Street Gangs, Organized Crime Groups, and Terrorists: Differentiating Criminal Organizations Carter F

Volume 5, Number 1, January 2013

Street Gangs, Organized Crime Groups, and Terrorists: Differentiating Criminal Organizations Carter F. Smith1 Jeff Rush2

Catherine E. Burton3

Abstract

Individually street gangs, organized crime (OC) groups, and terrorists all present serious problems for national and international law enforcement agencies. Imagine though if these three were connected or linked in substantive ways. Whether we want to accept this or not, the lines between these structures are often blurred and ill-defined. Each of these groups often takes on the characteristics of the other group, if not in motive then in technique. Additionally, these groups sometimes form alliances with one another further complicating law enforcement efforts to combat their criminal activity. Distinguishing these groups from one another, as well as outlining areas in which they overlap will help direct law enforcement toward a more successful pursuit of these groups.

Keywords: Gangs; Organized Crime; Terrorism; Law Enforcement

1 Austin Peay State University, P.O. Box 4455, Clarksville, TN 37044 [email protected] 2 Troy University, MSCX 320F, Troy, AL, [email protected] 3 The Citadel, 171 Moultrie Street, Charleston, SC 29409 [email protected]

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Birds of a feather flock together and so it is with gangs, organized crime (OC) groups and terrorists. The lines between these three criminal groups are becoming blurred and ill-defined. Understanding this will help law enforcement toward a more successful pursuit and investigation of each of them individually and in their collective pursuits.

Street Gangs As with terrorism, coming up with a nice, neat, acceptable definition of street gangs has been difficult. There has been little agreement on the definition of a gang, especially between academics and practitioners. With each state offering its own definition of a gang and perhaps more importantly the numbers required to constitute a gang, The National Alliance of Gang Investigator Associations (NAGIA) has proposed the following as a common definition for all states: A group or association of three or more persons who may have a common identifying sign, symbol, or name and who individually or collectively engage in, or have engaged in, criminal activity which creates an atmosphere of fear and intimidation. Criminal activity includes juvenile acts that if committed by an adult would be a crime. Noted gang author Thomas Barker (J. Rush, personal communication 7 July 2012) suggests the following definition: Group of individuals who engage in crime for profit on a continuing basis. Both of these definitions make sense with Barker’s of course being the simplest, and oftentimes the simplest explanation is best (cf. Occam’s Razor). While simple, Barker’s definition has problems, the biggest of which is what constitutes a continuing basis. However a state chooses to define a gang (and 41 choose to do so, along with Washington, D.C.), most definitions do have some similarities and most include a group of three or more persons who engage in illegal activity and have some common sign or identifier. In the end, though, gangs are what gangs do (Ryan, 2012) and that is crime. In the 2011 FBI Gang Threat assessment, they identify 1.4 million active gangs (of all types) with more than 33,000 gang members nationwide. These gangs are represented in inner- cities, suburbs, prisons, the military, and Native American reservations. Gangs, as do terrorists, use the Internet extensively for recruitment and radicalization thus providing their wide ranging representation. Contemporary street gangs “have generally been in existence for 20 or more years: they keep regenerating themselves” (Klein & Maxson, 2006, p. 176). Gangs have existed since the 1800s if not earlier, though it could be argued that they did not receive much attention until the nineteen eighties. Not all gangs (like other criminal and most terrorist organizations) have an identified hierarchy, however, those that do, follow the model with a defined set of leaders and followers (Ball & Curry, 1995; Sheldon, Tracy & Brown, 2001; Weisberg, 2003). Decker et al. (1998) noted that when asked, many gang members did not identify the structure of their organization – perhaps in order to avoid assisting future conspiracy prosecutions. Of course it is also possible they didn’t know the structure (kind of sounds like the lone wolf idea doesn’t

