone usually fit over pole like a dunce cap. – Meridians are straight lines. – Angle between all meridians is identical.

Equidistant Conic Projection Cylinder Surface • Globe projected onto a cylinder, which is then flattened. • Cylinder usually fit around equator. – Meridians are evenly spaced straight lines. – Spacing of parallels varies depending on specific projection.

5 Miller’s Cylindrical Projection “Light” Source Location

• Gnomonic: light projected from center of globe to projection surface.

• Stereographic: light projected from antipode of point of tangency.

• Orthographic: light projected from infinity.

Gnomonic Gnomic Projection Projection

Gnomic Projection Stereographic Projection

Mercator Projection

6 Stereographic Projection Stereographic Projection

Orthographic Projection

Projection Orientation • Orientation: the position of the point or line of tangency with respect to the globe. • Normal orientation or aspect: usual orientation for the developable surface: equator for cylinder, pole for plane, apex of cone over pole for cone [parallel]. • Transverse or polar aspect: – point of tangency at equator for plane. – line of tangency touches pole as it wraps around earth for cylinder. – Hardly done for cone • Oblique aspect: the point or line of tangency is anywhere but the pole or the equator.

7 Normal Orientation Mercator Projection

Transverse Orientation

Oblique Orientation

Putting Things Together

Projection Surface G P

S Cyl

Light Source Varieties of geometric O projections Cone

T O N Projection Orientation or Aspect

8 Tangent & Secant Projections: Projection Surface to Globe Interface Cone • Any of the various possible projection combinations can have either a tangent or a secant interface: – Tangent: projection surface touches globe surface at one point or along one line. – Secant: projection surface intersects the globe thereby defining a: • Circle of contact in the case of a plane, • Two lines of contact and hence true scale in the case of a cone or cylinder.

Tangent & Secant Projections: Projection Selection Guidelines Cylinder • Determine which global feature is most important to preserve [e.g., shape, area].

• Where is the place you are mapping: – Equatorial to tropics = consider cylindrical – Midlatitudes = consider conic – Polar regions = consider azimuthal

• Consider use of secant case to provide two lines of zero distortion.

Example Projections & Their Use

• Cylindrical

• Conic Cylindrical Projections

• Azimuthal

• Nongeometric or mathematical

9 Cylindrical Projections Cylindrical Projections

• Equal area: • Cylinder wrapped around globe: – Cylindrical Equal – Scale factor = 1 at equator [normal aspect] Area – Meridians are evenly spaced. As one moves – Peters [wet laundry map]. poleward, equal longitudinal distance on the • Conformal: map represents less and less distance on the globe. – Mercator – Transverse – Parallel spacing varies depending on the Mercator projection. For instance different light sources • Compromise: result in different spacing. – Miller

Peter’s Projection

• Cylindrical

• Equal area

Central Perspective Cylindrical Mercator Projection

• Light source at center of globe. • Cylindrical like mathematical projection: – Spacing of parallels increases rapidly toward – Spacing of parallels increases toward poles, but more poles. Spacing of meridians stays same. slowly than with central perspective projection. • Increase in north-south scale toward poles. – North-south scale increases at the same rate as the • Increase in east-west scale toward poles. east-west scale: scale is the same around any point. – Conformal: meridians and parallels cross at right – Dramatic area distortion toward poles. angles. • Straight lines represent lines of constant compass direction: loxodrome or rhumb lines.

10 Mercator Projection Gnomonic Projection • Geometric azimuthal projection with light source at center of globe. – Parallel spacing increases toward poles. – Light source makes depicting entire hemisphere impossible. • Important characteristic: straight lines on map represent great circles on the globe. • Used with Mercator for navigation : – Plot great circle route on Gnomonic. – Transfer line to Mercator to get plot of required compass directions.

Gnomonic Projection with Great Circle Route Cylindrical Equal Area

• Light source: orthographic. Mercator Projection with Great Circle Route • Parallel spacing decreases toward poles. Transferred • Decrease in N-S spacing of parallels is exactly offset by increase E-W scale of meridians. Result is equivalent projection.

• Used for world maps.

Miller’s Cylindrical

• Compromise projectionà near conformal

• Similar to Mercator, but less distortion of area toward poles.

• Used for world maps.

11 Miller’s Cylindrical Projection

Conic Projections

Conic Projections Conics

• Globe projected onto a cone, which is then • Equal area: opened and flattened. – Albers • Chief differences among conics result from: – Lambert – Choice of standard parallel. – Variation in spacing of parallels. • Transverse or oblique aspect is possible, but • Conformal: rare. – Lambert • All polar conics have straight meridians.

• Angle between meridians is identical for a given standard parallel .

Conic Projections Lambert Conformal Conic • Usually drawn • Parallels are arcs of concentric circles. secant. • Meridians are straight and converge on one • Area point. between standard • Parallel spacing is set so that N-S and E-W parallels is scale factors are equal around any point. “projected” • Parallels and meridians cross at right angles. inward to cone. • Usually done as secant interface. • Areas • Used for conformal mapping in mid-latitudes outside for maps of great east-west extent. standard parallels projected outward.

12 Lambert Conformal Conic

Albers Equal Area Conic Albers Equal Area Conic

• Parallels are concentric arcs of circles. • Used for mapping regions of great east- • Meridians are straight lines drawn from center of west extent. arcs. • Parallel spacing adjusted to offset scale changes • Projection is equal area and yet has very that occur between meridians. small scale and shape error when used for • Usually drawn secant. areas of small latitudinal extent. – Between standard parallels E-W scale too small, so N-S scale increased to offset. – Outside standard parallels E-W scale too large, so N- S scale is decreased to compensate.

Albers Equal Area Conic

13 Albers Equal Area Conic Modified Conic Projections

Lambert Conformal Conic • Polyconic: – Place multiple cones over pole. – Every parallel is a standard parallel. – Parallels intersect central meridian at true spacing. – Compromise projection with small distortion near central meridian.

Polyconic 7 Polyconic

Azimuthal Projections

• Equal area: – Lambert • Conformal: Azimuthal Projections – Sterographic • Equidistant: – Azimuthal Equidistant • Gnomonic: – Compromise, but all straight lines are great circles.

14 Azimuthal Projections Azimuthal Equidistant • Projection to the plane. • All aspects: normal, transverse, oblique. • Light source can be gnomonic, stereographic, or orthographic. • Common characteristics: – great circles passing through point of tangency are straight lines radiating from that point. – these lines all have correct compass direction. – points equally distant from center of the projection on the globe are equally distant from the center of the map.

Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area

Other Projections

Other Projections Van der Griten

• Not strictly of a development family • Usually “compromise” projections. • Examples: – Van der Griten – Robinson – Mollweide – Sinusodial – Goode’s Homolosine – Briesmeister – Fuller

15 Van der Griten Robinson Projection

Mollweide Equivalent Projection Sinusoidal Equal Area Projection

Briemeister

16 Fuller Projection

Projections & Coordinate Systems for Large Scale Mapping

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