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Wolf, Arend En Raaf. Gender En Geweld in De Oudnoorse Cultuur En Literatuur

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Wolf, Arend En Raaf. Gender En Geweld in De Oudnoorse Cultuur En Literatuur biblio.ugent.be The UGent Institutional Repository is the electronic archiving and dissemination platform for all UGent research publications. Ghent University has implemented a mandate stipulating that all academic publications of UGent researchers should be deposited and archived in this repository. Except for items where current copyright restrictions apply, these papers are available in Open Access. This item is the archived peer-reviewed author-version of: Wolf, arend en raaf. Gender en geweld in de Oudnoorse cultuur en literatuur Sofie Vanherpen Unpublished postgraduate’s thesis, 116 pages, 2007. To refer to or to cite this work, please use the citation to the published version: Vanherpen, Sofie (2007). Wolf, arend en raaf. Gender en geweld in de Oudnoorse cultuur en literatuur. (Unpublished postgraduate’s thesis). Univerisiteit Gent, Gent. Universiteit Gent Faculteit Letteren en Wijsbegeerte Academiejaar 2006-2007 WOLF, AREND EN RAAF Gender en geweld in de Oudnoorse cultuur en literatuur Promotor: Prof. Dr. G. Laureys Verhandeling voorgelegd aan de Faculteit voor Letteren en Wijsbegeerte voor het behalen van de graad Postgraduaat in de taal- en letterkunde: Germaanse talen (optie Zweeds) door Sofie Vanherpen Nu er hersis hefnd við hilmí efnd. geingr vlfr ok aurn of ynglings born. flugu hauggin hræ Halluarz sæ. grár slitr vnder ari Snarfara. (Chesnutt, 2001: 40) The Warrior’s revenge is repaid to the king, wolf and eagle stalk over the king’s sons; Hallvard’s corpse flew in pieces into the seas, the grey eagle tears at Travel-quick’s wounds. (Óskarsdóttir, 2004: 47) Sammanfattning Vanherpen, Sofie (2007). Wolf, arend en raaf. Geweld en gender in de Oudnoorse cultuur en literatuur (Varg, örn och korp. Våld och kön i fornnordiska kultur och litteratur). Seminariewerk Aanvullende Opleiding Germaanse Taal- en letterkunde (Optie Zweeds), Universiteit Gent. Denna uppsats har undersökt frågan om våld och kön under vikingatid. Syftet har varit att finna ett svar på hur maskuliniteten och kvinnligheten förhåller sig till våld. För att detta arbete ska ge oss en entydig och klar bild måste vi sätta vikingarnas våld i en viss kontext, nämligen i den västerländska kulturen under medeltiden. Redan denna uppsats visar på att man kan konstatera att det finns våld i alla samhällena under medeltiden. Mannen använder våld i deras funktion som krigare. Av dessa krigaren skapar och upprätthåller bärsärkar en stereotyp uppfattning om en våldsam viking. Det är också ett förhållande mellan kvinnobild och våld. Vissa kvinnor bejakar sin klassiska könsroll fast de tar till våld i rollen som den hämnaren och den uppviglaren. De överskrider ofta sin könsroll i rollen som krigaren till exempel en sköldmö, en valkyrja eller meykongr. Nyckelord: bärsärk, hämnd, hämnare, krigare, kön, meykongr, sköldmö, uppviglare, valkyrja, våld 1 Inhoudsopgave Lijst van illustraties 3 Voorwoord 4 1 Inleiding 5 2 Vrees de Vikingen 7 2.1 Miscommunicatie 8 2.2 Verdediging en gevechtstechnieken 16 2.2.1 Verdediging en wapens 16 2.2.2 Slag- en gevechtstechnieken 23 2.2.3 Bloederige mythe 26 2.3 Geweld aan banden gelegd 28 2.3.1 Einvigi 28 2.3.2 Hólmgang 29 2.3.3 Einde van het duel 32 3 De Viking krijger 34 3.1 De militaire troepen 35 3.2 Berserkrwoede en gedaanteverwisseling 40 3.2.1 De berserkr en de hamrammr 40 3.2.2 Berserksgangr en zijn functie in de maatschappij 46 3.3 Poëet en vechtersbaas 50 3.3.1 De dichterkrijger 50 3.3.2 Egill, Viking en dichter 56 4 Krijgslustige vrouwen 64 4.1 De mythologische strijdster 65 4.1.1 De walkure 65 4.1.2 Brynhildr: walkure en strijdster 70 4.2 De heroïsche strijdster 75 4.2.1 De schildmaagd 75 4.2.2 De maagdenkoning 82 4.3 Uitzonderlijk strijdlustige vrouwen 86 4.3.1 Percepties van vrouwelijke krijgers 86 4.3.2 Historische bronnen 89 5 Bloedwraak en familievete 93 5.1 Lust voor wraak 94 5.2 De wreekster 101 5.3 De stoker 105 6 Conclusies 110 Bibliografie 113 2 Lijst van illustraties 1. Ringfort 9 2. Skuldelev 2 – groot oorlogsschip 11 3. Skuldelev 5 – klein oorlogsschip 12 4. Schepen, Tapijt van Bayeux 12 5. Zeeslag bij Svöldr 13 6. Krijger in volle wapenuitrusting 16 7. Fragment maliënkolder, Gjermundbu 17 8. Platenvest, Tapijt van Bayeux 18 9. Spangenhelm, Gjermundbu 19 10. Wapens, helm en schild 20 11. Tabel: Wapens in Saga’s van de IJslanders 21 12. Strandhögg 23 13. Skjaldborg, Tapijt van Bayeux 24 14. Hólmgang 30 15. Grettir als krijger 37 16. Vikingkrijgers 39 17. Berserkr 41 18. Hamrammr 42 19. Dood van Kvasir 43 20. Plaat met berserkr 44 21. Zwametende krijger 45 22. Dronken krijgers 48 23. Egil 57 24. Egil en zijn dode zoon 59 25. Egil 60 26. Walkuren als dienaars 66 27. Vrouw als dienares, Broa-steen 66 28. Walkuren uit de Wagner-opera 