2 www.InvestigativeSciencesJournal.org Vol.5, No.1, January 2013 it). Nonetheless, to operate at the political, international, and sophisticated levels where advanced gangs are found, a functional organizational structure is essential. While each gang’s structure is unique to it, O’Deane’s (2012) five step progression and structure is informative for all three: gangs, OC groups and terrorists. While each gang may call its member something different, the basic progression as outlined by O’Deane makes sense. From an individual who is at risk or interested in joining, to becoming an associate to a regular member to hardcore member and finally to leader (pp. 21-22). Gang members vary in age. The below chart from the National Gang Center is instructive:

For every year, the number of adults involved in gangs is greater than the number of juveniles. This seems to make sense and lends credibility to the idea that many gang members probably don’t age out of gang banging. Though what may happen is older members become the shot callers rather than the workers. While there’s no doubt that many a juvenile gang member cease gang activity upon becoming an adult (for a variety of reasons) many continue to gangbang as an adult. We would suggest that as gang members become older, the level of sophistication and organization of the gang increases. In other words, the gang changes to fit the older gang members, or perhaps the older gang members change the gangs as their interests, knowledge, education and training change. Like any organization, as the member’s progress up the ranks, the organization changes to reflect the new leadership and/or the realities of the world in which it finds itself. This is true of gangs, OC groups and terrorist groups (e.g., Al Qaeda is not dead, but

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is certainly different with the death of OBL and the ascension of Zawahiri). As the gang becomes more structured, and more focused (or criminally diversified if you will), the recruitment of younger people takes on a new level of sophistication. Much like OC and terrorist groups, there’s more to offer the young recruit than just banging. Participation gets the individual money, power, women, cars, status, respect, etc. The question also exists as to whether we’re seeing two distinct groups here or whether the youth gang becomes the adult gang. Regardless, the possibility of connections between youth gangs and adult criminal organizations has become a classic issue in gang research (Howell & Decker, 1999; Klein & Maxson, 2006; Thrasher, 1927). Many scholars have proposed that organized crime groups differ significantly from street gangs (Klein & Maxson, 2006). A progression of sorts exists in both gangs and organized crime groups. This progression begins with youth (generally under age 18) who participate in a variety of criminal activities to prove themselves or otherwise demonstrate their usefulness and/or dedication to the gang or OC group. Terrorist groups would seem to follow the same basic pattern, though the idea of the Lone Wolf seems to be unique to terrorism. Of the gangs Thrasher studied almost 100 years ago, the majority (37.51%) had members in the 11-17 age range, followed by 25.15% in the 16-25 year old range. Relatively few of the gangs of that day and time were comprised exclusively of adults (3.13%). Though the age of the membership has not been used to distinguish gangs from organized crime groups, gangs of today also appear to be more youth oriented, while adults often comprise the ranks of organized crime groups. As one moves along the continuum toward the goal of being the Italian Mafia, this makes some sense. That is the traditional youth gang is further to the left and as they become older, wiser, more mature they become more sophisticated, more stable, more organized. This is important for a variety of reasons. The FBI report identifies a significant increase in gang membership across the country with the Northeast and Southeast seeing the largest increase and the West and North Central having the larger numbers. This increase includes all types of gangs as well as an increase in the numbers of juveniles being involved. Will these juveniles simply age out or will they just become adult gang members? As noted earlier, the composition of gangs is important for a variety of reasons. The organization of gangs can be determined by the levels of membership and leadership, the holding of regular meetings, existence of written rules, and involvement in or relationships with the owners of legitimate businesses (Decker et al., 2001). As gangs evolve, so too does their criminality activity. Gang involvement has been seen in a wide variety of crime including drug and human trafficking, gun trafficking, robberies, and burglaries. The National Gang Information Center identified gangs as at least a moderate criminal threat in all reporting jurisdictions and as a significant threat in most (FBI, 2011). Depending on the jurisdiction, gangs (and gang members) were responsible for 48-90% of the violent crime (FBI, 2011). As can be seen, while gangs may change their level of criminality, violence remains a significant part of who they are and what they do.

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As street gangs evolve toward organized crime groups, we begin to see written and enforced codes of conduct with consequences for breaking the rules and leaving the gang. This is more characteristic of organized groups (Decker et al., 2001). We also begin to see more relationships between gangs and between gangs (and gang members) and more legitimate pursuits. Again, these relationships can be indicative of a transformation from street gang to organized crime group (Decker et al., 2001). Organized Crime As with gangs and terrorism there exists no universally accepted definition of organized crime. Organized crime has not gone away as the FBI has mentioned on several occasions, and it has its tentacles in a wide variety of criminal and legitimate enterprises. Cressey (1969) was one of the first to suggest a standardized definition: An organized crime is any crime committed by a person occupying, in an established division of labor, a position designed for the commission of crimes providing that such division of labor include at least one position for a corrupter, one position for a corruptee, and one position for an enforcer. (p. 319) The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2004) defined organized crime as: …a structured group of three or more persons, existing for a period of time and acting in concert with the aim of committing one or more serious crimes or offences established . . . in order to obtain, directly or indirectly, a financial or other material benefit. (p. 5) This sounds strikingly similar to definitions of street gangs. Abadinsky (2010, p.3) put forth a list of common attributes often found in organized crime groups: 1. lack of political goals 2. hierarchical structure 3. limited or exclusive membership 4. constitution as a unique subculture 5. self-perpetuation 6. willingness to use illegal violence and bribery 7. demonstrated specialization/division of labor 8. monopolism 9. strict rules and regulations

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Many of these characteristics have been used to define organized crime by earlier research and also include political corruption, innovations, and participation in legitimate business as well as criminal activity (Grennan, Britz, Rush, & Barker, 2000; Britz & Grennan, 2006). Other studies challenged the idea of using a definition that includes a hierarchical structure, and instead point out that some groups defined as organized crime, are in fact disorganized and often consist of loose networks or cells (Varese, 2010). Most, if not all, organized crime groups evolved to that point from their beginnings as a street gang. Whether they would have met any of the current definitions of a street gang is irrelevant, they presented themselves as one, believed themselves to be one, and perhaps more importantly the community and in many cases law enforcement saw them as one. This is an important point, because many in law enforcement today don’t see, can’t see, or won’t see their gangs as gangs, despite how the gangs or the community view them. Given this apparently natural transition from street gang to organized crime group, it seems fair to suggest that we should be able to identify where street gangs fall on a continuum like the one depicted in Figure 1 ranging from disorganized gangs (referred to as Houly Ghoulies) to well organized crime groups, with the Italian (to be distinguished from the Russian, the Israeli, etc.) Mafia as what may be the best example of organization (and what many street gangs strive towards).

Figure 1 (created by the authors)