69 29. Dood van schildmaagd 78 30. Vrouw als legeraanvoerder, Lärbro Stora Hammer-steen 85 31. Vrouw als krijger, Oseberg-tapijt 91 32. Gudrun en Sigurðr 101 3 Voorwoord Met dit seminariewerk rond ik mijn opleiding Aanvullende Opleiding Germaanse Taal- en letterkunde (optie Zweeds) aan de Universiteit van Gent af. Tijdens mijn opleiding in de Germaanse taal- en letterkunde kwam ik op het idee om mij te verdiepen in de Oudnoorse literatuur. Wat mij bij de lectuur ervan vooral fascineerde, was het aspect geweld en de rol die zowel mannen als vrouwen daarbij vervullen. De afgelopen twee jaar heb ik mij door grondige studie van de bronteksten en van de secundaire literatuur verdiept in dit onderwerp. De resultaten van deze studie vindt u terug in dit seminariewerk. De uitvoering van het hier beschreven onderzoek was niet mogelijk geweest zonder de welwillende medewerking van de bibliothecaris en professoren aan het Arnamagnæanska Institut te Kopenhagen in Denemarken. Mijn dank hiervoor. Verder ben ik veel dank verschuldigd aan mijn promotor Prof. Dr. G. Laureys voor haar kritische blik en waardevolle adviezen. Gent, 30 mei 2007 Sofie Vanherpen 4 1 Inleiding Wolf, Arend en Raaf. Misschien een bijzondere titel voor een werk als dit. Toch is hij niet zomaar gekozen. In de Oudnoorse wereld symboliseren Odins raven, de wolf en de arend de gewelddadige natuur van deze heidense god en zijn aanhangers. Deze dieren zijn onlosmakelijk verbonden met het slagveld en de noties oorlog, geweld en dood. Vaak zijn raven de metgezellen van de walkuren wanneer deze op de slagvelden zoeken naar gevallen heldhaftige krijgers. De arend vergezelt steeds grote krijgers. Het beeld van de wolf wordt gebruikt om gevaarlijke mannen te omschrijven zoals de ‘berserkr’. 789: In this year King Beorthric took to wife Eadburgh, daughter of king Offa. And in his days there came for the first time three ships of Northmen, from Hörthaland: and the reeve rode thither and tried to compel them to go to the royal manor – for he did not know what they were – and they slew him. These were the first ships of the Danes to come to England. (Heath, 2006: 10) Deze passage uit de Anglo-Saxon Chronicle neemt je mee naar het beginpunt van een periode die drie eeuwen lang stand zal houden en die bekend staat onder de naam ‘Vikingtijd’. Doorheen deze periode verwerven de Vikingen naam en faam als goddeloze barbaren die een spoor van vernieling en geweld achter zich laten overal waar ze voet aan wal zetten. In het verleden benaderde men dit aspect vanuit het standpunt van de contemporaine geestelijke geschiedschrijvers die het lot van de slachtoffers met veel zin voor weerzinwekkende details beschreven. Dit werk tracht een beeld te scheppen over de betekenis van geweld in de Oudnoorse cultuur zelf. Hierbij wordt zowel de rol van vrouwen als de rol van mannen bij het aanwenden van geweld van naderbij bekeken. Onderwerpen die aan bod komen zijn: de notie ‘geweld’ in de Vikingtijd en in de middeleeuwen, de representatie van vrouwen als geweldplegers en krijgers, de krijger en de rol van geweld bij de constructie van mannelijkheid, de ontwikkeling van legaal geweld en de criminalisering van bepaalde vormen van geweld, de invloed van staat en kerk bij het definiëren van wat aanvaardbare vormen van geweld zijn en welke niet. 5 Bij de voltooiing van dit seminariewerk is het vooral de bedoeling dat de lezer zich kan inleven in de manier waarop de natuur van geweld en de rol die mannen en vrouwen daarbij vervullen, zich manifesteert in de Oudnoorse cultuur en literatuur. Bovendien zal een gevarieerd beeld van de Viking cultuur worden geschetst waarvan geweld slechts een klein deel uitmaakt. Om dit doel te realiseren is onder andere door studie van verschillende contemporaine fictionele en niet-fictionele bronnen onderzocht hoe het concept geweld wordt ingekaderd. Daarnaast werden hedendaagse studies rond dit onderwerp bestudeerd. De opbouw van het seminariewerk is als volgt. In hoofdstuk 2 wordt het succes van de Vikingen op vlak van oorlogvoeren belicht en wordt besproken hoe men tot het beeld van de gewelddadige Noormannen is gekomen. Daarnaast komen de recreatieve vormen van geweld en de bestraffing ervan aan de orde. Een bespreking van de representatie van mannelijke krijgers vindt u in hoofdstuk 3, waarna in hoofdstuk 4 dieper wordt ingegaan op de vrouwelijke krijger. In hoofdstuk 5 worden tot slot bloedwraak en vete besproken. Daarna volgen enkele conclusies in hoofdstuk 6. 6 2 Vrees de vikingen The intensity of the viking onslaught is not less astounding than the range of their raids and voyages. It is strange that adventurers of the three northern nations should have been a terror to the rest of Europe for more than two centuries, able to take land and property from almost all they chose to attack. (Gordon, 1956: xx) De Vikingen komen in contemporaine bronnen over als barbaars en onmenselijk.
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