Gangs/OC Continuum

Middle East OC Vice Bloods 18th Street Lords Italian OC

Hooly Crips Mexican Gangster Ghoulies Mafia Disciples

Mara Russian Salvatrucha Mafia

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As can be seen from the continuum in Figure 1,law enforcement professionals, educators, helping professionals, and others interested in classifying a specific crime group (i.e. gang) should be able to place the gang(s) along this continuum allowing them to compare them to other gangs/groups and have some sense of their level of organization and maturity. For example, missing from Figure 1 are outlaw motorcycle gangs (OMGs). Clearly OMGs fit toward the Italian OC end of the continuum. This is based on their level of sophistication and organization. Asian gangs, Tongs, Triads and the like can also be placed along the continuum, again more toward the Italian OC end for many of the same reasons as the OMGs. Doing so would help the agency identify what approach(es) might work best to intervene, suppress or prevent. For the purposes of this discussion, however, it helps in assessing the likelihood of a gang-OC group- terrorism connection. The assumption here being that a terrorist group would most likely prefer to affiliate or work with a gang that is farther advanced along the continuum. Terrorism Similar to definitions of street gang and OC groups, definitions of terrorism also vary widely and are usually inadequate (Hudson, 1999). Terrorism often defies a universally acceptable definition (Abadinsky, 2010). Even terrorism researchers often neglect to define the term other than by citing the basic U.S. Department of State (2004) definition of terrorism, contained in Title 22 of the United States Code, Section 2656f(d): "premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience." And the State Department’s is but one definition of terrorism that exists in U.S. agencies. To the extent that people look to the United Nations for help in these areas, “there is no UN definition of terrorism” (EYE, n.d. emphasis in the original). As opposed to organized crime, terrorism is political, and is considered relative to one’s political views (Abadinsky, 2010). One could argue that the Italian Mafia is very political, they corrupt public officials, engage in bribery, lobbying, etc. It should be noted here that although organized crime is not political in the purest sense, the Italian Mafia could be considered political as they are politically connected and through corruption, bribery and lobbying try to use politicos for their own, almost exclusively nefarious, purposes. An act of violence considered terrorism in the U.S. may not be viewed as such in another country. The type of violence that distinguishes terrorism from ordinary crime or military action in wartime can be defined in objective terms (Hudson, 1999). This seems to be part of the sticking point at the United Nations (EYE, n.d.). Adding to the complexity of definitions are the Mexican Drug Cartels. They operate both as organized crime and terrorist groups using youth for recruitment thus mimicking street gangs as discussed herein. The Mexican DTOs (or TCOs) might be the quintessential group represented by this article, encompassing the characteristics of street gangs, OC groups and terrorist groups. What they’re officially categorized as depends on who is doing the categorizing.

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Like gangsters, terrorists are often recruited to the cause. Also like gangsters, their reasons for joining vary as much as the individuals vary. The terrorist recruiters seem to be particularly adept at identifying where the potential recruit is and using that as their primary recruiting mechanism. Some join a terrorist group out of boredom, or a desire to pursue a cause they regard as just, or a desire to use special skills (Hudson, 1999). More educated youths may be motivated by genuine political or religious convictions (Hudson, 1999). With the Internet, we know that many a terrorist becomes one on their own by reading and listening to information on the Internet. The speeches of long dead Al Qaeda recruiter Al-Awlaki is one example of this. This of course presents some problems for law enforcement, especially the Feds, as many think if you can’t tie the offender (and thus the offense) to Al Qaeda then it’s not terrorism and they’re not a terrorist. This is similar to many dealings with gangsters, though less so with members of OC groups. As state support for terrorism seems to be waning, the ability of financing terrorism becomes more problematic. As a result, many terrorists and terrorist groups are relying on pre- existing criminal networks for financing and personnel (Altran, 2010). Attempting to analyze terrorism without considering crime undermines all other counter-terrorist activities (Shelley et al., 2005). Using crime to finance terrorist activities is not new as right wing terrorists have been doing this for many years. The boundaries of the new terrorist networks are very loose, and anyone who wishes to become a terrorist can become one with Internet access (Altran, 2010). Over a period as long as a year or more, a recruit generally moves in a slow, gradual fashion toward full membership in a terrorist group (Hudson, 1999). Connecting Street Gangs, OC and Terrorism It is well known that terrorists have affiliations with organized crime groups (Shelley et al., 2005). Organized crime activity, especially the levying of taxes against the drug trade and committing credit card fraud, has become a major revenue source for terrorism (Makarenko, 2004). In a Wikileaks memo released in April of 2011, it was suggested that "the Mafia 'still abounds in Italy and may be indirectly supporting terrorist groups in Columbia and Central Asia'" (Friends, 2011, n.p.). This memo, sent by the Charge d'affaires in Rome goes on to note that the drugs and arms trafficking of the Mafia in Italy have at least indirectly benefited terrorist groups in Colombia and Central Asia (Friends, 2011). The Charge d'affaires urged then Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi, to "mention, both publicly and privately, the importance for both Italy and the United States of the fight against organized crime" (Friends, n.p.). The assessment was confirmed by a 2005 FBI intelligence assessment which noted, in part, the exchange of weapons for drugs with Islamic terrorist groups (Friends, n.p.). Gangs in the U.S. cultivate connections to terrorist groups and threaten the homeland security of the U.S. (Rogers, 2007). There are several similarities between terrorists and individuals engaged in gang activity and organized crime. Members of each of the organization types commit fraud, theft, forgery, and violent street crime (Shelley et al., 2005). They all

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engage in weapons trafficking if only to further their own ability to acquire weapons (Abadinsky, 2010). Members of each have engaged in trafficking drugs and human beings, extortion, intimidation, and bribing of government representatives (Shelley et al., 2005). Rogers suggested that the definitional similarities between youth gangs and terrorist groups were superficial, as gang members were most interested in committing criminal activities while the goals of terrorists were related to inflicting massive numbers of casualties and crippling the U.S. economy (2007). Rogers’ analysis of street gangs more closely defined those in the first and possibly second generation as described by Sullivan and Bunker (2007). Terrorist groups appear to have a blend of youth and adults, based apparently on the type of position and level of responsibility. As the Arab Spring becomes the Islamic Winter, the likelihood of increased connections between gangs, OC groups and terrorists appears to be increasing. From the west coast to the east coast, with many stops in between, more and more ethnic gangs are being identified (Knox, 2006; NGIC, 2007; Valdez, 2007). While “new” gangs forming are really nothing new, many of these gangs are ethnically based from countries which also breed Islamic Supremacists. Kurdish Pride, Somali gangs, Yemini gangs, and Iraqi gangs have been identified in a variety of cities across the country. The membership of these "street" gangs initially began with refugees or immigrants from these war torn countries. In terms of organized crime groups, outlaw motorcycle gangs have long since absorbed chapters of smaller, local biker gangs in order to foster the growth of their organization. In Germany, we have seen chapters of the outlaw motorcycle gang, the Mongols, and police indicate they are Lebanese led, Muslim dominated, and are living up to the violent reputation of the OMGs and having territorial disputes with chapters of the Hell’s Angels. Additionally, there have been reports of OMGs fighting with Muslim dominated street gangs (Welch, 2009). While none of this is necessarily indicative of a connection between terrorist groups and gangs, however, it is not unreasonable to believe that terrorist groups (or leaders) would seek out members of their own ethnicity to work for them regardless of a shared ideology (at that time). While ethnicity may be the preferred “glue” in the end it’s about making alliances that benefit everyone involved. One group does not necessarily have to like or trust another group if, in the end everyone gains something they want. This is perhaps best portrayed with the FX television series Sons of Anarchy. Congresswoman Sue Myrick, in a letter to Janet Napolitano said, "We have seen their cooperation in countries across South America, particularly the tri-border area of South America (bounded by Puerto Iguazu, Argentina; Ciudad del Este, Paraguay; and Foz do Iguanzo, Brazil). Hezbollah operates almost like a Mafia family in the region, often demanding protection money and 'taxes' from local inhabitants" (New Terror, 2010). While not citing her source(s), Rep. Myrick asked Secretary Napolitano to set up a task force to investigate whether such ties exist and to what extent. We know that Mexican drug cartels have affiliated with American gangs, as well as Asian and Russian organized crime groups that have a presence in Mexico as well as in the United States (Miro & Curtis, 2003). It may not be too much of a stretch that a terrorist-cartel-American gang connection may have been formed.

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Islam is the fastest growing religion among prisoners in Western nations. Much Islamic radicalization occurs in the prison system with the primary targets of same being gang members (usually minority), and many of these radicalized gang members leave prisons with a new purpose and allegiance (Hamm, 2009; Useem & Clayton, 2009). In the United States, roughly 240,000 inmates have converted to the Islam faith since the 9/11 attacks (Hamm, 2009). As is usually the case, there exist two sides here. One side argues that prisons have become incubators for Islamic terrorism and the other side suggests that Islam plays a vital role in prisoner rehabilitation. Research indicates that terror plots conceived in prison may not be too effective (Useem & Clayton, 2009). Whether effective or not, two points remain salient. First, that prison radicalization, usually of gangsters, is occurring in prisons. And second, whether effective or not, the terrorists (or gangsters) need only be effective once. In looking at where a gang or criminal organization might be placed along the continuum of organization between gangs and the Italian Mafia, three elements should be considered: sophistication, politicization, and internationalization of the gang. Three generations (or types) of gangs: turf gangs, drug or entrepreneurial gangs, and globally oriented gangs with a mix of political and mercenary elements, have been identified (Sullivan & Bunker, 2007). Understanding the evolutionary continuum and its relationship to those generations was critical to understanding the impact of those groups on national security (Wilson & Sullivan, 2007). Traditional street gangs are identified as first generation gangs. When gangs are the subject of conversation this is usually what’s being talked about (Knox, 2006; NGIC, 2007). Most anti-gang legislation (e.g., injunctions and restrictive ordinances) and anti-gang activity has been used to target those gangs. The analysts who authored the NGIC report (2009) identified those first generation gangs as local-level street gangs, which comprise the highest number of gangs in the United States. Second-generation gangs have had a more organized structure and the leaders have operated the gang like a business, with a market orientation (Sullivan & Bunker, 2007). Those gangs usually operate in a broader geographic area and have had a more centralized and developed leadership (Sullivan & Bunker, 2007). Anti-gang activities rarely included the investment of time and intensity necessary to investigate those gangs. Authors of the NGIC report (2009) identified those gangs as regional-level gangs, which may have some members in foreign countries and maintain ties to drug trafficking and other criminal organizations in the United States. In this analysis, the second generation gangs can be compared to the more advanced organized crime groups. Carter, Rush and Burton (2012) suggest here that the evolution from first generation to second generation gangs, for most gangs, is similar to the differences depicted in the Gangs/OC continuum noted in Figure 1. Sullivan and Bunker (2007) identify third generation gangs as highly sophisticated, with the goals of political power or financial acquisition. The organizational structure of most third generation gangs resembles the U. S. Military, where promotions and rank are based on performance, time and grade (Valdez, 2007). Third generation gangs are highly organized and sophisticated criminal organizations, and tended to operate in a global environment (Sullivan &

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Bunker, 2007). Local anti-gang legislation (e.g., civil abatement laws, injunctions, and restrictive ordinances) had little impact on the operations of those gangs. These are national- level street gangs, which have established cells or connections in foreign countries which assist the gangs with global drug and human trafficking and other criminal enterprises. While many continue to argue that gangs and terrorist groups are always separate entities and should be treated that way, third generation gangs have shared many of the characteristics of terrorists and insurgents (Wilson & Sullivan, 2007). The intersection between crime and war has become the dominant operational environment for both law enforcement and military in the United States in the past decade (Sullivan & Bunker, 2007). Though worthy of debate, while gang activities have not yet posed a threat to national security in the United States, they have threatened the national security of many Latin American Countries (Sullivan & Bunker, 2007). Street gangs are positioned “in one corner of the intersection (or gray area) between crime and war” (Sullivan & Bunker, 2007, p. 7). Manwaring (2005) identified the ultimate objective of some third generation gangs and insurgents as a desire to control government, with implications when advanced gangs and their political agendas engage in insurgency. Gang activity generated instability, reduced the ability of military and police to control territory, and helped erode the legitimacy of the nation-states (frequently unstable, evolving political and geographic states that serve people groups as a sovereign nation). Insurgency was traditionally seen as a primarily military activity, while gangs were seen as a law-enforcement problem (Manwaring, 2005). Gang-related crime is a national security problem in many nations, placing gangs, crime, and even terrorism in the same operational space (Wilson & Sullivan, 2007). Makarenko (2004) provided a tool with which to analyze and clearly distinguish the three, though the paper only applied the tool to organized crime and terrorism. The relationships between gangs, organized crime and terrorism are in an ongoing state of evolution, represented by a continuum with gangs on the far left, terrorism on the far right and organized crime in the middle. This would suggest that OC is the buffer or connector between gangs (and gang members) and terrorism (and terrorists). While each point have exclusive definitions, there are varying degrees of blending of the three in between (ranging from alliance with the other group to taking on characteristics of the other groups at some point in time, either temporarily or permanently in order to further the original group’s needs). Makarenko (2004) noted that as the two are on the same plane, they were theoretically capable of merging. This modified continuum (as created by the authors) can be seen in Figure 2.

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Figure 2

TERRORISM GANG ORGANIZED ACTIVITY CRIME

Alliance Black Hole Alliance Alliance Black Hole Alliance Syndrome Syndrome with with with with organized street terrorist organized crime crime gang group

Organized Gang Terror Organized crime tactics for tactics for crime tactics for operational operational tactics for operational purposes purposes operational purposes purposes

Entrepreneuria Opportunistic Political Commercial l crime crime crime Terrorism

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It is also possible that one can go from gang activity to terrorism as is often the result of prison radicalization. Originally, the motivation for organized crime was primarily monetary while the motivation for terrorism was primarily political (Makarenko, 2004). This is consistent with the observations of Sullivan and Bunker (2007), and aligns well with the distinguishing characteristics of second and third generation gangs. Street gangs it could be argued are primarily motivated by issues of opportunity. To some extent the relationship between gangs, OC and terrorists is dependent on the country and their level of development. In the more developing countries the connection may be stronger between terrorists and gangsters while in more developed countries organized crime is more likely to co-exist with terrorism through arm’s length business transactions (Shelley et al., 2005). In any country, terrorists may use crime to support their activities (Shelley et al., 2005). The cement in making the connection is criminality (Makarenko, 2004). Particularly in developing or troubled countries, terrorist and criminal organizations take advantage of the same breakdowns in authority and enforcement (Zaitseva, 2007). This is most obvious with drug (and now more often human) trafficking and trafficking in arms. The proceeds from this criminality are often used to finance terrorist activities (Zaitseva, 2007). As gangs become more organized, their criminality and their relationships become more diversified with profit being the primary motivator (Zaitseva, 2007). The implication here is that the focus more often than not should be on criminality more than political activity (Makarenko, 2004) Mauro (2011) suggested that: It can be argued that the Mexican drug cartels have themselves become terrorists. Rep. Michael McCaul, chairman of the Homeland Security Oversight and Investigations Subcommittee, has introduced legislation to designate six of the cartels as Foreign Terrorist Organizations. His office’s press release says the cartels operate in the same manner as al Qaeda, the Taliban or Hezbollah, each sharing a desire and using similar tactics to gain political and economic influence (n.p.). Talk to police officers in major gang cities and many will refer to the gangs as street terrorists. Neither this nor the above quote is intended to suggest that American gangs are or should be considered terrorist groups, at least not yet. However, failure to discuss these connections may be at our own peril. Gangs, OC and terrorism are connected in many ways, with crime being the primary connector. To use age as a discriminator is questionable as all three appear to have a blend of youth and adults, based apparently on the type of position and level of responsibility. Nonetheless, there are several significant similarities between terrorists and individuals engaged in gang activity and organized crime. Members of each of the organization types commit fraud, theft, forgery, violent street crime, and weapons trafficking. Trafficking drugs and human

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beings, extortion, intimidation, and bribing of government representatives are also committed by members of each of these groups. Conclusion Gangs, organized crime groups, and terrorist groups all play in the same space, the criminal space. We must rethink the artificial distinctions that have been made between them. Maple (1993) understood this with respect to individual criminals. We would do well to understand this with respect to gangs, organized crime groups and terrorists. While alliances are not the only way in which these groups may be connected, it is certainly one area in which we should shed more light on through research and the development of policy initiatives that may assist governmental agencies with the apprehension and prevention of criminal activity, including potential terrorist threats.

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